Judicial system of China

For the Ministry of Justice, see Ministry of Justice (China). For the judicial system in the Republic of China, see Judicial Yuan.

Politics of China

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* Current state leaders
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* Paramount leader: Xi Jinping

First lady: Peng Liyuan

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* Chinese legal system
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* * *

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Xi Jinping
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Chairman: Xi Jinping

Vice Chairmen:

Zhang Youxia, He Weidong
* National Security Commission

Chairman: Xi Jinping

Vice-Chairman:

Li Qiang, Zhao Leji, Cai Qi

Office Chief: Cai Qi

* Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission

Director: Xi Jinping

Deputy Directors:

Li Qiang, Wang Huning, Cai Qi

Secretary-General: Wang Huning

* Financial & Economic Affairs Commission

Director: Xi Jinping

Deputy Director: Li Qiang

Office Chief: He Lifeng

* General Office

Director: Cai Qi
* Office of the General Secretary

Chief: Cai Qi
* Central Guard Bureau
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* Organization Department

Head: Li Ganjie
* Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (20th)
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Secretary: Li Xi
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Secretary: Zhang Shengmin
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Leader: Li Xi

* * *

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National People's Congress (14th)

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Chairman: Zhao Leji

Vice-Chairpersons

Top-ranked: Li Hongzhong
Secretary-General: Liu Qi
* Special Committees
1. Ethnic Affairs
2. Constitution and Law
3. Supervisory and Judicial Affairs
4. Financial and Economic Affairs
5. Education, Science, Culture and Public Health
6. Foreign Affairs
7. Overseas Chinese Affairs
8. Environmental Protection and Resources Conservation
9. Agriculture and Rural Affairs
10. Social Development Affairs
* Presidium

State representative

*     * President (list): Xi Jinping

* Presidential Office

Chief: Cai Qi
* Vice President: Han Zheng

Executive organ

*     * State Council (Central People's Government)
* Li Qiang Cabinet

Premier (list): Li Qiang

Vice-Premiers (list)

* Ding Xuexiang
* He Lifeng
* Zhang Guoqing
* Liu Guozhong

State Councilors

* Wang Xiaohong
* Wu Zhenglong
* Shen Yiqin

Secretary-General: Wu Zhenglong

* Cabinet-level departments
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Secretary-General
Deputy Secretaries-General
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* most Central Enterprises

Military organ

*     * Central Military Commission (CMC)

Chairman (supreme commander):

Xi Jinping
Vice Chairmen:

* Zhang Youxia
* He Weidong

Members:

* Liu Zhenli
* Miao Hua
* Zhang Shengmin

Departments:
1. General Office

Director: Zhong Shaojun
2. Joint Staff Dept.

Chief: Liu Zhenli
3. Political Work Dept.

Director: Miao Hua
4. Logistic Support Dept.

Director: Zhang Lin
5. Equipment Development Dept.

Director: Xu Xueqiang
6. Training and Administration Dept.

Director: Wang Peng
7. National Defense Mobilization Dept.

Director: Liu Faqing
8. Discipline Inspection Commission

Secretary: Zhang Shengmin
9. Politics and Legal Affairs Commission
10. Science and Technology Commission
11. Strategic Planning Office
12. Reform & Organizational Structure Office
13. Int'l Military Cooperation Office
14. Audit Office
15. Offices Administration Agency
National armed forces:

People's Liberation Army

Theater commands
People's Armed Police

China Coast Guard
Militia
* State Council

National Defense Mobilization Commission

Chairman: Li Qiang

Ministry of National Defense

Minister: Dong Jun

Ministry of Veterans Affairs
State Administration for Sci., Tech. & Industry for National Defense

Military history
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* CMC Leading Group for Military Reform

Leader: Xi Jinping

Supervisory organ

*     * National Supervisory Commission

Director: Liu Jinguo

* * *

* Corruption in China
* Anti-corruption campaign since 2012

* * *

* Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)

* * *

* Commission Against Corruption (Macau)

Judicial organs

*     * Supreme People's Court

President: Zhang Jun

People's Courts Judicial Police
* Supreme People's Procuratorate

Procurator-General: Ying Yong

People's Procuratorates Judicial Police

* * *

* Judiciary of Hong Kong
* Court of Final Appeal
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* * *

* Judiciary of Macau
* Court of Final Appeal
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* Unitary Police Services [zh]
* Public Security Police
* Judiciary Police [zh]

United front

* Political Consultative Conference
* National Committee

Chairman: Wang Huning

Vice-Chairpersons

Top-ranked: Shi Taifeng
Secretary-General: Wang Dongfeng
* Political parties:

CCP (ruling)

United Front Work Department

Head: Shi Taifeng

* RCCK
* CDL
* CNDCA
* CAPD
* CPWDP
* CZGP
* JS
* TDSL

Historical parties:

* KMT
* CDSP
* YCP

* Federation of Industry and Commerce
* People's organizations

* Law enforcement

* CCP Central Politics and Law Commission

Secretary: Chen Wenqing

* Ministry of Public Security

Minister: Wang Xiaohong

Public Security Organs People's Police
* State Immigration Administration
* Local public security bureaus
* Ministry of State Security

Minister: Chen Yixin

State Security Organs People's Police
* Ministry of Justice

Minister: He Rong

Judicial Administrative Organs People's Police
* Bureau of Prison Administration [zh]
* Office for Safeguarding National Security

* * *

* Urban Management (chengguan)

Propaganda

* Central Leading Group for Propaganda, Ideology and Culture

Leader: Cai Qi

Deputy Leaders: Li Shulei, Shen Yiqin

* Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization

Director: Cai Qi

Deputy Director: Li Shulei

* Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party

Head: Li Shulei

* General Administration of Press and Publication
* China Film Administration
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* Ministry of Culture and Tourism
* National Radio and Television Administration
* China Media Group
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* Reference News
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* * *

* Censorship in China
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* Media of China
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* Publishing industry in China

* * *

* Internet in China
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* Great Firewall
* Great Cannon
* Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission

Director: Cai Qi

* Cyberspace Administration of China

Director: Zhuang Rongwen

* Hong Kong
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* Central Leading Group on Hong Kong and Macau Affairs

Leader: Ding Xuexiang
* HK & Macau Affairs Office

Director: Xia Baolong
* Hong Kong Liaison Office
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* * *

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* * *

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Leader: Xi Jinping
Deputy Leader: Wang Huning
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Director: Song Tao
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Director: Xi Jinping
Deputy Director: Li Qiang
Secretary-General: Wang Yi
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Minister: Wang Yi
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Emblem of the People's Court of the People's Republic of China The front facade of the Supreme People's Court in Beijing.

The judicial branch, organized under the constitution and organic law, is one of five organs of state power elected by the National People's Congress (NPC), in the People's Republic of China. China does not have judicial independence or judicial review as the courts do not have authority beyond what is granted to them by the NPC under a system of unified power. The Chinese Communist Party's Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission maintains effective control over the court system and its personnel.[1][2] Hong Kong and Macau have separate court systems in accordance with the "one country, two systems" doctrine.

## Court structure

[edit]

High People's Court of the province of Hubei

According to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China of 1982 and the Organic Law of the People's Courts that went into effect on January 1, 1980, the Chinese courts are divided into a four-level court system (Supreme, High, Intermediate and Primary):

* At the highest level is the Supreme People's Court (SPC) in Beijing, the premier appellate forum of the land and court of last resort, which supervises the administration of justice by all subordinate "local" and "special" people's courts. It also sets up six circuit courts seat outside of the state capital, which acts in the same capacity, to hear cross-provincial cases within respective jurisdiction.[citation needed]
* Local people's courts—the courts of the first instance—handle criminal and civil cases. These people's courts make up the remaining three levels of the court system and consist of "high people's courts" at the level of the provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities; "intermediate people's courts" at the level of prefectures, autonomous prefectures, and municipalities; and "primary people's courts" at the level of autonomous counties, towns, and municipal districts.[citation needed]
* Courts of Special Jurisdiction (special courts) comprises the Military Courts (military), Railway Transportion Court of China (railroad transportation) and Maritime Courts (water transportation), Internet Courts, Intellectual Property Courts and Financial Court. Except for the Military Courts, all other courts of special jurisdiction falls under the general jurisdiction of its respective high court.[citation needed]

Candidates for judgeship must pass the National Unified Legal Professional Qualification Examination.[citation needed] All lawyers must take an oath pledging loyalty to the Chinese Communist Party.[3]

The court system is paralleled by a hierarchy of prosecuting offices called people's procuratorates, the highest being the Supreme People's Procuratorate.[citation needed]

Local departments of justice can revoke the license of lawyers. This power is used to target lawyers who challenge the authority of the state, particularly human rights lawyers.[4]

## Legal procedure

[edit]

The Supreme Court is responsible for establishing and monitoring legal procedures in adherence to the laws and orders made by the legislative organs.[citation needed]

Following civil law traditions, the courts do not establish legally-binding precedent. The Supreme Court has the right to publish legal explanations of laws which are legally-binding but the right to interpret the constitution is reserved by the legislative organs.[citation needed] A verdict made by an inferior court can be challenged in its superior court, up to the Supreme Court, there are four levels of courts in total. A superior court can also designate any of its inferior courts to hear an appeal rather than do so itself.[citation needed]

Court proceedings in China are generally livestreamed, with exceptions including where classified information is discussed or where juveniles testify.[5]: 125

### Civil

[edit]

Besides the court system, it is also encouraged to resolve civil conflicts through a state-sponsored and -regulated mediation and arbitration system. After the first hearing of a civil case, the court is required by law to ask both parties if they are willing to resolve their conflict through mediation. If agreed, the court should assign a mediator and oversee the process. If both parties reach an agreement, it will be legally binding after the agreement is reviewed and documented by a judge of the court.[citation needed]

The enforceability of a civil verdict has long been an issue of some controversy, damaging the people's trust in the legal system. To address the problem of civil law enforceability, the Supreme People's Court has established a system to forbid debtors who fail to honor civil verdicts from exorbitant spending, including five-star hotels, air flights, and bullet trains, though there is controversy as to whether this gives the court too much authority.[6]

Courts allow litigants to communicate with it via WeChat, through which the litigant parties can file lawsuits, participate in proceedings, present evidence, and listen to verdicts.[5]: 125 As of December 2019, more than 3 million litigants had used WeChat for litigation.[5]: 125

## History

[edit]

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|

Hangzhou Intermediate People's Court

Between the Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957 and the legal reforms of 1979, the courts—viewed by the leftists as troublesome and unreliable—played only a small role in the judicial system. Most of their functions were handled by other party or government organs. In 1979, however, the National People's Congress began the process of restoring the judicial system. The world was able to see an early example of this reinstituted system in action in the showcase trial of the Gang of Four and six other members of the "Lin-Jiang clique" from November 1980 to January 1981 (see the Four Modernizations). The trial, which was publicized to show that China had restored a legal system that made all citizens equal before the law, actually appeared to many foreign observers to be more a political than a legal exercise. Nevertheless, it was intended to show that China was committed to restoring a judicial system.[citation needed]

The Ministry of Justice, abolished in 1959, was re-established under the 1979 legal reforms to administer the newly restored judicial system. With the support of local judicial departments and bureaus, the ministry was charged with supervising personnel management, training, and funding for the courts and associated organizations and was given responsibility for overseeing legal research and exchanges with foreign judicial bodies.[citation needed]

The 1980 Organic Law of the People's Courts (revised in 1983) and the 1982 State Constitution established four levels of courts in the general administrative structure. Judges are elected or appointed by people's congresses at the corresponding levels to serve a maximum of two five-year terms. Most trials are administered by a collegial bench made up of one to three judges and three to five assessors. Assessors, according to the State Constitution, are elected by local residents or people's congresses from among citizens over twenty-three years of age with political rights or are appointed by the court for their expertise. Trials are conducted by the inquisitorial system, in which both judges and assessors play an active part in the questioning of all witnesses. This contrasts with the adversarial system, in which the judge is meant to be an impartial referee between two contending attorneys. After the judge and assessors rule on a case, they pass sentence. An aggrieved party can appeal to the next higher court.[citation needed]

The Organic Law of the People's Courts requires that adjudication committees be established for courts at every level. The committees usually are made up of the president, vice presidents, chief judges, and associate chief judges of the court, who are appointed and removed by the standing committees of the people's congresses at the corresponding level. The adjudication committees are charged with reviewing major cases to find errors in determination of facts or application of law and to determine if a chief judge should withdraw from a case. If a case is submitted to the adjudication committee, the court is bound by its decision. The Supreme People's Court stands at the apex of the judicial structure. Located in Beijing, it has jurisdiction over all lower and special courts, for which it serves as the ultimate appellate court. It is directly responsible to the National People's Congress Standing Committee, which elects the court president.[citation needed]

China also has 'special' military, rail transport, water transport, and forestry courts. These courts hear cases of counter-revolutionary activity, plundering, bribery, sabotage, or indifference to duty that result in severe damage to military facilities, work place, or government property or threaten the safety of soldiers or workers.[7]

Military courts make up the largest group of special courts and try all treason and espionage cases. Although they are independent of civilian courts and directly subordinate to the Ministry of National Defense, military court decisions are reviewed by the Supreme People's Court. Special military courts were first established in 1954 to protect the special interests of all commanders, political commissars, and soldiers, but they ceased to function during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76). Military courts and procuratorates were reinstituted in October 1978, and open military trials resumed in December of that year.[citation needed]

In April 1986, at the Fourth Session of the Sixth National People's Congress, the General Principles of the Civil Code was approved as "one of China's basic laws." Consisting of more than 150 articles, the code was intended to regulate China's internal and external economic relations to establish a stable base conducive to trade and attractive to foreign investors. Many of its provisions define the legal status of economic entities and the property rights they exercise. The code clearly stipulated that private ownership of the means of production is protected by law and may not be seized or interfered with by any person or organization. It also recognizes partnerships and wholly foreign-owned or joint-venture enterprises.[8]

In 2007, the doctrine of the Three Supremes was introduced under Hu Jintao, mandating that the judiciary subordinate written law to the interests of the CCP.[9]

In 2013, the SPC issued Opinions Concerning Sentencing Guidelines for Frequently Committed Offences, which aimed to achieve consistency in sentencing for similar offenses. Therefore, China divided the guidelines into four sections: the guiding principles of sentencing, basic sentence methodology, applications of common mitigating and aggravating factors, and sentences for common offences.[10] These guidelines introduced a methodology for calculating sentences, involving three components: a sentencing starting point, a baseline sentence, and a final sentence. The starting point was determined based on the primary constituent facts of a crime, while the baseline sentence considered secondary facts related to the offense. A final sentence was derived from an adjusted baseline sentence, considering various mitigating and aggravating factors. However, these guidelines were only applicable to less serious offenses, leaving serious crimes without specific guidance.[10]

From 2014 to 2017, the judicial system underwent significant reform aimed at curbing judicial favoritism.[11]: 212 Among the key reform provisions was recentralizing personnel appointments and fiscal management of basic and intermediate courts, with these decisions now being made by provincial governments.[11]: 212

In 2015, China began publishing all court decisions in civil and criminal cases across all tiers of the judiciary.[5]: 125 This database, the China Judgment Online database, is the world's largest collection of judicial decisions.[11]: 141 Although the Supreme People's Court mandates that all local courts upload their judgments, the local courts' compliance with this mandate varies.[11]: 41 In 2021, millions of court verdicts were removed, including all capital punishment verdicts.[12] In 2023, administrative proceedings were also removed.[13]

The Supreme People's Court in 2018 began promoting the Mobile Micro Court app.[11]: 207 As of March 2020, over 1.3 million people had used the Mobile Micro Court app and over 437,000 cases had been filed through it.[11]: 207

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes related to ecommerce and internet-related intellectual property claims.[5]: 124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI evaluates the evidence presented and applies relevant legal standards.[5]: 124 Following the Hangzhou Internet Court, the Beijing Internet Court and Guangzhou Internet Court were established.[11]: 206 In these courts, all aspects of the judicial process from case filing through conclusion are handled online.[11]: 206 Major cities including Shanghai, Tianjin, Shenzhen, Wuhan, and Chengdu have established specialized court divisions for cases arising from online disputes.[11]: 206

The Chinese government is also promoting the development of a "smart court" system to increase the use of technology such as artificial intelligence and blockchain to streamline proceedings.[11]: 206 The Hangzhou Internet Court was the first court in China to accept blockchain evidence to prove the content of a website at a particular point in time, rather than the public notary method traditionally used to do so.[5]: 124–125

In February 2023, the General Office of the Chinese Communist Party issued a text titled Opinions on Strengthening Legal Education and Legal Theory Research in the New Era that called for purging "Western erroneous views" from legal education, including constitutional government, separation of powers, and judicial independence.[14] The CCP text is based around adaption and implementation on the views on judicial theory and socialist rule of law with Chinese characteristics as examined in Xi Jinping's published text 'Thought on the Rule of Law'.[15]

## See also

[edit]

* Chinese law
* Law enforcement in the People's Republic of China
* Law of the People's Republic of China
* Legal Daily
* Legal history of China
* Legislative system of the People's Republic of China
* Ministry of Justice of the People's Republic of China

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Ahl, Björn (2019-05-06). "Judicialization in authoritarian regimes: The expansion of powers of the Chinese Supreme People's Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 17 (1): 252–277. doi:10.1093/icon/moz003. ISSN 1474-2640.
2. ^ ""Walking on Thin Ice" - Control, Intimidation and Harassment of Lawyers in China". Human Rights Watch. April 28, 2008. Archived from the original on September 16, 2023. Retrieved June 19, 2024.
3. ^ Wong, Edward (2012-03-22). "Chinese Lawyers Chafe at New Oath to Communist Party". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2012-03-22. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
4. ^ Davidson, Helen (5 January 2021). "China moves to punish lawyers who helped Hong Kong activists". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 January 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
5. ^ a b c d e f g Šimalčík, Matej (2023). "Rule by Law". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). Contemporary China: a New Superpower?. Routledge. pp. 114–127. doi:10.4324/9781003350064-12. ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1.
6. ^ "中国执行信息公开网". zxgk.court.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2019-05-29. Retrieved 2019-05-26.
7. ^ Li, Ling (2016). "The Chinese Communist Party and People's Courts: Judicial Dependence in China". The American Journal of Comparative Law. 64 (1): 37–74. doi:10.5131/AJCL.2016.0002. ISSN 0002-919X. JSTOR 26386882.
8. ^ "GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CIVIL LAW OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA". AsianLii Legal Database, Laws of the Peoples Republic of China. 12 April 1986. Archived from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 18 June 2024.
9. ^ "Three Supremes". China Media Project. 2021-04-16. Archived from the original on 2024-09-13. Retrieved 2024-09-20.
10. ^ a b Lin, Zhiqiu (2016). "Advancements and controversies in China's recent sentencing reforms". China Information. 30 (3): 357. doi:10.1177/0920203X16674193. S2CID 148879303.
11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Zhang, Angela Huyue (2024). High Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780197682258.001.0001. ISBN 9780197682258.
12. ^ Xie, Echo (2021-06-26). "Millions of court rulings removed from official Chinese database". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2023-09-26. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
13. ^ Boyd, Alexander (2023-03-25). "Administrative Proceedings—"People Suing Government"—Removed From Chinese Legal Database in New Blow to Transparency". China Digital Times. Archived from the original on 2023-09-26. Retrieved 2023-09-26.
14. ^ "China purging 'Western erroneous views' from legal education". Associated Press. 27 February 2023. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
15. ^ "Opinions of the Supreme People's Court on Strengthening the Legal Theory Research of the People's Courts in the New Era". General Office of the Chinese Communist Party. 1 January 2024. Retrieved 18 June 2024.

### Sources

[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related to Judicial system of China.

* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. China: A Country Study. Federal Research Division.

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Modern|

* 1911 Revolution
* Republic of China
* Chinese Civil War
* Chinese Communist Revolution
* People's Republic of China
* Cultural Revolution
* Tiananmen Square
* Economic reform
* COVID-19
* persecution of Uyghurs

Geography|

* Borders
* Extreme points
* Geology
* Natural disasters

| Regions|

* East
* Northeast
* North
* South Central
* Central
* South
* Western
* Northwestern
* Southwestern

|

Terrain|

* Bays
* Canyons
* Caves
* Deserts
* Grasslands
* Hills
* Islands
* Mountains
* ranges
* passes
* Peninsulas
* Northeast / North / Central Plains
* Valleys
* Volcanoes

Water|

* Canals
* Lakes
* Rivers
* Waterfalls
* Wetlands
* Water resources
* Seas
* Bohai
* Yellow
* East China
* South China

Environment|

* Climate change
* Climate policy
* Environmental issues
* Environmental policy
* Protected areas
* National parks
* Nature reserves
* UNESCO Biosphere Reserves
* Wildlife
* Fauna
* Flora

Subdivisions|

* Baseline islands
* Border crossings
* Cities
* Province-level subdivisions

Politics|

| Law|

* Judicial system
* Human rights
* LGBT
* in Tibet
* Law enforcement
* Penal system
* Naming laws
* Nationality law
* Terrorism

|

Government|

* Civil service
* Constitution
* Democracy
* Pro-democratisation
* Elections
* Environmental policy
* Foreign relations
* National People's Congress
* Standing Committee
* National security
* Political parties and movements
* Chinese Communist Party
* General Secretary
* Politburo
* United front
* Political Consultative Conference
* Socialism with Chinese characteristics
* Primary stage of socialism
* President
* Vice President
* State Council
* Premier
* Vice Premier
* One country, two systems

Military|

* Outline of military history
* Central Military Commission
* Ministry of National Defense
* People's Liberation Army
* Ground
* Navy
* Air
* Rocket
* Strategic Support
* People's Armed Police
* Coast Guard
* Militia
* Maritime Militia

Economy|

* Agriculture
* Aquaculture
* Banking
* Central bank
* Currency
* Economic history
* Reform
* Special economic zones
* E-commerce
* Online advertising
* Energy
* Coal
* Petroleum
* Renewable
* Foreign aid received
* Foreign aid program
* Historical GDP
* Industry
* Chemical
* Gold mining
* Semiconductors
* Steel
* Textiles
* Poverty
* Standard of living
* Taxation
* Tourism
* Trade

Infrastructure|

* Architecture
* Housing
* Telecommunications
* Internet
* Water supply and sanitation

Transport|

* Automotive industry
* Civil aviation
* Rail
* Shipping industry
* Space program

Society|

* Abortion
* Censorship
* Chinese Dream
* Crime
* Corruption
* Prostitution
* Sex trafficking
* Education
* Literacy
* Harmonious Society
* Health
* Food safety
* incidents
* HIV/AIDS
* Intellectualism
* Chinese language
* Standard Chinese
* Written Chinese
* Propaganda
* Public holidays
* Rural society
* Science and technology
* history
* Sexuality
* Social issues
* Patriarchy
* Racism
* Regional discrimination
* Suicide
* Social relations
* Structure
* Time
* Urban society
* Welfare

Culture|

* Archaeology
* Archives
* Art
* Calligraphy
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* Dance
* Libraries
* Literature
* Poetry
* Martial arts
* Mass media
* Music
* Names
* Philosophy
* Smoking
* Sport
* Tea culture
* Variety art
* Major Historical and Cultural Sites
* World Heritage Sites

| Fours of China|

* Four Treasures of the Study
* Four Great Inventions
* Four Gentlemen
* Flowers of the Four Seasons
* Four Beauties
* Four Classic Novels
* Four arts
* Four Symbols
* Four Holy Beasts
* Four Pillars of Destiny
* Four Paragons of the Early Tang
* Four Masters of the Ming dynasty
* Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty
* Four Wangs
* Gang of Four
* Four Olds
* Four Pests campaign

|

Demographics|

* Emigration
* Ethnic groups
* Eunuchs
* Internal migration
* Languages
* Life expectancy
* Statistics
* Population history
* "Post-80s"
* "Post-90s"
* Urbanization
* Women

Religion|

* Buddhism
* Chinese Buddhism
* Tibetan Buddhism
* Confucianism
* Folk religion
* Christianity
* Catholic Church in China
* Protestantism
* Freedom of religion
* History of religion
* Irreligion
* Islam
* Taoism

Symbols|

* Anthem
* Emblem
* Flag

* Outline
* Index

* Category
* Portal

* v
* t
* e

Judiciaries of Asia

Sovereign states|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* China
* Cyprus
* East Timor (Timor-Leste)
* Egypt
* Georgia
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Russia
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Uzbekistan
* Vietnam
* Yemen

States with
limited recognition|

* Abkhazia
* Northern Cyprus
* Palestine
* South Ossetia
* Taiwan

Dependencies and
other territories|

* British Indian Ocean Territory
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Hong Kong
* Macau

* Category
* Asia portal

* v
* t
* e

National security and law enforcement in China

National|

* Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
* National Security Commission
* Central Military Commission
* People's Liberation Army
* Militia
* Maritime Militia
* NDMC
* United Front Work Department
* State Council
* Ministry of State Security
* Ministry of Public Security
* National Defense Mobilization Commission
* Ministry of National Defense
* Taiwan Affairs Office

Mainland|

* Supervisory Commissions
* People's Police
* Public Security PP
* provincial Public Security Departments
* city/county Public Security Bureaus
* Internet police
* Immigration
* Inspection
* State Security PP
* Judicial Administrative PP
* People's Courts Judicial Police
* People's Procuratorates Judicial Police
* People's Armed Police
* Coast Guard
* Customs
* State Secrets Protection
* Cyberspace Admin
* Urban Admin

Hong Kong|

* Office for Safeguarding National Security
* Committee for Safeguarding National Security
* PLA Hong Kong Garrison
* Independent Commission Against Corruption
* Disciplined Services
* Police
* National Security Department
* Fire
* Correction
* Customs
* Immigration

Macau|

* PLA Macau Garrison
* Commission Against Corruption
* Macau Security Force
* Unitary Police Service [zh]
* Public Security Police (including Migration Service)
* Judicial Police [zh]
* Fire Services Bureau
* Correctional Services Bureau
* Macau Customs Service [zh]

Operations|

* Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries (1950–53)
* Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns (1951–52)
* Sufan movement (1955–57)
* Anti-Rightist Campaign (1957–59)
* Red August (1966)
* Shadian incident (1975)
* 1983 "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign (1983–87)
* Persecution of Falun Gong (1999)
* 6521 Project (2009)
* Anti-corruption campaign (2012–)
* Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism (2014–)
* Operation Fox Hunt (2014–)
* 709 crackdown (2015)
* Abroad
* Information operations and information warfare
* United States

Other topics|

* 2011 crackdown
* 610 Office
* Black jails
* Capital punishment
* Censorship
* Central Case Examination Group
* Civil Servant-Family Pair Up
* Death sentence with reprieve
* Great Cannon
* Grid-style social management
* Hong Kong national security law
* List of Hong Kong national security cases
* Human rights
* Tibet
* Macao
* Hong Kong
* Internet censorship
* Inciting subversion of state power
* Judicial system
* Judiciary of Hong Kong
* Judiciary of Macau
* Laogai
* Life imprisonment
* Penal system
* PLA Unit 61398
* Political offences
* Picking quarrels and provoking trouble
* Re-education through labor
* Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location
* Soft detention
* Shuanggui
* Two-faced person
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China
* Xinjiang internment camps
* Holistic security concept

* v
* t
* e

Prisons in China

Organizations|

* Beijing Municipal Administration of Prisons
* Chongqing Municipal Administration of Prisons
* Guangdong Prison Administrative Bureau
* Shanghai Municipal Prison Administration
* Sichuan Province Prison Administrative Bureau

SARs:

* Hong Kong Correctional Services Department
* Macao Correctional Services Bureau

Prisons|

* Anqing
* Baihu
* Beijing Women's
* Beijing Municipal
* Beijing Municipal No. 1
* Beijing Municipal No. 2
* Beijing Office for Criminal Deportation
* Bengbu
* Chaohu
* Chishan
* Dongguan
* Drapchi
* Fuyang
* Foshan
* Gaoming
* Lanzhou
* Lujiang
* Liangxiang
* Lianping
* Jiangmen
* Jiaoling
* Jieyang
* Jinzhong
* Jiucheng Administration Branch
* Jiulong
* Ma'anshan
* Panyu
* Pingshi
* Qingpu
* Qingshan
* Qincheng
* Shanghai Detention Center
* Sichuan Provincial Women's
* Suzhou
* Shanghai Women's
* Shushan
* Tilanqiao
* Wuhu
* Yongchuan

SARs:

* Hong Kong
* Lo Wu
* Shek Pik
* Stanley
* Tai Lam for Women
* Tai Tam Gap
* Macau

| Closed|

* Victoria (Hong Kong)

|

Re-education
through
labor
camps|

* Daqing
* Masanjia
* Wanjia
* Shibalihe women's

Juvenile facilities|

* Beijing Juvenile Offender Detachment
* Chongqing Juvenile Offender Detachment

Other topics|

* Black jails
* Capital punishment
* Human rights
* Tibet
* Macao
* Hong Kong
* Judicial system
* Laogai
* Law enforcement
* Life imprisonment
* National security
* Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location
* Soft detention
* Shuanggui
* Xinjiang internment camps

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