Jews outside Europe under Axis occupation

Treatment of Jews living outside Europe under Axis occupation in World War II

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This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (July 2023)

|

Jews outside Europe under Axis occupation suffered greatly during World War II.

While there is academic consensus that the extermination of the non-European Jews was a long-term goal for the Nazi regime,[1] it is less clear whether there were any imminent plans or policies to that end. Although there is no unanimity among historians on this point, historian Matthew Ghobrial Cockerill writes that "The purported evidence for planned extermination operations outside of Europe is unpersuasive."[2]

## In European North Africa

[edit]

There were 400,000 Jews in France on the other side of the Mediterranean in North Africa (French Algeria, which was an integral part of metropolitan France, the French Protectorate in Morocco and the French protectorate of Tunisia). They were included in the number relevant to "the Final Solution to the Jewish Question in Europe" under: "France/unoccupied territory 700,000"[3]

Like the Jews of Denmark, the Jews of Europe's four territories in North Africa were spared the mass deportations that happened in some countries and territories under Nazi occupation or in the German sphere of influence.

### Jews of Italian Libya

[edit]

Main article: The Holocaust in Italian Libya

Libya was under Italian rule. The Jews, who were British and Italian subjects, suffered from antisemitism and economic restrictions as a result of the strengthening of Italy's relationship with Germany. From 1942, laws of racial discrimination were activated in Libya. Men between the ages of 18 and 45 were recruited to forced labor, including at camps like Giado, and thousands died from hunger and epidemics. In February of that year, the Germans ordered the transfer of the Jews to concentration camps.[4]

### Jews of Vichy Algeria

[edit]

Main article: History of the Jews in Algeria

Vichy France (that ruled in Algeria from 1940) cancelled the citizenship of the Jews and instituted the same restrictions that applied to the Jews in metropolitan France. It forbade them from working for the government or as bankers, teachers and students. In addition, the number of Jews permitted to work in free professions was limited.[5] In 1941, the property of the Jews was confiscated however Islamic religious leaders throughout Algiers delivered sermons warning Muslims against participation in schemes to strip Jews of their property.[6] The suffering of the Jews of Algeria was worsened by their previous high position in society. In 1941, some Jews joined the anti-Nazi underground. Many Jews were caught and were sent to labor camps or were executed. The Judenräte required assistance in preparation of materiel. In November 1942 Algeria was liberated by Anglo-American forces. In 1943, the restraints on the Jews of Algeria were officially cancelled.[5]

### Jews of Vichy Tunisia

[edit]

Main article: History of the Jews in Tunisia

Tunisia was also ruled by pro-Nazi Vichy France, which extended its anti-Jewish measures to Morocco and Algeria. In November 1942 Nazi Germany occupied French Tunisia for six months, until May 1943. SS Oberstrumbannführer Walter Rauff, a brutal and notorious killer involved in the development of death gas vans and the Final Solution in Eastern Europe, was posted as commander of Tunis. From July 1942 until May 1943, he headed an Einsatzkommando to take care of the Jewish Question in Tunisia, and to continue to implement the Final Solution in Vichy Tunisia. Oswald Pohl, charged by Himmler to organize the camps in Eastern Europe, joined him. Despite constant attacks by the Allies, Rauff instigated drastic anti-Jewish policies.[citation needed]

The Nazis established a local Judenrat, took hostages, confiscated the property of the Jews (aryanization) and imposed on the community heavy financial punishments. The community was required to provide the needs of the German army, and the synagogue become a German storeroom.[5] The Jews were marked with the yellow badge, 5,000 Jews were sent to more than 30 slave labor camps in Tunisia and a few were sent to the extermination camps. Many Jews were murdered by means of being shot in their homes, death marches, hunger, disease and bombings.[citation needed]

### Jews of Vichy Morocco

[edit]

Main article: History of the Jews in Morocco § World War II

In 1940, the Nazi-controlled Vichy government issued antisemitic decrees excluding Jews from public functions and imposing the wear of the yellow Star of David.[5] Sultan Mohamed V refused to apply these laws and, as sign of defiance, insisted on inviting all the rabbis of Morocco to the 1941 throne celebrations.[7]

## In Asia

[edit]

### Jews of Iraq

[edit]

Main article: History of the Jews in Iraq

While not under occupation by Nazi Germany, Iraq was, for a short term, under the Nazi-allied regime of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani. While the regime did not last long, the Farhud (a pogrom in which 180 Jews died) is considered among its results.

### Jews in Japan and China

[edit]

Main articles: History of the Jews in Japan and History of the Jews in China

Prior to the war there was a small Jewish presence in Japan, particularly Kobe, which consisted of Jews originating predominantly from Russia, as well as those from the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and the United States. In Japanese-occupied China there was a more significant Jewish population, including White Russian refugees and Baghdadi Jews.[8] As Jewish persecution in Europe stepped up, an increasing number of refugees travelled to China by steamship or had transited through the Soviet Union and were hoping to move on to the United States. Most of these Jews were concentrated in the Shanghai International Settlement.[9]

When Japan entered the war, many Jews were interned, including the Baghdadi Jews who were identified as British subjects. The Japanese implemented strict measures to control the activities of the Shanghai ghetto, which was restricted in 1943 to a one square mile city block shared with 100,000 Chinese. However despite repeated requests from Nazi Germany to implement antisemitic policies, including exterminating the Jewish population in the Shanghai ghetto, the Jewish population was generally left alone (apart from wartime privations).[9]

### Jews in Vichy French Indochina

[edit]

Main article: History of the Jews in Vietnam

As late as 1939, the estimated combined population of the Jewish communities of Haiphong, Hanoi, Saigon and Tourane in French Indochina numbered approximately 1,000 individuals.[10] There were also reportedly eighty Jews in Tonkin during the period of Vichy rule, of which forty-nine were in the military and twenty-seven were in the foreign legion.[11]

In 1940 the antisemitic Vichy French Law on the status of Jews was implemented in French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos) by its Governor Jean Decoux. In November 1940, Jewish people were limited to certain professions, and in July 1941 Jewish children were not allowed to be more than 2% of public school students. By October 1942, fifteen government employees were dismissed from their positions for being Jewish (among the fifteen was Suzanne Karpelès, the director of the Buddhist Institutes in Phnom Penh[12] and Vientiane), and Jews were "fired from a wide range of professions, from banking to the insurance, advertising, administration and business sectors." One such individual, Leo Lippmann, the former director of the Hanoi tram company, was dismissed from his position even after resigning from his post to assume a lesser position.[13] However, since he had been categorized as a Jew because he had two Jewish grandparents and a Jewish wife, Lipmann divorced and no longer fell under the Jewish Statute.[14] When it was deemed by state officials that the statute would have an adverse effect upon their racial Vichy motives for the region – such as the case of Georges Coedès, an employee at the government sponsored École française d'Extrême-Orient (French School of the Far East), who was deemed useful by the resident superior of Tonkin – an exemption to the discriminatory laws could be made.[15] The anti-Jewish laws were repealed in January 1945.[16]

### Jews in Vichy French Syria and Lebanon

[edit]

Main articles: History of the Jews in Lebanon and History of the Jews in Syria

Although reports differ, there were roughly 30,000 Jews in Syria and 20,000 in Lebanon at the beginning of World War II. Following the Fall of France in June 1940 and the establishment of the Vichy Government, the situation for these Jews drastically deteriorated. The new anti-Jewish laws of Vichy were extended to the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon. Henri Dentz, High Commissioner in Syria, intended to establish concentration camps, but the British and Free French forces took over the territory before he could.[17] Nonetheless, a prison camp for European Jews under the mandate was established in the mountains, although it was later shut down by the Allies.[18] Around 1,350 Syrian Jews escaped to Palestine in a complicated operation as part of the Aliyah effort.[19] In 1941, Charles de Gaulle officially annulled the anti-Jewish legislation in Syria and Lebanon.[20]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Piorkowski, Christoph David (2017-02-05). "Verfolgung von Juden in Nordafrika: Die vergessenen Opfer des Holocaust". Tagesspiegel (in German). Archived from the original on 2023-05-28. Retrieved 2024-10-30.
2. ^ Cockerill, Matthew Ghobrial (2 April 2024). "Did the Nazis plan to extend the final solution beyond Europe? Assessing the evidence". Holocaust Studies: 1–24\. doi:10.1080/17504902.2024.2326262.
3. ^ Gilbert, Martin (1993). Atlas of the Holocaust (1st U.S. ed.). New York: William Morrow and Company. p. 85\. ISBN 978-0-688-12364-2.
4. ^ Ochayon, Sheryl. "The Jews of Libya". The International School for Holocaust Studies. Yad Vashem.
5. ^ a b c d Sheryl Ochayon. "The International School for Holocaust Studies". Yad Vashem. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
6. ^ The Schindlers of the Middle East
7. ^ Moroccan Jews pay homage to `protector' - Haaretz - Israel News
8. ^ "Jewish Life during the Holocaust". Jewish Federation. Archived from the original on 14 September 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
9. ^ a b "The Holocaust: Japan & the Jews". Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
10. ^ Statistics of Jews Archived 2015-05-31 at the Wayback Machine, American Jewish Committee, 1940.
11. ^ Jennings, Eric Vichy in the Tropics: Petain's National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–44 Stanford University Press, 2004 ISBN 0-8047-5047-5 Page 145
12. ^ Marston, John Amos, et al. History, Buddhism, and New Religious Movements in Cambodia University of Hawaii Press, 2004 ISBN 0-8248-2868-2
13. ^ Jennings, Eric Vichy in the Tropics: Petain's National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–44 Stanford University Press, 2004 ISBN 0-8047-5047-5 Pages 144–145
14. ^ "The Lippmann Affair". 15 November 2015.
15. ^ Raffin, Anne Youth Mobilization in Vichy Indochina and Its Legacies, 1940 to 1970 Lexington Books, 2005 ISBN 0-7391-1146-9 Pages 65–66
16. ^ Dommen, Arthur J.The Indochinese Experience of the French and the Americans: Nationalism and Communism in Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam Indiana University Press, 2001 ISBN 0-253-33854-9 Page 69
17. ^ Stillman, Norman (1991). The Jews of Arab Lands in Modern Times. New York: Jewish Publication Society. p. 146.
18. ^ "How Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazis found shelter in Beirut". L'Orient Today. 15 June 2022.
19. ^ "France Vichy military collaboration Syria". histclo.com. Retrieved 31 July 2023.
20. ^ "De Gaulle Annuls Anti-jewish Laws in Syria and Lebanon". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 20 March 2015. Retrieved 31 July 2023.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Abrevaya Stein, Sarah; Boum, Aomar, eds. (2018). The Holocaust and North Africa. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9781503605435.
* Robert Satloff: Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach into Arab Lands (PublicAffairs, 2006). ISBN 1-58648-399-4
* Michel Abitbol: The Jews of North Africa during the Second World War (Wayne state University Press Detroit, 1989). ISBN 0-8143-1824-X
* Cohen, Asher, The Shoah in France (Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1996). The book also deals with the persecution of the Jews in Vichy France-North Africa.
* Documents pour servir à l'histoire de la Guerre; par Service d'Information des Crimes de Guerre, Crimes ennemis en France - La persecution raciale. (Paris: Archives du service de recherche des crimes de guerre ennemis, Office français d'édition, 20 février 1947); the text tells the story of the racial persecution of the Jews in metropolitan France and in Vichy France-North Africa. The book has a special chapter on Vichy France-Tunisia under Nazi rule.
* Kaspi, André, Les Juifs pendant l'Occupation, (Paris: Seuil, 1991). Kaspi tells the story of the persecution of the Jews in metropolitan France and in Vichy France-North Africa.
* Kaspi, André, Les Juifs pendant l'Occupation, (Paris: Seuil, 1991). Kaspi tells the story of the persecution of the Jews in metropolitan France and in Vichy France-North Africa.
* Poliakov, Léon, France - The Fate of the French Jews, in the Algemeyne Entsiklopedya (New York: Shulsinger Pubs. and Dubnov Fund & Entsiklopedye Komitet: 1966), Section "Yidn" vol. 7. Poliakov's article appeared in a section of the encyclopedia devoted to the Holocaust in various European countries. The geographic regions of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, appeared as sub-headings under the title of 'France.' Poliakov's article is called in English translation: "The Fate of the French Jews."
* Sabille, Jacques. Les Juifs de Tunisie sous Vichy et l'Occupation. (Paris: . Editions du Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine, 1954)
* Yahil, Leni, The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry, 1932–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). Yahil tells the story of the persecutions, deportations, and murder of the Jews of European North Africa (French North Africa and Italian Libya) in her chapters about "European Jewry" in the sub-headings "France" and "Italy," respectively. Yahil systematically explores the evolution of the Holocaust in German-occupied Europe. Leni Yahil's book won the Shazar Prize, one of Israel's highest awards for historical work.

## External links

[edit]

* Voices on Antisemitism Interview with Robert Satloff from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
* The Holocaust Explained website
* Point of No Return: Jewish Refugees from Arab Countries
* Is China trying to co-opt the Holocaust?

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The Holocaust

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* Radom
* Warsaw

|

Elsewhere|

* Budapest
* Kovno
* Minsk
* Riga
* Theresienstadt
* Vilna

Judenrat|

* Jewish Ghetto Police
* Reich Association of Jews in Germany
* Ústredňa Židov

Victims

| Jews|

| Roundups|

* Izieu
* Marseille
* Vel' d'Hiv

|

Pogroms|

* Kristallnacht
* Bucharest
* Dorohoi
* Iași
* 1941 pogroms in eastern Poland
* Jedwabne
* Lviv
* in Lithuania
* Kaunas

"Final Solution"|

* Wannsee Conference
* Operation Reinhard
* Holocaust trains

Mass executions|

* Einsatzgruppen
* Babi Yar
* Harvest Festival
* Kamianets-Podilskyi
* Maly Trostenets
* Ninth Fort
* Odesa
* Piaśnica
* Ponary
* Rumbula

Resistance|

* Jewish partisans
* Bielski partisans
* Ghetto uprisings
* Warsaw
* Białystok
* Częstochowa

Rescue|

* Aid and Rescue Committee
* Attack on the twentieth convoy
* Kastner train
* Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
* Danish underground
* Working Group
* Żegota

Others|

* Soviet POWs
* Soviet urban residents
* Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare
* People with disabilities
* Romani people
* Polish leaders and intellectuals
* Homosexuals
* Jehovah's Witnesses

Responsibility

* List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust

| Organizations|

* Nazi Party
* Schutzstaffel (SS)
* Reich Security Main Office (RSHA)
* Referat IV B4
* Sicherheitsdienst (SD)
* Ordnungspolizei (Orpo)
* Waffen-SS
* Wehrmacht

|

Units|

* Einsatzgruppen
* Police Regiments
* Order Police battalions

Collaborators|

* Arajs Kommando
* Lithuanian Security Police
* Nederlandsche SS
* Rollkommando Hamann
* Special Brigades
* Topf and Sons
* Trawnikis
* Ukrainian Auxiliary Police
* Ypatingasis būrys

* Early elements
* Aftermath
* Remembrance

| Early elements|

* Nazi racial policy
* Nazi eugenics
* Nuremberg Laws
* Haavara Agreement
* Hitler's prophecy
* Jewish war conspiracy theory
* Jewish emigration
* Kindertransport
* Madagascar Plan
* Nisko Plan
* Forced euthanasia (Action T4)

|

Aftermath|

* Depopulated shtetls
* Holocaust survivors
* Sh'erit ha-Pletah
* Bricha
* List
* Postwar violence
* Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
* Nuremberg trials
* Eichmann trial
* Holocaust restitution
* Reparations Agreement
* Holocaust denial
* trivialization

History and memory|

* Academia
* Books and other resources
* Days of remembrance
* Education
* Films
* Lessons
* Memorials and museums
* Uniqueness
* Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
* Humor
* Righteous Among the Nations
* Yad Vashem
* Yizkor books
* "Never again"

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