Judaea (Roman province)

Province of the Roman Empire (6–135 AD)

Province of Judaea

Provincia Iudaea (Latin)
Ἐπαρχία Ιουδαίας (Koine Greek)

Province of the Roman Empire
6 CE–135 CE

The Roman Empire under the reign of Hadrian (125 CE) with Judaea highlighted in red
Capital| Caesarea Maritima
Area|
• Coordinates| 32°30′N 34°54′E﻿ / ﻿32.500°N 34.900°E﻿ / 32.500; 34.900
Government|
Prefects before 41, Procurators after 44 CE|

• 6–9 CE

| Coponius

• 26–36 CE

| Pontius Pilate

• 64–66 CE

| Gessius Florus

• 117 CE

| Lusius Quietus

• 130–132 CE

| Tineius Rufus
King of the Jews|

• 41–44 CE

| Agrippa I

• 48–93/100

| Agrippa II
Legislature| Synedrion/Sanhedrin
Historical era| Roman Principate

• Annexation to the Roman Empire

| 6 CE

• Crucifixion of Jesus

| c. 30/33 CE

• Crisis under Caligula

| 37–41 CE

• Incorporation of Galilee and Peraea

| 44 CE

• Destruction of the Second Temple

| 70 CE

• Assigned a governor of praetorian rank and given the 10th Legion

| c. 74 CE

• Renamed Syria Palaestina

| 135 CE

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Herodian Tetrarchy

|

| Syria Palaestina |

|

Today part of| Israel
Palestine
Jordan (Peraea)
Lebanon (NW Galilee)
Form of Judaism: before August 70, it is referred to as Second Temple Judaism, from which the Tannaim and Early Christianity emerged.

Judaea[1] was a Roman province from 6 to 135 CE, which at its height encompassed the regions of Judea, Idumea,  Peraea, Samaria, and Galilee, as well as parts of the coastal plain of the southern Levant. At its height, it encompassed much of the core territories of the former Kingdom of Judaea, which had been ruled by the Hasmonean and Herodian dynasties in previous decades. The name Judaea (like the similar Judea) derives from the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah, which was centered in the region of Judea.

Since the Roman Republic's conquest of Judaea in 63 BCE, which abolished the independent Hasmonean monarchy, Rome maintained a system of semi-autonomous vassalage in the region. After Hasmonean ruler Antigonus II Mattathias briefly regained the throne, he was overthrown by Herod, who was appointed King of the Jews by the Roman Senate and ruled Judaea until his death in 4 BCE. The province's formal incorporation into the Roman Empire was enacted by Augustus in 6 CE, following an appeal by the populace against the misrule of Herod's son, Herod Archelaus (r. 4 BCE – 6 CE). The administrative capital was relocated from Jerusalem to the coastal city of Caesarea Maritima.

Over the six decades following the province's establishment, relations between the majority Jewish population and Roman authorities were marked by frequent crises. With the onset of direct rule, the official census instituted by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, the governor of Roman Syria, caused tensions and led to an uprising by Jewish rebel Judas of Galilee (6 CE). Other notable events in the region include the crucifixion of Jesus c. 30–33 CE (which led to the emergence of Christianity) and in 37 CE, Emperor Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Second Temple. A brief respite came under Agrippa I (r. 41–44 CE), a popular ruler who temporarily restored Jewish self-governance under Roman auspices. However, after his death, Judaea—now encompassing Galilee and Peraea—reverted to direct Roman rule, and unrest gradually escalated. In the following years, prophetic figures sought to gain followers, Sicarii assassins targeted officials, and corrupt and brutal governors—most notably Gessius Florus (r. 64–66 CE)—further inflamed tensions.

In 66 CE, unrest in Caesarea, followed by clashes in Jerusalem, ignited the First Jewish–Roman War. The Romans, under Vespasian and later his son Titus, systematically crushed the rebellion, culminating in the razing of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The Jewish population recovered within a generation and, in 132 CE, launched the Bar Kokhba revolt in response to Hadrian's plans to construct Aelia Capitolina, a non-Jewish colony, on the ruins of Jerusalem. The rebels briefly established an independent Jewish state, but the Roman suppression of the revolt resulted in the widespread destruction and near-depopulation of the region of Judea. In that same year, Judea was officially merged with Galilee in an enlarged province named Syria Palaestina.[2][3][4]

## Background

[edit]

Pompey in the Temple of Jerusalem, by Jean Fouquet

Judaea, an independent state under the Hasmonean dynasty, was conquered by the Roman Republic in 63 BCE.[5][6] At the time, it was embroiled in a civil war between Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II, sons of Queen Salome Alexandra, both vying for the throne.[7][8] Roman general Pompey intervened, besieging and capturing Jerusalem. In the aftermath, he appointed Hyrcanus II as ethnarch and High Priest, but denied him the title of king.

In 40 BCE, Antigonus II Mattathias, son of Aristobolus II, temporarily reclaimed the throne with Parthian support[9] but was overthrown in 37 BCE by Herod, whom the Roman Senate had appointed "King of the Jews."[10] Herod ruled Judaea as a client kingdom of Rome until his death in 4 BCE.[11] Widely despised and resented by the public, he maintained close relations with the Romans.[10] During this period, the remaining Hasmonean heirs were eliminated, and the grand port city of Caesarea Maritima was constructed.[12]

Herod died in 4 BCE, and his kingdom was partitioned into a tetrarchy and divided among three of his sons.[9] Archelaus served as ethnarch of Judea (including Jerusalem), Samaria, and Idumaea, while Herod Antipas governed Galilee and  Peraea, and Philip ruled over Gaulanitis, Trachonitis and Batanaea.[13] Archelaus rule of Judea was gravely atrocious that he was dismissed in 6 CE by the first Roman emperor, Augustus, after an appeal from his own subjects. Following his removal, Judaea was annexed as the Roman province of Judaea.[14][15][16] Herod Antipas continued to rule Galilee and Peraea until his dismisal by Emperor Caligula in 39 CE.

## History

[edit]

Part of a series on the

History of Israel

Early history

Prehistoric Levant

* Kebaran
* Mushabian
* Natufian
* Harifian
* Yarmukian
* Lodian
* Nizzanim
* Ghassulian

Canaan

* Retjenu
* Habiru
* Shasu
* Late Bronze Age collapse

Ancient Israel and Judah

|  Iron Age I

*     * Israelites, Philistines

|  12th–10th centuries BCE

|

United Monarchy|  10th century BCE
Kingdom of Israel|  10th century BCE–720 BCE
Kingdom of Judah|  10th century BCE–587 BCE
Babylonian rule|  587–538 BCE

Second Temple period

|  Persian Yehud|  538–333 BCE

|

Hellenistic period|  333–164 BCE
Hasmonean dynasty|  164–37 BCE
Herodian dynasty

*     * Kingdom
* Tetrarchy

|  37 BCE–6 CE
Roman Judaea
* (Jewish-Roman Wars)
|  6 CE–136 CE

Late Antiquity and Middle Ages

|  Late antiquity (Rabbinic period)|  70–638

|

Syria Palaestina|  136–395
Byzantine Palaestina

*     * Prima
* Secunda

|  395–638
Early Islamic period (Filastin, Urdunn)|  638–1099
Kingdom of Jerusalem|  1099–1291
Ayyubid dynasty|  1174–1260
Mamluk Sultanate|  1260–1517

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### Revolt and removal of Herod Archelaus

[edit]

Following the death of Herod the Great, the Herodian Kingdom of Judea was divided into the Herodian Tetrarchy, jointly ruled by Herod's sons and sister: Herod Archelaus (who ruled Judea, Samaria and Idumea), Herod Philip (who ruled Batanea, Trachonitis as well as Auranitis), Herod Antipas (who ruled Galilee and  Peraea) and Salome I (who briefly ruled Jamnia).

A messianic revolt erupted in Judea in 4 BCE because of Archelaus's incompetence; the revolt was brutally crushed by the Legate of Syria, Publius Quinctilius Varus, who occupied Jerusalem and crucified 2,000 Jewish rebels.[17][18]

Because of his failure to properly rule Judea, Archelaus was removed from his post by Emperor Augustus in 6 CE, while Judea, Samaria, and Idumea came under direct Roman administration.[19]

This event had significant and ever-lasting effects on Jewish history, and the development of Christianity.[20]

Part of a series on the

History of Palestine

Prehistory

* Natufian culture
* Pre-Pottery
* Tahunian
* Ghassulian
* Jericho

Ancient history

* Canaan
* Phoenicia
* Egyptian Empire
* Ancient Israel and Judah (Israel, Judah)

* Philistia
* Philistines
* Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Neo-Babylonian Empire
* Achaemenid Empire

Classical period

* Hellenistic Palestine (Seleucus, Antigonus, Hasmonean kingdom)
* Roman Palestine (Herodian kingdom, Province of Judaea, Syria Palaestina, Diocese of the East (Palaestina Prima, Secunda, Salutaris))

Islamic rule

* Muslim conquest
* Rashidun (Jund Filastin, Jund al-Urdunn)

* Umayyad
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Modern era

* Balfour Declaration
* Mandatory Palestine
* Nakba
* All-Palestine
* Jordanian West Bank
* Egyptian Gaza Strip
* Israel
* State of Israel
* Military Governorate
* Israeli Civil Administration
* State of Palestine (Palestinian enclaves;
Palestinian Authority; West Bank; Gaza Strip)

Palestine portal

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### Under a prefect (6–41 CE)

[edit]

Map of Judaea Roman Province (6–41 CE)

The Judean province did not initially include Galilee, Gaulanitis (today's Golan), nor Peraea or the Decapolis. Its revenue was of little importance to the Roman treasury; however, it controlled the land and coastal sea routes to the "bread basket" of Egypt and was a buffer against the Parthian Empire. The capital was moved from Jerusalem to Caesarea Maritima.[21]

Augustus appointed Publius Sulpicius Quirinius to the post of Legate of Syria and he conducted a tax census of Syria and Judea in 6 CE, which triggered the revolt of Judas of Galilee; the revolt was quickly crushed by Quirinius.[22]

Judea was not a senatorial province, nor an imperial province, but instead was a "satellite of Syria"[23] governed by a prefect who was a knight of the Equestrian Order (as was that of Roman Egypt), not a former consul or praetor of senatorial rank. Quirinius appointed Coponius as first prefect of Judea.[24] The prefect inherited the Herodian military forces, consisting of one cavalry unit and five infantry cohorts.[25][a]

Still, Jews living in the province maintained some form of independence and could judge offenders by their own laws, including capital offenses, until c. 28 CE.[26] Judea in the early Roman period was divided into five administrative districts with centers in Jerusalem, Gadara, Amathus, Jericho, and Sepphoris.[27]

In 30–33 CE, Roman prefect Pontius Pilate had Jesus of Nazareth crucified on the charge of sedition, an act that led to the birth of Christianity.[28][29][30] In 36 CE another messianic revolt erupted near Mount Gerizim, under the lead of a Samaritan, and was quickly crushed by Pilate; the Samaritans complained against Pilate's brutality to the Legate of Syria Lucius Vitellius the Elder, who removed Pilate from his post and sent him to Rome to account, replacing him with an acting prefect called Marcellus.[31]

In 37 CE, Emperor Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Temple in Jerusalem,[32] a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism.[33] The Legate of Syria, Publius Petronius, fearing civil war if the order was carried out, delayed implementing it for nearly a year.[34] King Herod Agrippa I finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order.[35] Caligula later issued a second order to have his statue erected in the Temple of Jerusalem, but he was murdered before the statue reached Jerusalem and his successor Claudius rescinded the order.[36] The "Crisis under Caligula" has been proposed as the first open break between Rome and Jews.[37]

### Autonomy under Herod Agrippa (41–44)

[edit]

Between 41 and 44 AD, Judea regained its nominal autonomy, when Herod Agrippa was made King of the Jews by the emperor Claudius, thus in a sense restoring the Herodian dynasty. Claudius had allowed procurators, who served as personal agents to the Emperor and often as provincial tax and finance ministers, to be elevated to governing magistrates with full state authority to keep the peace. He may have elevated Judea's procurator to imperial governing status because the imperial legate of Syria was not sympathetic to the Judeans.[38]

### Under a procurator (44–66)

[edit]

Following Agrippa's death in 44, the province returned to direct Roman control, incorporating Agrippa's personal territories of Galilee and Peraea, under a row of procurators. Nevertheless, Agrippa's son, Agrippa II was designated King of the Jews in 48. He was the seventh and last of the Herodians.

Jerusalem was plagued by famine between 44 and 48.[39] According to Josephus, Helena of Adiabene[40]"...went down to the city Jerusalem, her son conducting her on her journey a great way. Now her coming was of very great advantage to the people of Jerusalem; for whereas a famine did oppress them at that time, and many people died for want of what was necessary to procure food withal, queen Helena sent some of her servants to Alexandria with money to buy a great quantity of corn, and others of them to Cyprus, to bring a cargo of dried figs. And as soon as they were come back, and had brought those provisions, which was done very quickly, she distributed food to those that were in want of it, and left a most excellent memorial behind her of this benefaction, which she bestowed on our whole nation. And when her son Izates was informed of this famine, he sent great sums of money to the principal men in Jerusalem.[41]

### First Jewish–Roman war (66–70)

[edit]

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66 CE, tensions in Judaea escalated into an open revolt following clashes between Jews and Greeks in Caesarea.[42] These were followed by the Roman procurator Florus' seizure of Temple funds in Jerusalem and his subsequent massacres of its population.[43] A Temple captain halted sacrifices for the emperor, and the Roman garrison in the city was massacred. In response, Cestius Gallus, the Roman governor of Syria, led a 30,000-strong army into Judaea and besieged Jerusalem.[44][44] However, after withdrawing from the city for unclear reasons,[45][44] his forces suffered a devastating ambush at the Bethoron Pass.[46][45][47]

The spoils of the Jerusalem Temple, carried in triumph after the First Jewish–Roman War, as depicted on the Arch of Titus

After Gallus' defeat, a provisional government was formed in Jerusalem,[48] appointing military commanders across the country.[49] Soon Emperor Nero tasked Vespasian with suppressing the revolt,[50][51] and in 67 CE, he launched a campaign in Galilee, besieging and destroying rebel strongholds such as Yodfat, Tarichaea, and Gamla.[52] Meanwhile, Jerusalem became overcrowded with refugees and rebels.[53] Inside the city, internal Jewish factions clashed as Zealots seized power, overthrew the moderate government, and invited the Idumeans, who massacred opposition leaders and consolidated their control.[54] By 68 CE, Vespasian had secured Galilee and parts of Judea, aiming to isolate Jerusalem. However, Nero's suicide in 68 CE plunged Rome into civil war (the "Year of the Four Emperors").[55][56] In 69 CE, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor and left for Rome,[57][58] entrusting command to his son Titus, who prepared to crush the remaining Jewish resistance.[58]

In 70 CE, the Roman army under Titus laid a five-month siege to Jerusalem.[59] Titus's forces comprised legions, along with detachments (vexillationes) from two other legions, twenty infantry cohorts, eight mounted alae, and thousands of troops provided by client kings,[59] totaling around 50,000 soldiers.[60] Jerusalem population had swollen with Passover pilgrims and refugees, while three-way factional strife among Jewish groups further weakened its defense. As supplies dwindled, the inhabitants suffered from starvation and disease. The Romans breached the city walls one by one, and, in the summer, stormed the Temple Mount, destroying the Second Temple.[61] The following month, the Romans completed their conquest of Jerusalem, slaughtering, enslaving, or executing many of its inhabitants and reducing the city to ruins.[62][63][64]

In the years that followed, Roman forces launched a final campaign against isolated rebel-held fortresses, which concluded with the fall of Masada in 73/74 CE.[65][66]

### Under a legate (70–132)

[edit]

First century Iudaea province The Roman empire in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117–138 CE), showing, in western Asia, the Roman province of Judea

From 70 until 132, Judaea's rebelliousness required a governing Roman legate capable of commanding legions. Because Agrippa II maintained loyalty to the Empire, the Kingdom was retained until he died, either in 93/94 or 100, when the area returned to complete, undivided Roman control.

In 115 CE, widespread Jewish uprisings, known as the Diaspora Revolt, broke out almost simultaneously across several eastern provinces, including Cyprus, Egypt, Libya, and Mesopotamia. The uprisings took two years to suppress and resulted in the near-total destruction of Jewish communities in Cyprus, Egypt, and Libya.[67][68] Judea's role in the revolt is disputed, as there are no fully trustworthy sources on Judaea's participation in the rebellion, nor is there any archaeological way of distinguishing destruction levels of 117 CE from those of the Bar Kokhba revolt revolt of just a decade and a half later. Rabbinic sources mention the "Kitos War" occurring fifty-two years after the destruction of the Second Temple and sixteen years before the Bar Kokhba revolt, leading to restrictive legislation and a ban on teaching Greek.[69] Late Syriac sources mention unrest in Judaea, stating that Jews from Egypt and Libya were defeated by Roman forces there.[69] An inscription from Sardinia mentions an expeditio Judaeae among Trajan's military campaigns.[69] Additionally, Judaea's administrative status was upgraded from praetorian to consular, and a second permanent legion was stationed there before 120 CE.[69]

Following his role in suppressing the Jewish revolt in the eastern provinces, Lusius Quietus became the first consular governor of Judaea.[70]

### Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136)

[edit]

Main article: Bar Kokhba revolt

In 132 CE, the Bar Kokhba revolt—the final major Jewish revolt and last organized effort to regain national independence[71][72]—erupted in Judaea. It was primarily concentrated in Judea proper[b] and was led by Simon bar Kokhba. The revolt was directly precipitated by the establishment of Aelia Capitolina, a pagan Roman colony, atop the ruins of Jerusalem,[74][75][76]—an act Goodman described as the "final solution for Jewish rebelliousness."[77] The many hiding complexes built before the revolt show that the Jews had been preparing for conflict in advance.[76] With early victories over the Romans, Bar Kokhba secured control over a Jewish state and minted coins bearing symbols and slogans proclaiming Jewish independence, similar to those issued during the revolt.[78] However, Roman forces under Emperor Hadrian eventually crushed the revolt, resulting in widespread destruction and mass slaughter, which some historians describe as genocidal.[79] The fall of Betar and the death of Bar Kokhba in 135 marked the final collapse of the revolt.[80] Judea proper was heavily depopulated, with many Jews sold into slavery and transported to distant regions.[81]

While Hadrian's death in 137 eased some of the restrictions and persecution, the Jewish population in the region was severely reduced.[81] The remaining Jews were largely concentrated in the Galilee, the Golan, and coastal plain cities, with smaller communities along the fringes of Judea proper and a few other areas.[82]

### Aftermath

[edit]

After the revolt, Hadrian imposed laws targeting Jewish practices with the goal of dismantling Jewish nationalism.[71][83] The revolt also sealed the fate of the Jerusalem Temple, preventing its rebuilding for the foreseeable future.[84] Hadrian's punishment also included banning Jews from Jerusalem and its surrounding areas, and renaming the province from Judaea to Syria Palaestina.[71]

The creation of Syria Palaestina from the ruins of Judaea, whose name not officially used until then, did not prevent the Jewish people from referring to the land in their writings as either "Yehudah" (Hebrew: יהודה)[85][86] or "The Land of Israel" (Hebrew: ארץ ישראל).[87]

## Economy

[edit]

### Agriculture

[edit]

A rock-cut Jewish tomb at Horvat Borgin, dating from the late first century BCE to the Bar Kokhba Revolt

Agriculture played a significant role in economic life in Judaea. Wheat, barley, olives and grapes were the main crops grown in Judaea's fields. Evidence for the cultivation of herbs, vegetables, and legumes comes from Rabbinic literature, Josephus' works, and the New Testament. Writings from the late first and early second centuries indicate that Jewish farmers introduced rice to Judea during the early Roman period. The local crop was fine, large-kernel rice.[88][89]

### Coinage

[edit]

Main article: Procuratorial coinage of Roman Judaea

During the Roman administration of Judaea, some governors commissioned the minting of coins for local use. Only six governors are known to have issued such coins, all minted in Jerusalem.[90] All issues minted were prutot, small bronze coins averaging 2-2.5 grams, similar to the Roman quadrans.[91]

The design of the coins reflects an attempt to accommodate Jewish sensibilities, likely in collaboration with the Jewish leadership in Jerusalem.[91] Unlike typical Roman coinage featuring the emperor's portrait, these coins displayed symbols like palm tree and ears of grain, echoing earlier Hasmonean and Herodian designs. A notable exception is the coinage of Pontius Pilate, (26-36 CE), which included Roman cultic items like the simpulum and lituus on one side, though the reverse maintained Jewish imagery.[92][93]

Attributing these coins to specific governors is a challenge. They lack the governor's name, but display the reigning emperor's regnal year and name in Greek. Scholars rely on cross-referencing this information with historical records, particularly the writings of Josephus, to establish a governor's chronology and assign the coins accordingly.[90][91]

These coins were primarily circulated within Judaea, with the highest concentration found in Jerusalem, where hundreds have been discovered. However, evidence indicates that the coins transcended their intended region, with discoveries in Transjordan and even in distant locations like Dura and Antioch.[91]

The minting of provincial coins ceased in 59 CE, and they continued to circulate until the end of the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 CE. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, Jews lost their previously held rights; subsequent Roman coinage in Judaea no longer reflected Jewish influence.[91]

## List of governors (6–135 CE)

[edit]

Main article: Roman administration of Judaea (AD 6–135)

Name  | Reign  | Length of rule  | Category

|
|
|

Coponius | 6–9  | 3  | Roman Prefect
Marcus Ambivulus | 9–12  | 3  | Roman Prefect
Annius Rufus | 12–15  | 3  | Roman Prefect
Valerius Gratus | 15–26 (?)  | 11  | Roman Prefect
Pontius Pilate | 26–36 (?)  | 10  | Roman Prefect
Marcellus | 36–37  | 1  | Roman Prefect
Marullus | 37–41  | 4  | Roman Prefect
Vacant | 41–44  | 3  | Monarchy restored
Cuspius Fadus | 44–46  | 2  | Roman Procurator
Tiberius Julius Alexander | 46–48  | 2  | Roman Procurator
Ventidius Cumanus | 48–52  | 4  | Roman Procurator
Marcus Antonius Felix | 52–60  | 8  | Roman Procurator
Porcius Festus | 60–62  | 2  | Roman Procurator
Lucceius Albinus | 62–64  | 2  | Roman Procurator
Gessius Florus | 64–66  | 2  | Roman Procurator
Marcus Antonius Julianus | 66–70 (dates uncertain)  | 4  | Roman Procurator
Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis | 70–71  | 1  | Roman Legate
Sextus Lucilius Bassus | 71–72  | 1  | Roman Legate
Lucius Flavius Silva | 72–81  | 9  | Roman Legate
Marcus Salvidienus | 80–85  | 5  | Roman Legate
Gnaeus Pompeius Longinus | c.86  | 1  | Roman Legate
Sextus Hermentidius Campanus | c.93  | 1  | Roman Legate
Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes | 99–102  | 3  | Roman Legate
Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus | 102–104  | 2  | Roman Legate
Quintus Pompeius Falco | 105–107  | 2  | Roman Legate
Tiberianus | 114–117  | 3  | Roman Legate
Lusius Quietus | 117–120  | 3  | Roman Legate
Gargilius Antiquus[94] | c. 124–?  | 1  | Roman Prefect
Quintus Tineius Rufus | 130–132/3  | 3  | Roman Legate
Sextus Julius Severus | c. 133/4–135  | 1  | Roman Legate

## See also

[edit]

* Fiscus Judaicus – Tax imposed on Jews in the Roman Empire (70–96 CE)
* The Life of Brian – a British comedy film which riffs on the idiosyncrasies of life in 33 AD Roman Judea
* Roman roads in Judaea/Palaestina – overview of the road network in the province

## Sources

[edit]

### References

[edit]

1. ^ (Latin: Iudaea [juːˈdae̯.a]; Ancient Greek: Ἰουδαία, romanized: Ioudaía [i.uˈdɛ.a])
2. ^ Clouser, Gordon (2011). Jesus, Joshua, Yeshua of Nazareth Revised and Expanded. iUniverse. ISBN 978-1-4620-6121-1.
3. ^ Spolsky, Bernard (27 March 2014). The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05544-5.
4. ^ Brand, Chad; Mitchell, Eric; Staff, Holman Reference Editorial (2015). Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8054-9935-3.
5. ^ Goodman 1987, p. 9.
6. ^ Safrai & Stern 1974, p. 216.
7. ^ Berlin & Overman 2002, p. 2.
8. ^ Gabba 1999, pp. 94–95.
9. ^ a b Berlin & Overman 2002, p. 3.
10. ^ a b Price 1992, p. 5.
11. ^ Gabba 1999, p. 113.
12. ^ "Founded in the years 22–10 or 9 B.C. by Herod the Great, close to the ruins of a small Phoenician naval station named Strato's Tower (Stratonos Pyrgos, Turns Stratonis), which flourished during the 3d to 1st c. B.C. This small harbor was situated on the N part of the site. Herod dedicated the new town and its port (limen Sebastos) to Caesar Augustus. During the Early Roman period, Caesarea was the seat of the Roman procurators of the province of Judea. Vespasian, proclaimed emperor at Caesarea, raised it to the rank of Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta, and later Alexander Severus raised it to the rank of Metropolis Provinciae Syriae Palestinae." A. Negev, "CAESAREA MARITIMA Palestine, Israel" in: Richard Stillwell et al. (eds.), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (1976).
13. ^ Gabba 1999, pp. 127–128, 130.
14. ^ Goodman 1987, p. 1.
15. ^ Gabba 1999, p. 130.
16. ^ Safrai & Stern 1974, pp. 308–309.
17. ^ Josephus, The Jewish War, Book 2, Chapter 56
18. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 17, Chapters 271-272
19. ^ Malamat, Abraham; Tadmor, Hayim (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6. "When Archelaus was deposed from the ethnarchy in 6 CE, Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea were converted into a Roman province under the name Iudaea."
20. ^ Millar, Fergus (1995). The Roman Near East: 31 BC–AD 337. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 44\. ISBN 978-0-674-77886-3.
21. ^ A History of the Jewish People, H. H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, page 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, page 246], Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities (Sebaste, Caesarea and others)."
22. ^ "Josephus, Antiquities Book XVIII". earlyjewishwritings.com.
23. ^ H. H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish Peoples, page 247–248: "Consequently, the province of Judea may be regarded as a satellite of Syria, although, in view of the measure of independence left to its governor in domestic affairs, it would be wrong to say that in the Julio-Claudian era Judea was legally part of the province of Syria."
24. ^ Josephus, Antiquities 17.355 & 18.1–2;
25. ^ a b Cotton 2022, p. 389.
26. ^ Babylonian Talmud, Avodah Zarah 8b; ibid, Sanhedrin 41a; ibid, Shabbat 15a; Jerusalem Talmud, Sanhedrin 1:1 (1b)
27. ^ Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 bce – ce 70". In William David Davies; Louis Finkelstein; William Horbury (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. p. 98\. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
28. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, Chapter 3, Paragraph 3
29. ^ Tacitus, Annals, Book 15, Chapter 44
30. ^ Eddy, Paul Rhodes; Boyd, Gregory A. (2007). The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. Baker Academic. p. 172\. ISBN 978-0-8010-3114-4. "...if there is any fact of Jesus' life that has been established by a broad consensus, it is the fact of Jesus' crucifixion."
31. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, Chapter 4, Paragraphs 1-2
32. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXX.203.
33. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XVI.115.
34. ^ Philo of Alexandria, On the Embassy to Gaius XXXI.213.
35. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.8.1.
36. ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XVIII.8.
37. ^ H. H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-674-39731-2, The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula, pages 254–256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37–41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and the Julio-Claudian empire. Until then – if one accepts Sejanus' heyday and the trouble caused by the census after Archelaus' banishment – there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in the Temple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish–Roman war that might well have spread to the entire East."
38. ^ Tac. A.12.60
39. ^ "New Testament Parallels to the Works of Josephus - Page Two". www.josephus.org. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
40. ^ Josephus, "Book XX", The Antiquities of the Jews, retrieved 9 March 2023
41. ^ Josephus. The Antiquities of the Jews. Vol. Book XX.
42. ^ Rogers 2022, pp. 126–127.
43. ^ Smallwood 1976, pp. 289–290.
44. ^ a b c Magness 2024, p. 204.
45. ^ a b Millar 1995, p. 71.
46. ^ Mason 2016, p. 281.
47. ^ Rogers 2022, p. 180.
48. ^ Rogers 2022, pp. 1, 51, 52–53.
49. ^ Price 1992, p. 70.
50. ^ Millar 1995, pp. 71–72.
51. ^ Smallwood 1976, p. 306.
52. ^ Millar 1995, pp. 72–73.
53. ^ Price 1992, p. 86.
54. ^ Rogers 2022, p. 267–278.
55. ^ Price 1992, p. 102.
56. ^ Rogers 2022, pp. 289–290.
57. ^ Gabba 1999, p. 163.
58. ^ a b Schäfer 2003, p. 129.
59. ^ a b Cotton 2022, p. 391.
60. ^ Rogers 2022, p. 302.
61. ^ Bahat 1999, pp. 42–43.
62. ^ Rogers 2022, pp. 368–370.
63. ^ Price 2011, p. 409.
64. ^ Magness 2024, pp. 293–294.
65. ^ Tropper 2016, pp. 91–92.
66. ^ Millar 1995, p. 76.
67. ^ Kerkeslager 2006, pp. 61–62.
68. ^ Goodman 2004, p. 10.
69. ^ a b c d Pucci Ben Zeev 2006, pp. 100–101.
70. ^ Cotton 2022, p. 390.
71. ^ a b c Eshel 2006, p. 127.
72. ^ Isaac 1990, p. 55.
73. ^ Cotton 2022, p. 392.
74. ^ Magness 2024, p. 338–339.
75. ^ Price 2024, p. 19.
76. ^ a b Eshel 2006, p. 106.
77. ^ Goodman 2004, p. 27–28.
78. ^ Magness 2012, p. 270.
79. ^ Taylor 2012, p. 243.
80. ^ Horbury 2014, p. 401.
81. ^ a b Eshel 2006, p. 126.
82. ^ Schwartz 2006, p. 37.
83. ^ Smallwood 1976, pp. 464–465.
84. ^ Smallwood 1976, pp. 465–466.
85. ^ The Mishnah (ed. Herbert Danby), Oxford University Press: Oxford 1933, s.v. Tractate Shebiit 9:2; compiled by Rabbi Judah the Prince in 189 CE.
86. ^ See p. 1 in: Feldman, Louis (1990). "Some Observations on the Name of Palestine". Hebrew Union College Annual. 61: 1–23\. JSTOR 23508170.
87. ^ The Mishnah (ed. Herbert Danby), Oxford University Press: Oxford 1933, s.v. Tractate Kelim 1:6
88. ^ Decker, Michael (2009). Tilling the Hateful Earth: Agricultural Production and Trade in the Late Antique East. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 109–110\. ISBN 978-0-19-956528-3. OCLC 316430311.
89. ^ Safrai, Zeev (2003). "Trade in the Land of Israel during the Second Temple period". The Economy of Roman Palestine. Taylor & Francis. pp. 125–128\. ISBN 1-280-09423-0. OCLC 814404092.
90. ^ a b Meshorer, Ya'akov; Bijovsky, Gabriela; Hendin, David; Meadows, Andrew (2013). Coins of the Holy Land: the Abraham and Marian Sofaer Collection at the American Numismatic Society and the Israel Museum. Ancient coins in North American collections. American numismatic society. New York: American Numismatic Society. p. 269\. ISBN 978-0-89722-283-9.
91. ^ a b c d e Meshorer, Ya'akov (1982). Ancient Jewish Coinage. Vol. II: Herod the Great through Bar Cochba. Amphora Books. pp. 173–174, 186–187\. LCCN 82-074517.
92. ^ McGing, Brian C. (1991). "Pontius Pilate and the Sources". The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. 53 (3): 425. ISSN 0008-7912. JSTOR 43718282.
93. ^ Graves, D. E. (2019). Pilate’s Ring and Roman Religion. Near East Archaeological Society Bulletin, 64, p. 7
94. ^ "Ancient Inscription Identifies Gargilius Antiques as Roman Ruler on Eve of Bar Kochva Revolt". December 2016.

### Notes

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1. ^ These units, named Kaisareis and Sebastenoi, were likely recruited from the non-Jewish communities in Caesarea, Sebaste, and the surrounding regions.[25]
2. ^ The region encompassing the Judaean Hills, the Judean Lowlands, and the Judaean Desert[73]

### Bibliography

[edit]

* Bahat, Dan (1999). "The Herodian Temple". In Horbury, William; Davies, W. D.; Sturdy, John (eds.). The Early Roman Period. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 38–58\. ISBN 9781139053662.
* Berlin, Andrea M.; Overman, J. Andrew, eds. (2002). "Introduction". The First Jewish Revolt: Archaeology, History, and Ideology. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-62024-6.
* Cotton, Hannah M. (2022). Pogorelsky, Ofer (ed.). Roman Rule and Jewish Life: Collected Papers. Studia Judaica. Vol. 89\. De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110770438. ISBN 978-3-110-77043-8.
* Eshel, Hanan (2006). "The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4th. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8.
* Gabba, Emilio (1999). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE–CE 70". In Horbury, William; Davies, W. D.; Sturdy, John (eds.). The Early Roman Period. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 3\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167\. ISBN 9781139053662.
* Goodman, Martin (1987). The Ruling Class of Judaea: The Origins of the Jewish Revolt against Rome, A.D. 66–70. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511552656. ISBN 9780511552656.
* Goodman, Martin (2004). "Trajan and the Origins of Roman Hostility to the Jews". Past & Present (182): 3–29\. doi:10.1093/past/182.1.3. JSTOR 3600803.
* Horbury, William (2014). Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-04905-4.
* Isaac, Benjamin (1990). The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-14952-1.
* Kerkeslager, Allen (2006). "The Jews in Egypt and Cyrenaica, 66–c. 235 CE". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4\. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8.
* Magness, Jodi (2012). The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-01383-3.
* Magness, Jodi (2024). Jerusalem Through The Ages: From Its Beginnings To The Crusades. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-093780-5.
* Mason, Steve (2016). A History of the Jewish War: AD 66–74. Key Conflicts of Classical Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139020718. ISBN 978-1-139-02071-8.
* Price, Jonathan J. (1992). Jerusalem under Siege: The Collapse of the Jewish State, 66-70 C.E. Brill's Series in Jewish Studies. Vol. 3\. Brill. ISBN 978-9-004-09471-0.
* Price, Jonathan J. (2011). "The Jewish Population of Jerusalem from the First Century BCE to the Early Second Century CE: The Epigraphic Record". In Popović, Mladen (ed.). The Jewish Revolt against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Brill. pp. 399–418\. doi:10.1163/9789004216693_017. ISBN 978-9-004-21668-6.
* Price, Jonathan (2024). "Historiography in the Time of Stasis: Reflections on the Nationalistic Uprisings in Judea/Palestine". In Czajkowski, Kimberley; Friedman, David A. (eds.). Looking In, Looking Out: Jews and Non-Jews in Mutual Contemplation. Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism. Vol. 212\. Leiden and Boston: Brill. pp. 15–37\. doi:10.1163/89004685055 (inactive 1 July 2025). ISBN 978-9-004-68503-1.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
* Pucci Ben Zeev, Miriam (2006). "The Uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4\. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 93–104\. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521772488.005. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8.
* Rogers, Guy MacLean (2022). For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-24813-5.
* Safrai, Samuel; Stern, Menachem (1974). The Jewish People in the First Century. Vol. 1\. Brill. ISBN 978-9-004-27500-3.
* Safrai, Samuel (1976). "The Era of the Mishnah and Talmud (70–640)". A History of the Jewish People. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 307–382\. ISBN 0-674-39731-2.
* Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World: The Jews of Palestine from Alexander the Great to the Arab Conquest. Routledge. ISBN 9780415305877.
* Schwartz, Seth (2006). "Political, social, and economic life in the Land of Israel, 66–c. 235". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4\. Cambridge University Press. pp. 23–52\. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8.
* Smallwood, E. Mary (1976). The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian. SBL Press. ISBN 978-90-04-50204-8.
* Taylor, Joan E. (2012). The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-55448-5.
* Tropper, Amram (2016). Rewriting Ancient Jewish History: The History of the Jews in Roman Times and the New Historical Method. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-64148-8.

### Works cited

[edit]

* Jacobson, David (2001), "When Palestine Meant Israel", Biblical Archaeology Review, 27 (3)

## Further reading

[edit]

* Hall, J. F. (1996). "The Roman Province of Judea: A Historical Overview". Masada and the World of the New Testament (1996–97). Vol. 36\. pp. 319–336\. JSTOR i40117983.

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