Kashmiri language

Indo-Aryan language spoken in Kashmir

Kashmiri

* کٲشُر
* कॉशुर
* 𑆑𑆳𑆯𑆶𑆫𑇀

The word "Koshur" in Perso-Arabic script (contemporary, official status), Sharada script (ancient, liturgical) and Devanagari

Native to| India and Pakistan
Region| Kashmir (Kashmir Valley and surrounding areas of Jammu and Kashmir,[1] parts of northern Azad Kashmir)
Ethnicity| Kashmiris

Native speakers

| 7.1 million (2011)[1]

Language family

Indo-European

* Indo-Iranian
* Indo-Aryan
* Dardic
* Kashmiri

Dialects|

* Kishtwari, Poguli[2][3]

Writing system

| Official: Perso-Arabic script (contemporary)[4]
Others: Devanagari[4] (informally used by some sections within the Kashmiri Pandit community after 1990),[5][6][7]
Sharada script (ancient/liturgical)[4]
Official status

Official language in

|  India

* Jammu and Kashmir[8][9]

Language codes
ISO 639-1| `ks`
ISO 639-2| `kas`
ISO 639-3| `kas`
Glottolog| `kash1277`

Kashmiri is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

[10][11][12]

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

This article contains Indic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

Kashmiri (English: /kæʃˈmɪəri/ kash-MEER-ee)[13] or Koshur[14] (Kashmiri: کٲشُر (Perso-Arabic, Official Script), pronounced [kəːʃur])[1] is an Indo-Aryan language of the Dardic branch spoken by around 7 million Kashmiris of the Kashmir region,[15] primarily in the Kashmir Valley and surrounding hills of the Indian-administrated union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, over half the population of that territory.[16] Kashmiri has split ergativity and the unusual verb-second word order.

Since 2020, it has been made an official language of Jammu and Kashmir along with Dogri, Hindi, Urdu and English.[17] Kashmiri is also among the 22 scheduled languages of India.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Pakistani-administrated Azad Kashmir's population.[18]

## Geographic distribution and status

[edit]

There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India.[19] Most Kashmiri speakers are located in the Kashmir Valley and other surrounding areas of Jammu and Kashmir.[20] In the Kashmir Valley, Kashmiri speakers form the majority.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Azad Kashmir's population.[18] According to the 1998 Pakistan Census, there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir.[21] Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir,[22][23] particularly in the districts of Muzaffarabad (15%), Neelam (20%) and Hattian (15%), with very small minorities in Haveli (5%) and Bagh (2%).[21] The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is distinct from, although still intelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north.[23] In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue.[23] The Kashmiri dialect of Neelum is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularly Kupwara.[23] At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.[24][25]

A process of language shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguist Tariq Rahman, as they gradually adopt local dialects such as Pahari-Pothwari, Hindko or move towards the lingua franca Urdu.[26][22][27][23] This has resulted in these languages gaining ground at the expense of Kashmiri.[28][29] There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims of Azad Kashmir have seen as their identity symbol.[30] Rahman notes that efforts to organise a Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir.[30]

The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.[31] It was a part of the Eighth Schedule in the former constitution of Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state.[32] After Hindi, Kashmiri is the second fastest growing language of India, followed by Meitei (Manipuri) as well as Gujarati in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India.[33]

Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th centuries, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during the Dogra rule.[34][35] In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time.[36][37][38]

Poguli and Kishtwari are closely related to Kashmiri, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.

## Phonology

[edit]

Kashmiri has a very large phoneme inventory: 32 vowels and 62 consonants, giving that vowel nasalization and consonant palatalization are phonemic and not phonetic.[39] It has the following phonemes.[40][41]

### Vowels

[edit]

The oral vowels are as follows:

| Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

High | i iː | ɨ ɨː | u uː
Mid | e eː | ə əː | o oː
Low |  | a aː | ɔ ɔː

The short high vowels are near-high, and the low vowels apart from /aː/ are near-low.

Nasalization is phonemic. All sixteen oral vowels have nasal counterparts.

### Consonants

[edit]

| Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Post-alv./
palatal | Velar | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Nasal | m | n |  |  |  |  |
Stop/
affricate | voiceless | p | t | t͡s | ʈ | t͡ʃ | k |
aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | t͡sʰ | ʈʰ | t͡ʃʰ | kʰ |
voiced | b | d |  | ɖ | d͡ʒ | ɡ |
Fricative | voiceless |  |  | s |  | ʃ |  | h
voiced |  |  | z |  |  |  |
Approximant | ʋ | l |  |  | j |  |
Trill |  | r |  |  |  |  |

Palatalization is phonemic. All consonants apart from those in the post-alveolar/palatal column have palatalized counterparts.

### Archaisms

[edit]

Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from the Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the three sibilant consonants s ṣ ś of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit as dvi-, has developed into ba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, but du- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stop d). Seventy-two is dusatath in Kashmiri, bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, and dvisaptati in Sanskrit.[42]

Certain features in Kashmiri even appear to stem from Indo-Aryan even predating the Vedic period. For instance, there was an /s/ > /h/ consonant shift in some words that had already occurred with Vedic Sanskrit (This tendency was complete in the Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian), yet is lacking in Kashmiri equivalents. The word rahit in Vedic Sanskrit and modern Hindi-Urdu (meaning 'excluding' or 'without') corresponds to rost in Kashmiri. Similarly, sahit (meaning 'including' or 'with') corresponds to sost in Kashmiri.[42]

## Writing system

[edit]

Kashmiri alphabet

ا ب پ ت ٹ ث ج چ ح خ د ڈ ذ ر ڑ ز ژ س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ک گ ل م ن (ں) و ۆ ۄ ھ ء ی ؠ ے

* * *

Extended Perso-Arabic script

* History
* Transliteration
* Diacritics
* Hamza
* Numerals
* Numeration

* v
* t
* e

There are three orthographical systems used to write the Kashmiri language: the Perso-Arabic script, the Devanagari script and the Sharada script. The Roman script is also sometimes informally used to write Kashmiri, especially online.[4]

The Kashmiri language was traditionally written in the Sharada script from the 8th Century AD onwards.[43] Between the 8th and the first quarter of the 20th century AD, Sharada was the primary script of inscriptional and literary production in Kashmir for Sanskrit and Kashmiri.[44] With increased use of Persian script for writing Kashmiri in the 19th century AD, and the growth of other brahmic scripts such as Devanagari and Takri, the use of Sharada declined.[44] The Sharada script is inadequate for writing modern Kashmiri because it lacks sufficient signs to represent Kashmiri vowels.[44] Modern usage of Sharada is limited to religious ceremonies and rituals of Kashmiri Pandits, and for horoscope-writing by them.[45][44]

Today Kashmiri is primarily written in Perso-Arabic (with some modifications, such as additions of new signs to represent Kashmiri vowels).[46][44] Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the scripts that regularly indicates all vowel sounds.[47]

The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script is recognized as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.[48][49][50][51] The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has been derived from Persian alphabet. The consonant inventory and their corresponding pronunciations of Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script doesn't differ from Perso-Arabic script, with the exception of the letter ژ, which is pronounced as /t͡s/ instead of /ʒ/. However, the vowel inventory of Kashmiri is significantly larger than other Perso-Arabic derived or influenced South Asian Perso-Arabic scripts. There are 17 vowels in Kashmiri, shown with diacritics, letters (alif, waw, ye), or both. In Kashmiri, the convention is that most vowel diacritics are written at all times.

Despite Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script cutting across religious boundaries and being used by both the Kashmiri Hindus and the Kashmiri Muslims,[52] some attempts have been made to give a religious outlook regarding the script and make Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims, while the Kashmiri Devanagari script to be associated with some sections of Kashmiri Hindu community.[53][54][55]

### Perso-Arabic script

[edit]

#### Consonants

[edit]

Name  | Forms  | IPA | Transliteration[56] | Unicode | Example[57]

|
|
|
|
|

Kashmiri  | Isolated  | Final  | Medial  | Initial  | Kashmiri word  | IPA | Meaning
ألِف
ạlif |  ا | ـا | ـا | ا | /∅/, silent[A] | – | U+0627 | اَفسانہٕ
afsānü | /afsaːnɨ/ | Short story

bē |  ب |  ـب  |  ـبـ  |  بـ  | /b/ | b | U+0628 | بِکھٲرؠ
bikhạ̄r' | /bikʰəːrʲ/ | Beggar

pē |  پ |  ـپ  |  ـپـ  |  پـ  | /p/ | p | U+067E | پَمپوش
pampōsh | /pampoːʃ/ | Lotus flower
پھَ
pha |  پھ  |  ـپھ  |  ـپھـ  |  پھـ  | /pʰ/ | ph | U+067E
and
U+06BE | پھَل
phal | /pʰal/ | Fruit

tē |  ت |  ـت  |  ـتـ  |  تـ  | /t̪/ | t | U+062A | تَجويٖز
tajvīz | /t̪ad͡ʒʋiːz/ | Proposal
تھَ
tha |  تھ  |  ـتھ  |  ـتھـ  |  تھـ  | /t̪ʰ/ | th | U+062A
and
U+06BE | تھٲلؠ
thạ̄l' | /t̪ʰəːlʲ/ | Plate

ṭē |  ٹ |  ـٹ  |  ـٹـ  |  ٹـ  | /ʈ/ | ṭ | U+0679 | ٹوٗپؠ
ṭūp' | /ʈuːpʲ/ | Cap
ٹھَ
ṭha |  ٹھ  |  ـٹھ  |  ـٹھـ  |  ٹھـ  | /ʈʰ/ | ṭh | U+0679
and
U+06BE | ٹھوٗل
ṭhūl | /ʈʰuːl/ | Egg

sē |  ث |  ـث  |  ـثـ  |  ثـ  | /s/ | s | U+062B | ثۆبوٗتھ
sobūth | /sobuːt̪ʰ/ | Proof
جیٖم
jīm |  ج |  ـج  |  ـجـ  |  جـ  | /d͡ʒ/ | j | U+062C | جاے
jāy | /d͡ʒaːj/ | Place
چیٖم
chīm |  چ |  ـچ  |  ـچـ  |  چـ  | /t͡ʃ/ | ch, č | U+0686 | چٲنٛدؠ
chạ̄n̂d' | /t͡ʃə̃ːd̪ʲ/ | Silver
چھَ
chha |  چھ  |  ـچھ  |  ـچھـ  |  چھـ  | /t͡ʃʰ/ | chh, čh | U+0686
and
U+06BE | چھان
chhān | /t͡ʃʰaːn/ | Carpenter
حَے
hay |  ح |  ـح  |  ـحـ  |  حـ  | /h/ | h | U+062D | حاجَتھ
ḥājath | /haːd͡ʒat̪ʰ/ | Need
خَے
khay |  خ |  ـخ  |  ـخـ  |  خـ  | /x/~/kʰ/ | kh | U+062E | خَطَرناكھ
khatarnākh | /xatarnaːkʰ/ | Dangerous
دال
dāl |  د |  ـد  |  ـد  |  د  | /d̪/ | d | U+062F | دُكان
dukān | /d̪ukaːn/ | Shop
ڈال
ḍāl |  ڈ |  ـڈ  |  ـڈ  |  ڈ  | /ɖ/ | ḍ | U+0688 | ڈۄڈ
ḍọḍ | /ɖɔɖ/ | One and a half
ذال
zāl |  ذ |  ـذ  |  ـذ  |  ذ  | /z/ | z | U+0630 | ذیٚہَن
zehan | /zehan/ | Mind

rē |  ر |  ـر  |  ـر  |  ر  | /r/ | r | U+0631 | رٕكھ
rükh
کھرٛۄکھ
khrọkh  | /rɨkʰ/

/kʰrɔkʰ/ | Line

Snore

ṛē |  ڑ |  ـڑ  |  ـڑ  |  ڑ  | /ɽ/ | ṛ | U+0691 | لٔڑکہٕ
lạṛkü | /ləɽkɨ/ | Boy

zē |  ز |  ـز  |  ـز  |  ز  | /z/ | z | U+0632 | زامَن
zāman | /zaːman/ | Yawn

tsē |  ژ |  ـژ  |  ـژ  |  ژ  | /t͡s/ | ts | U+0698 | ژٔر
tsạr | /t͡sər/ | House sparrow
ژھَ
tsha |  ژھ  |  ـژھ  |  ـژھـ  |  ژھـ  | /t͡sʰ/ | tsh | U+0698
and
U+06BE | ژھاے
tshāy | /t͡sʰaːj/ | Shadow
سیٖن
sīn |  س |  ـس  |  ـسـ  |  سـ  | /s/ | s | U+0633 | سَنٛگُر
sangur | /sãɡur/ | Mountain
شـیٖـن
shīn |  ش |  ـش  |  ـشـ  |  شـ  | /ʃ/ | sh, š | U+0634 | شۆد
shod | /ʃod̪/ | Pure, Genuine
صۄاد
sọ̄d |  ص |  ـص  |  ـصـ  |  صـ  | /s/ | s | U+0635 | صَدقہٕ
sadqü | /sad̪qɨ/ | Charity
ضۄاد
zọ̄d |  ض |  ـض  |  ـضـ  |  ضـ  | /z/ | z | U+0636 | ضٲمیٖن
zạ̄mīn | /zəːmiːn/ | Responsible, guarantor
طۄے
tọy |  ط |  ـط  |  ـطـ  |  طـ  | /t̪/ | t | U+0637 | طوطہٕ
tōtü | /t̪oːt̪ɨ/ | Parrot
ظۄے
zọy |  ظ |  ـظ  |  ـظـ  |  ظـ  | /z/ | z | U+0638 | ظٲلِم
zạ̄lim | /zəːlim/ | Cruel
عٲن
ạ̄n |  ع |  ـع  |  ـعـ  |  عـ  | /∅/, silent
[B] | – | U+0639 | عَقٕل
aqül | /aqɨl/ | Wisdom
غٲن
gạ̄n |  غ |  ـغ  |  ـغـ  |  غـ  | /ɣ/~/ɡ/ | g, ğ | U+063A | غۄصہٕ
gọsü | /ɣɔsɨ/ | Anger

fē |  ف |  ـف  |  ـفـ  |  فـ  | /f/~/pʰ/ | f | U+0641 | فِرِنـؠ
firin' | /firinʲ/ | Sweet pudding
قاف
qāf |  ق |  ـق  |  ـقـ  |  قـ  | /q/~/k/ | q | U+0642 | قاشوٕ
qāshwü | /qaːʃwɨ/ | Spoon
كیٖف
kīf |  ک |  ـک  |  ـكـ  |  كـ  | /k/ | k | U+0643 | کۄکُر
kọkur | /kɔkur/ | Chicken
کھَ
kha |  کھ  |  ـکھ  |  ـکھـ  |  کھـ  | /kʰ/ | kh | U+0643
and
U+06BE | کھۄر
khọr | /kʰɔr/ | Foot
گاف
gāf |  گ |  ـگ  |  ـگـ  |  گـ  | /ɡ/ | g | U+06AF | گاش
gāsh | /ɡaːʃ/ | Light
لام
lām |  ل |  ـل  |  ـلـ  |  لـ  | /l/ | l | U+0644 | لۄکچار
lọkchār | /lɔkt͡ʃaːr/ | Childhood
میٖم
mim |  م |  ـم  |  ـمـ  |  مـ  | /m/ | m | U+0645 | مَرٕگ
marüg | /marɨɡ/ | Meadow
نوٗن
nūn |  ن |  ـن  |  ـنـ  |  نـ  | /n/, /◌̃/ | n | U+0646 | نَب
nab | /nab/ | Sky
نوٗن غۄنَہ
nūn gọna |  ں |  ـں  |  |  | /◌̃/ | ñ | U+06BA | داں زٔمیٖن
dāñ zạmīn | /d̪ãː zəmiːn/ | Paddy field
واو
wāw |  و |  ـو  |  ـو  |  و  | /ʋ/
[C] | v, w | U+0648 | وَن
van | /ʋan/ | Forest

hē |  ہ |  ـہ  |  ـہـ  |  ہـ  | /h/
[D][E] | h | U+06C1 | ہۄپہٕ
họpü
ؤہمہٕ
wạhmü
پَگاہ
pagāh | /hɔpɨ/

/ʋəhmɨ/

/paɡaːh/ | Chubby

Fear, anxiety

Tomorrow

yē |  ی |  \-  |  ـیـ  |  یـ  | /j/
[F] | y | U+06CC | یال
yāl
پیٛالہٕ
pyālü | /jaːl/

/pʲaːlɨ/ | Hair of horse

Cup
لۄکُٹ یے
Lọkuṭ yē
بۆڈ یے
boḍ yē |  ے |  ـے  |  \-  |  \-  | /j/

[G] | y | U+06D2 | ڈاے
ḍāy | /ɖaːj/ | Two and a half
تالٕرؠ
tālür' |  ؠ |  ـؠ  |  ـؠ  |  \-  | /◌ʲ/ | ', ⁱ | U+0620 |  سٟتؠ
sǖt' | /sɨːt̪ʲ/ | With

#### Vowels

[edit]

Name  | Final vowel glyph
(vowel and
letters bē ب
and rē ر) | Medial vowel glyph
(vowel and
letters bē ب
and rē ر) | Initial vowel glyph  | IPA | Transliteration[58] | Unicode  | Example[57]

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Kashmiri  | Kashmiri word  | IPA | Meaning
زَبَر
zabar | ہ، ـہ
بَہ / ـبَہ / رَ | –َ
بَـ / ـبَـ / رَ | اَ | [a] | a | U+064E | اَپُز
apuz
پَلَو
palav | /apuz/

/palaʋ/ | Lie

Garments, clothes
مَد
mad | ا
با / ـبا / را | ا
با / ـبا / را | آ | [aː] | ā | U+0622
U+0627 | آب

پان
pān | /aːb/

/paːn/ | Lie

Body
اَمالہٕ
amālü | –ٔ / ـٔہ
بٔہ / ـبٔہ / رٔ | –ٔ
بٔـ / ـبٔـ / رٔ | أ | [ə] | ạ, ö, ȧ | U+0623
U+0654 | أچھ
ạchh
گٔر
gạr | /ət͡ʃʰ/

/ɡər/ | Eye

Clock, watch
اَمالہٕ مَد
amālü mad | ٲ
بٲ / ـبٲ / رٲ | ٲ
بٲ / ـبٲ / رٲ | ٲ | [əː] | ạ̄, ȫ, ä | U+0672 | ٲس
ạ̄s
دٲن
dạ̄n | /əːs/

/d̪əːn/ | Mouth

Pomegranate
زیر
zēr | –ِ / ـہِ
بہِ / ـبہِ / رِ | –ِ
بِـ / ـبِـ / رِ | اِ | [i] | i, í | U+0650 | اِنسان
insān
سِر
sir | /insaːn/

/sir/ | Human being

Secret
کَشہِ زیر
kashi zēr | ی
بی / ـبی / ری | ـیٖـ / یٖـ
بیٖـ / ـبیٖـ / ریٖـ | ایٖـ / ای  | [iː] | ī | Initial and Medial:
U+06CC
and
U+0656
Final:
U+06CC | ایٖمان
īmān
سیٖر
sīr
وَردی
wardī | /iːmaːn/

/siːr/

/ʋard̪iː/ | Faith

Brick

Uniform
سایہِ
sāyi | –ٕ / ـہٕ
بہٕ / ـبہٕ / رٕ | –ٕ
بٕـ / ـبٕـ / رٕ | إ | [ɨ] | ü, ụ, u', ι | Initial:
U+0625
Medial and Final:
U+0655 | بہٕ

کٔدٕل
kạdül | /bɨ/

/kəd̪ɨl/ | I

Bridge
سایہِ مَد
sāyi mad | –ٟ / ـہٟ
بہٟ / ـبہٟ / رٟ | –ٟ
بٟـ / ـبٟـ / رٟ | ٳ | [ɨː] | ǖ, ụ̄, ū'  | Initial:
U+0673
Medial and Final:
U+065F | تٟر
tǖr
خٟمہٕ
khǖmü | /t̪ɨːr/

/xɨːmɨ/ | Cold

Tent
پیش
pēsh | –ُ / ـُہ
بُہ / ـبُہ / رُ | –ُ
بُـ / ـبُـ / رُ | اُ | [u] | u | U+064F | پُج
puj | /pud͡ʒ/ | Butcher
کَشہِ واوُک
kashi wāwuk | ـوٗ / وٗ
بوٗ / ـبوٗ / روٗ | ـوٗ / وٗ
بوٗ / ـبوٗ / روٗ | اوٗ | [uː] | ū | U+0648
and
U+0657 | پوٗت‎
pūt | /puːt̪/ | Chick
نیٖمہٕ واوُک
nīmü wāwuk | ـۆ / ۆ
بۆ / ـبۆ / رۆ | ـۆ / ۆ
بۆ / ـبۆ / رۆ | اۆ | [o] | o, ó | U+06C6 | دۆب
dob | /d̪ob/ | Washerman
واوُک
wāwuk | ـو / و
بو / ـبو / رو | ـو / و
بو / ـبو / رو | او | [oː] | ō | U+0648 | مور‎
mōr | /moːr/ | Peacock
لٔٹؠ واوُک
lạṭ' wāwuk | ـۄ / ۄ
بۄ / ـبۄ / رۄ | ـۄ / ۄ
بۄ / ـبۄ / رۄ | اۄ | [ɔ] | ọ, ŏ | U+06C4 | گۄلاب
gọlāb | /ɡɔlaːb/ | Rose
لٔٹؠ واوُک مَد
lạṭ' wāwuk mad | ـۄا / ۄا
بۄا / ـبۄا / رۄا | ـۄا / ۄا
بۄا / ـبۄا / رۄا | اۄا | [ɔː] | ọ̄, ŏa | U+06C4
and
U+0627 | سۄاد
sọ̄d | /sɔːd̪/ | One and a quarter
نیٖمہٕ یایُک
nīmü yāyuk | ـےٚ / ـےٚ
بےٚ / ـبےٚ / رےٚ | ـێـ / ێـ
بیٚـ / ـبیٚـ / ریٚـ | ایٚـ / اےٚ  | [e] | e, ë | Initial and Medial:
U+06CC
and
U+065A
Final:
U+06D2
and
U+065A | بیٚنہِ
beni
مےٚ‎
me | /beni/

/me/ | Sister

Me, I
یایُک
yāyuk | ـے / ے
بے / ـبے / رے | ـیـ / یـ
بیـ / ـبیـ / ریـ | ایـ / اے  | [eː] | ē | Initial and Medial:
U+06CC
Final:
U+06D2 | ریش
rēsh | /reːʃ/ | Beard
گول یایُک
gōl yāyuk | \-  | ـؠـ / ؠـ
بؠـ / ـبؠـ / رؠـ | اؠـ / اؠے | [ʲa] | ĕ, ya | Initial and Medial:
U+0620 | مؠقراض
mĕqrāz | /mʲaqraːz/ | Scissors

### Devanagari

[edit]

#### Consonants

[edit]

Letter  | क | ख | ग | च | छ | ज | च़ | छ़ | ज़ | ट | ठ | ड | त | थ | द | न | प | फ | ब | म | य | र | ल | व | श | स | ह

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IPA | [k] | [kʰ] | [g] | [t͡ʃ] | [t͡ʃʰ] | [d͡ʒ] | [t͡s] | [t͡sʰ] | [z] | [ʈ] | [ʈʰ] | [ɖ] | [t] | [tʰ] | [d] | [n] | [p] | [pʰ] | [b] | [m] | [j] | [r] | [l] | [ʋ] | [ʃ] | [s] | [h]
Transliteration | k | kh | g | ch | chh | j | ts | tsh | z | ṭ | ṭh | ḍ | t | th | d | n | p | ph | b | m | y | r | l | w | sh | s | h

#### Vowels

[edit]

There have been a few versions of the Devanagari script for Kashmiri.[59] The 2002 version of the proposal is shown below.[60] This version has readers and more content available on the Internet, even though this is an older proposal.[61][62] This version makes use of the vowels ॲ/ऑ and vowel signs कॅ/कॉ for the schwa-like vowel [ə] and elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] that also exist in other Devanagari-based scripts such as Marathi and Hindi but are used for the sound of other vowels.

Letter  | अ | आ | ॲ | ऑ | इ | ई | ॶ | ॷ | उ | ऊ | ऎ | ए | ऐ | ऒ | ओ | औ | -व | ं

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IPA | [a] | [aː] | [ə] | [əː] | [i] | [iː] | [ɨ] | [ɨː] | [u] | [uː] | [e] | [eː] | [əi] | [o] | [oː] | [ɔː] | [ɔ] | [◌̃]
Transliteration | a | ā | ạ | ạ̄ | i | ī | ü | ǖ | u | ū | e | ē | ai | o | ō | ọ̄ | ọ |  ̃
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k | क | का | कॅ | कॉ | कि | की | कॖ | कॗ | कु | कू | कॆ | के | कै | कॊ | को | कौ | क्व or कव | कं

Tabulated below is the latest (2009) version of the proposal to spell the Kashmiri vowels with Devanagari.[63][64] The primary change in this version is the changed stand alone characters ॳ / ॴ and vowel signs कऺ / कऻ for the schwa-like vowel [ə] & elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] and a new stand alone vowel ॵ and vowel sign कॏ for the open-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ] which can be used instead of the consonant व standing-in for this vowel.

Letter  | अ | आ | ॳ | ॴ | इ | ई | ॶ | ॷ | उ | ऊ | ऎ | ए | ऐ | ऒ | ओ | औ | ॵ | ं

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IPA | [a] | [aː] | [ə] | [əː] | [i] | [iː] | [ɨ] | [ɨː] | [u] | [uː] | [e] | [eː] | [əi] | [o] | [oː] | [ɔː] | [ɔ] | [◌̃]
Transliteration[65] | a | ā | ạ | ạ̄ | i | ī | ü | ǖ | u | ū | e | ē | ai | o | ō | ọ̄ | ọ |  ̃
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k | क | का | कऺ | कऻ | कि | की | कॖ | कॗ | कु | कू | कॆ | के | कै | कॊ | को | कौ | कॏ | कं

### Sharada script

[edit]

#### Consonants

[edit]

Name  | Transliteration | IPA | Isolated glyph  | Remarks[66][67]

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𑆑𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆑 | kōv kạ | ka | [ka] | 𑆑 |
𑆒𑇀𑆮𑆤𑆴 𑆒 | khvani khạ | kha | [kʰa] | 𑆒 |
𑆓𑆓𑆫𑇀 𑆓 | gagar gạ | ga | [ɡa] | 𑆓 |
𑆓𑆳𑆱𑆴 𑆔 | gāsi ghạ | gha | [ɡʰa] | 𑆔 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆳𑆫𑆶𑆓𑇀 𑆕 | nārug ṅạ | ṅa | [ŋa] | 𑆕 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆖𑆳𑆛𑆶𑆮𑇀 𑆖 | tsāṭuv chạ | cha | [t͡ʃa] | 𑆖 |
𑆗𑇀𑆮𑆛𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆗 | tshvaṭiñ chhạ | chha | [t͡ʃʰa] | 𑆗 |
𑆘𑆪𑆴 𑆘 | zayi jạ | ja | [d͡ʒa] | 𑆘 |
𑆘𑆳𑆯𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆙 | zashiñ jhạ | jha | [d͡ʒʰa] | 𑆙 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆒𑇀𑆮𑆤 𑆦𑆶𑆛𑆴 𑆚 | khvana phuṭi ñạ | ña | [ɲa] | 𑆚 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆃𑆫𑇀-𑆩𑆳𑆀𑆛 | ar mām̐ṭa | ṭa | [ʈa] | 𑆛 |
𑆱𑆫𑇀-𑆩𑆳𑆀𑆜 | sar mām̐ṭha | ṭha | [ʈʰa] | 𑆜 |
𑆝𑆶𑆝𑇀 𑆝 | ḍuḍ ḍạ | ḍa | [ɖa] | 𑆝 |
𑆝𑆑 𑆞 | ḍaka ḍhạ | ḍha | [ɖʰa] | 𑆞 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆳𑆤𑆓𑆶𑆫𑆴 𑆟 | nānaguri ṇạ | ṇa | [ɳa] | 𑆟 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆠𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆠 | tov tạ | ta | [ta] | 𑆠 |
𑆡𑆳𑆯𑆴 𑆡 | thāshi thạ | tha | [tʰa] | 𑆡 |
𑆢𑆢𑆮𑇀 𑆢 | dadav dạ | da | [da] | 𑆢 |
𑆢𑆷𑆚𑇀 𑆣 | dūñ dhạ | dha | [dʰa] | 𑆣 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆱𑇀𑆠𑆶𑆮𑇀 𑆤 | nastūv nạ | na | [na] | 𑆤 |
𑆥𑆝𑆶𑆫𑆴 𑆥 | paḍuri pạ | pa | [pa] | 𑆥 |
𑆦𑆫𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆦 | phariñ phạ | pha | [pʰa] | 𑆦 |
𑆧𑆶𑆧𑇀 𑆧 | bub bạ | ba | [ba] | 𑆧 |
𑆧𑆳𑆪𑆴 𑆨 | bāyi bhạ | bha | [bʰa] | 𑆨 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆩𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆩 | mōv mạ | ma | [ma] | 𑆩 |
𑆪𑆳𑆮 𑆪 | yāva yạ | ya | [ja] | 𑆪 |
𑆫𑆑 𑆫 | raka rạ | ra | [ra] | 𑆫 |
𑆬𑆳𑆮 𑆬 | lāva lạ | la | [la] | 𑆬 |
𑆧𑆝𑆶 𑆝𑆶𑆝𑇀 𑆝 | boḍu ḍuḍ ḍạ | ḷa | [ɭa] | 𑆭 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆮𑆯𑆴 𑆮 | vashi vạ | va | [ʋa] | 𑆮 |
𑆯𑆑𑆫𑇀 𑆯 | shakar shạ | sha | [ʃa] | 𑆯 |
𑆦𑆳𑆫𑆴 𑆰 | phāri ṣạ | ṣa | [ʂa] | 𑆰 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this consonant.
𑆱𑆶𑆱𑇀 𑆱 | sus sạ | sa | [sa] | 𑆱 |
𑆲𑆳𑆬 𑆲 | hala hạ | ha | [ha] | 𑆲 |

#### Vowels

[edit]

Name  | Transliteration | IPA | Isolated glyph  | Remarks[66]

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𑆄𑆢𑆿 𑆃 | ādau a | a | [a] | 𑆃 |
𑆎𑆠𑆮𑇀 𑆄 | aitav ā | ā | [aː] | 𑆄 |
𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆪𑆼 | yeyev yē | i | [i] | 𑆅 |
𑆅𑆯𑆫𑆮𑇀 𑆆 | yisherav yī | ī | [iː] | 𑆆 |
𑆮𑇀𑆮𑆥𑆬𑇀 𑆮𑆾 | vọpal vō | u | [u] | 𑆇 |
𑆮𑇀𑆮𑆥𑆬𑇀 𑆧𑆳 𑆈 | vọpal bā ū | ū | [uː] | 𑆈 |
𑆉𑆤𑆮𑇀 𑆉 | r̥enav | r̥ | [r̩] | 𑆉 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this vowel.
𑆫𑆒𑆮𑇀 𑆊 | rakhav | r̥̄ | [r̩ː] | 𑆊 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this vowel.
𑆬𑇀𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆋 | leyev | l̥ | [l̩] | 𑆋 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this vowel.
𑆬𑆵𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆌 | līsav | l̥̄ | [l̩ː] | 𑆌 | The Kashmiri language does not possess this vowel.
𑆠𑆬𑆮𑇀𑆪𑇀 𑆍 | talavya yē | ē | [eː] | 𑆍 |
𑆠𑆳𑆬𑆵 𑆎 | tolī ai | ai | [əi] | 𑆎 |
𑆮𑆶𑆜𑆾 𑆏 | vuṭhō ō | ō | [oː] | 𑆏 |
𑆃𑆯𑆴𑆢𑆵 𑆐 | ashidī au | au | [ɔː] | 𑆐 |
𑆃𑆝𑆴 𑆖𑆤𑆢𑇀𑆫 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆶 | aḍi tsandra phyor | am̐ | [◌̃] | 𑆃𑆀 |
𑆩𑆱𑇀 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆁 | mas phyori aṃ | aṃ | [n], [m] | 𑆃𑆁 |
𑆢𑆾 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆂 | dō phyori aḥ | aḥ | [h] | 𑆃𑆂  |

Vowel mark

Name  | Transliteration | IPA | Isolated vowel mark  | Vowel mark indicated on consonant pa  | Distinct ways of indicating vowel marks on special consonants

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𑆮𑆲𑆳𑆪𑇀 | vahāy | -ā | [aː] | 𑆳  | 𑆥𑆳 | 𑆕 = 𑆕𑆳

𑆘 = 𑆘𑆳

𑆛 = 𑆛𑆳

𑆟 = 𑆟𑆳

𑆩𑆷𑆤𑇀𑆡𑆫𑇀 | mūnthar | -i | [i] | 𑆴  | 𑆥𑆴 |
𑆃𑆫𑇀 𑆩𑆷𑆤𑇀𑆡𑆫𑇀 | ar mūnthar | -ī | [iː] | 𑆵  | 𑆥𑆵 |
𑆒𑆶𑆫𑆶 | khuru | -u | [u] | 𑆶  | 𑆥𑆶 | 𑆑 = 𑆑𑆶

𑆓 = 𑆓𑆶

𑆙 = 𑆙𑆶

𑆚 = 𑆚𑆶

𑆝 = 𑆝𑆶

𑆠 = 𑆠𑆶

𑆨 = 𑆨𑆶

𑆫 = 𑆫𑆶

𑆯 = 𑆯𑆶

𑆃𑆫𑇀 𑆒𑆷𑆫𑆷 | ar khūrū | -ū | [uː] | 𑆷  | 𑆥𑆷 | 𑆑 = 𑆑𑆷

𑆓 = 𑆓𑆷

𑆙 = 𑆙𑆷

𑆚 = 𑆚𑆷

𑆝 = 𑆝𑆷

𑆠 = 𑆠𑆷

𑆨 = 𑆨𑆷

𑆫 = 𑆫𑆷

𑆯 = 𑆯𑆷

𑆉𑆤𑆮𑇀 𑆉 | r̥enav r̥a | -r̥ | [r̩] | 𑆸  | 𑆥𑆸 | 𑆑 = 𑆑𑆸
𑆫𑆒𑆮𑇀 𑆊 | rakhav ru | -r̥̄ | [r̩ː] | 𑆹  | 𑆥𑆹 | 𑆑 = 𑆑𑆹
𑆬𑇀𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆋 | leyev l̥a | -l̥ | [l̩] | 𑆺  | 𑆥𑆺 |
𑆬𑆵𑆱𑆮𑇀 𑆌 | līsav l̥̄a | -l̥̄ | [l̩ː] | 𑆻  | 𑆥𑆻 |
𑆲𑇀𑆮𑆁𑆝𑆷 | hvanḍū | -ē | [eː] | 𑆼  | 𑆥𑆼 |
𑆲𑇀𑆮𑆁𑆘𑆾𑆫𑇀 | hvanjōr | -ai | [əi] | 𑆽  | 𑆥𑆽 |
𑆃𑆑𑆶 𑆯𑇀𑆪𑆷𑆫𑆶 | oku shyūr | -ō | [oː] | 𑆾  | 𑆥𑆾 |
𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆯𑆴 𑆮𑆲𑆳𑆪𑇀 | okushi vahāy | -au | [ɔː] | 𑆿  | 𑆥𑆿 |
𑆃𑆝𑆴 𑆖𑆤𑇀𑆢𑇀𑆫 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆶 | aḍi tsandra phyor | -am̐ | [◌̃] | 𑆀  | 𑆥𑆀 |
𑆩𑆱𑇀 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆁 | mas phyori aṃ | -aṃ | [n], [m] | 𑆁  | 𑆥𑆁 |
𑆢𑆾 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆂 | dō phyori aḥ | -aḥ | [h] | 𑆂  | 𑆥𑆂 |

## Grammar

[edit]

Kashmiri is a fusional language[68] with verb-second (V2) word order[69] Several of Kashmiri's grammatical features distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages.[70]

### Nouns

[edit]

Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are no articles, nor is there any grammatical distinction for definiteness, although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or "generic" noun qualities.[68]

#### Gender

[edit]

The Kashmiri gender system is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, a morphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun.[68] A relatively small group of feminine nouns have unique suppletion forms that are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms.[71] The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms:[72]

Process | Masculine | Feminine | Meaning

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-en’ suffix  | [d̪ukaːnd̪aːr]

دُکاندار

| [d̪ukaːnd̪aːrenʲ]

دُکانداریٚنؠ

| shopkeeper
-bāy suffix  | [maːʃʈar]

ماشٹَر

| [maːʃʈarbaːj]

ماشٹَر باے

| teacher
-in’ + vowel change  | [xar]

خَر

| [xərinʲ]

خٔرِنؠ

| donkey
-ür + vowel change  | [pʰot̪]

پھۆت

| [pʰɔt̪ɨr]

پھۄتٕر

| basket
Adding of affix  | [huːn]

ہوٗن

| [huːnʲ]

ہوٗنؠ

| dog/bitch
vowel change | [ɡaɡur]

گَگُر

| [ɡaɡɨr]

گَگٕر

| rat
consonant change | [hokʰ]

ہۆکھ

| [hot͡ʃʰ]

ہۆچھ

| dry
vowel/consonant change | [t̪ot̪]

تۆت

| [t̪ət͡s]

تٔژ

| hot
suppletive form | [marɨd̪]

مَرٕد

| [zanaːnɨ]

زَنانہٕ

| man/woman
masculine only | [nuːl]

نوٗل

| \
 | mongoose
feminine only | \
 | [mət͡ʃʰ]

مٔچھ

| housefly

Some nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Urdu or English, follow a slightly different gender system. Notably, many words borrowed from Urdu have different genders in Kashmiri.[71]

#### Case

[edit]

There are five cases in Kashmiri: nominative, dative, ergative, ablative and vocative.[73] Case is expressed via suffixation of the noun.

Kashmiri utilizes an ergative-absolutive case structure when the verb is in simple past tense.[73] Thus, in these sentences, the subject of a transitive verb is marked in the ergative case and the object in nominative, which is identical to how the subject of an intransitive verb is marked.[73][74][75] However, in sentences constructed in any other tense, or in past tense sentences with intransitive verbs, a nominative-dative paradigm is adopted, with objects (whether direct or indirect) generally marked in dative case.[76] Other case distinctions, such as locative, instrumental, genitive, comitative and allative, are marked by postpositions rather than suffixation.[77]

#### Noun morphology

[edit]

The following table illustrates Kashmiri noun declension according to gender, number and case.[76][78]

| Masculine  | Feminine

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singular | plural  | singular | plural
Nom.  | -Ø | -Ø | -Ø | -Ø
Erg.  | -[an]
اَن | -[aʋ]
اَو | -[i]
اِ | -[aʋ]
اَو
Dat.  | -[as] or -[is]
اَس or اِس | -[an]
اَن | -[i]
اِ | -[an]
اَن
Abl.  | -[i] or -[ɨ]
اِ or إ | -[aʋ]
اَو | -[i]
اِ | -[aʋ]
اَو
Voc.  | -[aː]
ا | -[aʋ]
اَو | -[ij]
اِے | -[aʋ]
اَو

### Verbs

[edit]

Kashmiri verbs are declined according to tense and person, and to a lesser extent, gender. Tense, along with certain distinctions of aspect, is formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem (minus the infinitive ending - /un/), and in many cases by the addition of various modal auxiliaries.[79] Postpositions fulfill numerous adverbial and semantic roles.[80]

#### Tense

[edit]

Present tense in Kashmiri is an auxiliary construction formed by a combination of the copula and the imperfective suffix -/aːn/ added to the verb stem. The various copula forms agree with their subject according to gender and number, and are provided below with the verb /jun/ (to come):[81]

Present  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

1st person sing.  | [t͡ʃʰus jiʋaːn]
چھُس یِوان | [t͡ʃʰas jiʋaːn]
چھَس یِوان
2nd person sing.  | [t͡ʃʰukʰ jiʋaːn]
چھُکھ یِوان | [t͡ʃʰakʰ jiʋaːn]
چھَکھ یِوان
3rd person sing.  | [t͡ʃʰu jiʋaːn]
چھُ یِوان | [t͡ʃʰe jiʋaːn]
چھےٚ یِوان
1st person pl.  | [t͡ʃʰi jiʋaːn]
چھِ یِوان | [t͡ʃʰa jiʋaːn]
چھَ یِوان
2nd person pl.  | [t͡ʃʰiʋ jiʋaːn]
چھِو یِوان | [t͡ʃʰaʋ jiʋaːn]
چھَو یِوان
3rd person pl.  | [t͡ʃʰi jiʋaːn]
چھِ یِوان | [t͡ʃʰe jiʋaːn]
چھےٚ یِوان

Past tense in Kashmiri is significantly more complex than the other tenses, and is subdivided into three past tense distinctions.[82] The simple (sometimes called proximate) past refers to completed past actions. Remote past refers to actions that lack this in-built perfective aspect. Indefinite past refers to actions performed a long time ago, and is often used in historical narrative or storytelling contexts.[83]

As described above, Kashmiri is a split-ergative language; in all three of these past tense forms, the subjects of transitive verbs are marked in the ergative case and direct objects in the nominative. Intransitive subjects are marked in the nominative.[83] Nominative arguments, whether subjects or objects, dictate gender, number and person marking on the verb.[83][84]

Verbs of the simple past tense are formed via the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, which usually undergoes certain uniform morphophonemic changes. First and third person verbs of this type do not take suffixes and agree with the nominative object in gender and number, but there are second person verb endings. The entire simple past tense paradigm of transitive verbs is illustrated below using the verb /parun/ ("to read"):[85]

Simple past (transitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | [por]
پۆر | [pərʲ]
پٔرؠ | [pər]
پٔر | [pari]
پَرِ
2nd person  | Non-honorific  | [porut̪ʰ]
پۆرُتھ | [pərit̪ʰ]
پٔرِتھ | [pərɨt̪ʰ]
پٔرٕتھ | [parʲat̪ʰ]
پَرؠتھ
Honorific  | [porʋɨ]
پۆروٕ | [pəriʋɨ]
پٔرِوٕ | [pərʋɨ]
پٔروٕ | [pariʋɨ]
پَرِوٕ
3rd person  | [por]
پۆر | [pərʲ]
پٔرؠ | [pər]
پٔر | [pari]
پَرِ

A group of irregular intransitive verbs (special intransitives), take a different set of endings in addition to the morphophonemic changes that affect most past tense verbs.[86]

Simple past (special intransitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | -[us]
اُس | -[ʲ]
ؠ | -[as]
اَس | -[i]

2nd person  | -[kʰ]
کھ | -[ʋɨ]
وٕ | -[kʰ]
کھ | -[ʋɨ]

3rd person  | -Ø  | -Ø  | -[t͡ʃʰ]
چھ | -[i]

Intransitive verbs in the simple past are conjugated the same as intransitives in the indefinite past tense form.[87]

Simple past (intransitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | -[jas]
یَس | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ | -[jeːjas]
یے یَس | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ
2nd person  | -[jaːkʰ]
یاکھ | -[jeːjiʋɨ]
یے یِوٕ | -[jeːjakʰ]
یے یَکھ | -[jeːjiʋɨ]
یے یِوٕ
3rd person  | -[joːʋ]
یوو | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ

In contrast to the simple past, verb stems are unchanged in the indefinite and remote past, although the addition of the tense suffixes does cause some morphophonetic change.[88] Transitive verbs are declined according to the following paradigm:[89]

Indefinite past (transitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st/3rd person  | -[joːʋ]
یوو | -[eːji]
ے یہِ | -[eːji]
ے یہِ | -[eːji]
ے یہِ
2nd person  | -[joːt̪ʰ]
یوتھ | -[eːjat̪ʰ]
ے یَتھ | -[eːjat̪ʰ]
ے یَتھ | -[eːjat̪ʰ]
ے یَتھ

Remote past (transitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st/3rd person  | -[eːjoːʋ]
ے یوو | -[eːjaːji]
ے یایہِ | -[eːjaːji]
ے یایہِ | -[eːjaːji]
ے یایہِ
2nd person  | -[eːjoːt̪ʰ]
ے یوتھ | -[eːjeːjat̪ʰ]
ے یے یَتھ | -[eːjeːjat̪ʰ]
ے یے یَتھ | -[eːjeːjat̪ʰ]
ے یے یَتھ

As in the simple past, "special intransitive" verbs take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past:[90]

Indefinite past (special intransitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | -[aːs]
اس | -[aːjas]
ایَس | -[aːjas]
ایَس | -[aːji]
ایہِ
2nd person  | -[kʰ]
کھ | -[kʰ]
کھ | -[aːjakʰ]
ایَکھ | -[aːjiʋɨ]
ایِوٕ
3rd person  | -[aʋ]
اَو | -[aːji]
ایہِ | -[aːji]
ایہِ | -[aːji]
ایہِ

Remote past (special intransitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | -[aːjaːs]
ایاس | -[eːjaːji]
ے یایہِ | -[eːjeːjas]
ے یے یَس | -[eːjeːji]
ے یے یہِ
2nd person  | -[aːkʰ]
اکھ | -[eːjiʋɨ]
ے یِوٕ | -[aːjakʰ]
ایَکھ | -[aːjiʋɨ]
ایِوٕ
3rd person  | -[eːjoːʋ]
ے یوو | -[eːjeːji]
ے یے یہِ | -[eːjaːjɨ]
ے یایہٕ | -[eːjaːjɨ]
ے یایہٕ

Regular intransitive verbs also take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past, subject to some morphophonetic variation:[91]

Indefinite past (intransitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | -[jas]
یَس | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ | -[jeːjas]
یے یَس | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ
2nd person  | -[jaːkʰ]
یاکھ | -[jeːjiʋɨ]
یے یِوٕ | -[jeːjakʰ]
یے یَکھ | -[jeːjiʋɨ]
یے یِوٕ
3rd person  | -[joːʋ]
یوو | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ

Remote past (intransitive)  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | -[jeːjaːs]
یے یاس | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ | -[jeːjaːs]
یے یاس | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ
2nd person  | -[jeːjakʰ]
یے یَکھ | -[jeːjiʋɨ]
یے یِوٕ | -[jeːjakʰ]
یے یَکھ | -[jeːjiʋɨ]
یے یِوٕ
3rd person  | -[jeːjoːʋ]
یے یوو | -[jeːji]
یے یہِ | -[jeːjaːjɨ]
یے یایہٕ | -[jeːjɨ]
یے یہٕ

Future tense intransitive verbs are formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem:[92]

Future (intransitive)  | Singular | Plural

|
|

1st person  | -[mɨ]
مہٕ | -[maʋ]
مَو
2nd person  | -[akʰ]
اَکھ | -[jiʋ]
یِو
3rd person  | -[ji]
یِہ | -[an]
اَن

The future tense of transitive verbs, however, is formed by adding suffixes that agree with both the subject and direct object according to number, in a complex fashion:[93]

Future (transitive)  | Singular object | Plural object

|
|

1st person sing.  | -[an]
اَن | -[akʰ]
اَکھ
1st person pl.  | -[ɨhoːn]
إہون | -[ɨhoːkʰ]
إہوکھ
2nd person sing.  | -[ɨhǝn]
إۂن | -[ɨhǝkʰ]
إۂکھ
2nd person pl.  | -[ɨhuːn]
إہوٗن | -[ɨhuːkʰ]
إہوٗکھ
3rd person sing.  | -[jas]
یَس | -[jakʰ]
یَکھ
3rd person pl.  | -[ɨnas]
إنَس | -[ɨnakʰ]
إنَکھ

#### Aspect

[edit]

There are two main aspectual distinctions in Kashmiri, perfective and imperfective. Both employ a participle formed by the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, as well as the fully conjugated auxiliary /aːsun/ ("to be")—which agrees according to gender, number and person with the object (for transitive verbs) or the subject (for intransitive verbs).[94]

Like the auxiliary, the participle suffix used with the perfective aspect (expressing completed or concluded action) agrees in gender and number with the object (for transitive verbs) or subject (for intransitives) as illustrated below:[94]

Masculine  | Feminine

|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
-[mut̪]
مُت | -[mɨt̪ʲ]
مٕتؠ | -[mɨt͡s]
مٕژ | -[mat͡sɨ]
مَژٕ

The imperfective (expressing habitual or progressive action) is simpler, taking the participle suffix -/aːn/ in all forms, with only the auxiliary showing agreement.[95] A type of iterative aspect can be expressed by reduplicating the imperfective participle.[96]

### Pronouns

[edit]

Pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case, although only third person pronouns are overtly gendered. Also in third person, a distinction is made between three degrees of proximity, called proximate, remote I and remote II.[97]

Nominative  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | [bɨ]
بہٕ | [ǝsʲ]
أسؠ | [bɨ]
بہٕ | [ǝsʲ]
أسؠ
2nd person  | [t͡sɨ]
ژٕ | [t̪ohʲ] or [t̪uhʲ]
تۆہؠ or تُہؠ | [t͡sɨ]
ژٕ | [t̪ohʲ] or [t̪uhʲ]
تۆہؠ or تُہؠ
3rd person  | proximate  | [ji]
یہِ | [jim]
یِم | [ji]
یہِ | [jimɨ]
یِمہٕ
remote I  | [hu]
ہُہ | [hum]
ہُم | [hɔ]
ہۄ | [humɨ]
ہُمہٕ
remote II  | [su]
سُہ | [t̪im]
تِم | [sɔ]
سۄ | [t̪imɨ]
تِمہٕ

Ergative  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | [me]
مےٚ | [asi]
اَسہِ | [me]
مےٚ | [asi]
اَسہِ
2nd person  | [t͡se]
ژےٚ | [t̪ɔhi]
تۄہِہ | [t͡se]
ژےٚ | [t̪ɔhi]
تۄہِہ
3rd person  | proximate  | [jemʲ]
ییٚمؠ | [jimaʋ]
یِمَو | [jemi]
ییٚمِہ | [jimaʋ]
یِمَو
remote I  | [humʲ]
ہُمؠ | [humaʋ]
ہُمَو | [humi]
ہُمہِ | [humaʋ]
ہُمَو
remote II  | [t̪ǝmʲ]
تٔمؠ | [t̪imaʋ]
تِمَو | [t̪ami]
تَمہِ | [t̪imaʋ]
تِمَو

Dative  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | [me]
مےٚ | [asi]
اَسہِ | [me]
مےٚ | [asi]
اَسہِ
2nd person  | [t͡se]
ژےٚ | [t̪ɔhi]
تۄہہِ | [t͡se]
ژےٚ | [t̪ɔhi]
تۄہہِ
3rd person  | proximate  | [jemis]
ییٚمِس | [jiman]
یِمَن | [jemis]
ییٚمِس | [jiman]
یِمَن
remote I  | [humis]
ہُمِس | [human]
ہُمَن | [humis]
ہُمِس | [human]
ہُمَن
remote II  | [t̪ǝmis]
تٔمِس | [t̪iman]
تِمَن | [t̪ǝmis]
تٔمِس | [t̪iman]
تِمَن

Ablative  | Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st person  | [me]
مےٚ | [asi]
اَسہِ | [me]
مےٚ | [asi]
اَسہِ
2nd person  | [t͡se]
ژےٚ | [t̪ɔhi]
تۄہہِ | [t͡se]
ژےٚ | [t̪ɔhi]
تۄہہِ
3rd person  | proximate  | [jemi]
ییٚمہِ | [jimaʋ]
یِمَو | [jemi]
ییٚمہِ | [jimaʋ]
یِمَو
remote I  | [humi]
ہُمہِ | [humaʋ]
ہُمَو | [humi]
ہُمہِ | [humaʋ]
ہُمَو
remote II  | [t̪ǝmi]
تٔمہِ | [t̪imaʋ]
تِمَو | [t̪ǝmi]
تٔمہِ | [t̪imaʋ]
تِمَو

There is also a dedicated genitive pronoun set, in contrast to the way that the genitive is constructed adverbially elsewhere. As with future tense, these forms agree with both the subject and direct object in person and number.[98]

| Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
1st sing. | [mʲoːn]

میٛون

| [mʲəːnʲ]

میٛٲنؠ

| [mʲəːnʲ]

میٛٲنؠ

| [mʲaːni]

میٛانہِ

1st pl. | [soːn]

سون

| [səːnʲ]

سٲنؠ

| [səːnʲ]

سٲنؠ

| [saːni]

سانہِ

2nd sing. | [t͡ʃoːn]

چون

| [t͡ʃəːnʲ]

چٲنؠ

| [t͡ʃəːnʲ]

چٲنؠ

| [t͡ʃaːni]

چانہِ

2nd pl. | [t̪uhund̪]

تُہُنٛد

| [t̪uhɨnd̪ʲ]

تُہٕنٛدؠ

| [t̪uhɨnz]

تُہٕنٛز

| [t̪uhɨnzɨ]

تُہٕنٛزٕ

3rd sing. prox. | [jemʲ sund̪]

ییٚمؠ سُنٛد

| [jemʲ sɨnd̪ʲ]

ییٚمؠ سٕنٛدؠ

| [jemʲ sɨnz]

ییٚمؠ سٕنٛز

| [jemʲ sɨnzɨ]

ییٚمؠ سٕنٛزٕ

3rd pl. prox. | [jihund̪]

یِہُنٛد

| [jihɨnd̪ʲ]

یِہٕنٛدؠ

| [jihɨnz]

یِہٕنٛز

| [jihɨnzɨ]

یِہٕنٛزٕ

3rd sing. R I | [humʲ sund]

ہُمؠ سُنٛد

| [humʲ sɨnd̪ʲ]

ہُمؠ سٕنٛدؠ

| [humʲ sɨnz]

ہُمؠ سٕنٛز

| [humʲ sɨnzɨ]

ہُمؠ سٕنٛزٕ

3rd pl. R I | [huhund̪]

ہُہُنٛد

| [huhɨnd̪ʲ]

ہُہٕنٛدؠ

| [huhɨnz]

ہُہٕنٛز

| [huhɨnzɨ]

ہُہٕنٛزٕ

3rd sing. R II | [t̪ǝmʲ sund̪]

تٔمؠ سُنٛد

| [t̪ǝmʲ sɨnd̪ʲ]

تٔمؠ سٕنٛدؠ

| [t̪ǝmʲ sɨnz]

تٔمؠ سٕنٛز

| [t̪ǝmʲ sɨnzɨ]

تٔمؠ سٕنٛزٕ

3rd pl. R II | [t̪ihund̪]

تِہُنٛد

| [t̪ihɨnd̪ʲ]

تِہٕنٛدؠ

| [t̪ihɨnz]

تِہٕنٛز

| [t̪ihɨnzɨ]

تِہٕنٛزٕ

### Adjectives

[edit]

There are two kinds of adjectives in Kashmiri, those that agree with their referent noun (according to case, gender and number) and those that are not declined at all.[99] Most adjectives are declined, and generally take the same endings and gender-specific stem changes as nouns.[100] The declinable adjective endings are provided in the table below, using the adjective وۄزُل [ʋɔzul] ("red"):[101][102]

| Masculine  | Feminine

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
Nom.  | [ʋɔzul]
وۄزُل | [ʋɔzɨlʲ]
وۄزٕلؠ | [ʋɔzɨd͡ʒ]
وۄزٕج | [ʋɔzd͡ʒi]
وۄزجہِ
Erg.  | [ʋɔzlɨ]
وۄزلہٕ | [ʋɔzlʲaʋ]
وۄزلؠو | [ʋɔzd͡ʒi]
وۄزجہِ | [ʋɔzd͡ʒaʋ]
وۄزجَو
Dat.  | [ʋɔzlis]
وۄزلِس | [ʋɔzlʲan]
وۄزلؠن | [ʋɔzd͡ʒi]
وۄزجہِ | [ʋɔzd͡ʒan]
وۄزجَن
Abl.  | [ʋɔzlɨ]
وۄزلہٕ | [ʋɔzlʲaʋ]
وۄزلؠو | [ʋɔzd͡ʒi]
وۄزجہِ | [ʋɔzd͡ʒaʋ]
وۄزجَو

Among those adjectives not declined are adjectives that end in -[lad̪] or -[ɨ], adjectives borrowed from other languages, and a few isolated irregulars.[101]

The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed with the words ژۆر [t͡sor] ("more") and سؠٹھا [sʲaʈʰaː] ("most"), respectively.[103]

### Numerals

[edit]

Within the Kashmir language, numerals are separated into cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers.[104] These numeral forms, as well as their aggregative (both, all the five, etc.), multiplicative (two times, four times, etc.), and emphatic forms (only one, only three, etc.) are provided by the table below.[104]

| Cardinal | Ordinal | Aggregative | Multiplicative | Emphatic

|
|
|
|
|

Suffix |  | -[jum] for masculine

-[im] for feminine

| -[ʋaj] | -[ɡun] or -[ɡon] for masculine

-[ɡɨn] for feminine

|  -[j]
0. | [sifar]

صِفَر

|  |  |  |
1. | [akʰ]

اَکھ

| [ǝkʲum] or [ǝkim]

أکیُٛم or أکِم

|  |  [oɡun] or [oɡɨn]

اۆگُن or اۆگٕن

| [akuj]

اَکُے

2. | [zɨ]

| [dojum] or [dojim]

دۆیُم or دۆیِم

| [dɔʃʋaj]

دۄشوَے

| [doɡun] or [doɡɨn]

دۆگُن or دۆگٕن

| [zɨj]

زٕے

3. | [tre]

ترٛےٚ

| [trejum] or [trejim]

ترٛیٚیُم or ترٛیٚیِم

| [treʃʋaj]

ترٛیٚشوَے

| [troɡun] or [troɡɨn]

ترٛۆگُن or ترٛۆگٕن

| [trej]

ترٛیٚے

4. | [t͡soːr]

ژور

| [t͡suːrʲum] or [t͡suːrim]

ژوٗریُٛم or ژوٗرِم

| [t͡sɔʃʋaj]

ژۄشوَے

| [t͡soɡun] or [t͡soɡɨn]

ژۆگُن or ژۆگٕن

| [t͡soːraj]

ژورَے

5. | [pãːt͡sʰ] or [pə̃ːt͡sʰ]

پانٛژھ or پٲنٛژھ

| [pɨ̃:t͡sjum] or [pɨ̃:t͡sim]

پٟنٛژیُٛم or پٟنٛژِم

| [pãːt͡sɨʋaj]

پانٛژٕوَے

| [pãːt͡sɨɡun] or [pãːt͡sɨɡɨn]

پانٛژٕگُن or پانٛژٕگٕن

| [pãːt͡saj]

پانٛژَے

6. | [ʃe]

شےٚ

| [ʃejum] or [ʃejim]

شیٚیُم or شیٚیِم

| [ʃenɨʋaj]

شیٚنہٕ وَے

| [ʃuɡun] or [ʃuɡɨn]

شُگُن or شُگٕن

| [ʃej]

شیٚے

7. | [satʰ]

سَتھ

| [sətjum] or [sətim]

سٔتیُٛم or سٔتِم

| [satɨʋaj]

سَتہٕ وَے

| [satɨɡun] or [satɨɡɨn]

سَتہٕ گُن or سَتہٕ گٕن

| [sataj]

سَتَے

8. | [əːʈʰ]

ٲٹھ

| [ɨːʈʰjum] or [uːʈʰjum]

اٟٹھیُٛم or اوٗٹھیُٛم

[ɨːʈʰim] or [uːʈʰim]

اٟٹھِم or اوٗٹھِم

| [əːʈʰɨʋaj]

ٲٹھٕ وَے

| [əːʈʰɨɡun] or [əːʈʰɨɡɨn]

ٲٹھٕ گُن or ٲٹھٕ گٕن

| [əːʈʰaj]

ٲٹھَے

9. | [naʋ]

نَو

| [nəʋjum] or [nəʋim]

نٔویُٛم or نٔوِم

| [naʋɨʋaj]

نَوٕوَے

| [naʋɨɡun] or [naʋɨɡɨn]

نَوٕگُن or نَوٕگٕن

| [naʋaj]

نَوَے

10. | [dəh] or [daːh]

دٔہ or داہ

| [dəhjum] or [dəhim]

دٔہیُٛم or دٔہِم

| [dəhɨʋaj]

دٔہہٕ وَے

| [dəhɨɡon] or [dəhɨɡɨn]

دٔہہٕ گۆن or دٔہہٕ گٕن

| [dəhaj]

دٔہَے

11. | [kah] or [kaːh]

کَہہ or کاہ

| [kəhjum] or [kəhim]

کٔہیُٛم or کٔہِم

|  |  |
12. | [bah] or [baːh]

بَہہ or باہ

| [bəhjum] or [bəhim]

بٔہیُٛم or بٔہِم

|  |  |
13. | [truʋaːh]

ترُٛواہ

| [truʋəːhjum] or [truʋəːhim]

ترُٛوٲہیُٛم or ترُٛوٲہِم

|  |  |
14. | [t͡sɔdaːh]

ژۄداہ

| [t͡sɔdəːhjum] or [t͡sɔdəːhim]

ژۄدٲہیُٛم or ژۄدٲہِم

|  |  |
15. | [pandaːh]

پَنٛداہ

| [pandəːhjum] or [pandəːhim]

پَنٛدٲہیُٛم or پَنٛدٲہِم

|  |  |
16. | [ʃuraːh]

شُراہ

| [ʃurəːhjum] or [ʃurəːhim]

شُرٲہیُٛم or شُرٲہِم

|  |  |
17. | [sadaːh]

سَداہ

| [sadəːhjum] or [sadəːhim]

سَدٲہیُٛم or سَدٲہِم

|  |  |
18. | [arɨdaːh]

اَرٕداہ

| [arɨdəːhjum] or [arɨdəːhim]

اَرٕدٲہیُٛم or اَرٕدٲہِم

|  |  |
19. | [kunɨʋuh]

کُنہٕ وُہ

| [kunɨʋuhjum] or [kunɨʋuhim]

کُنہٕ وُہیُٛم or کُنہٕ وُہِم

|  |  |
20. | [ʋuh]

وُہ

| [ʋuhjum] or [ʋuhim]

وُہیُٛم or وُہِم

|  |  |
21. | [akɨʋuh]

اَکہٕ وُہ

| [akɨʋuhjum] or [akɨʋuhim]

اَکہٕ وُہیُٛم or اَکہٕ وُہِم

|  |  |
22. | [zɨtoːʋuh]

زٕتووُہ

| [zɨtoːʋuhjum] or [zɨtoːʋuhim]

زٕتووُہیُٛم or زٕتووُہِم

|  |  |
23. | [troʋuh]

ترٛۆوُہ

| [troʋuhjum] or [troʋuhim]

ترٛۆوُہیُٛم or ترٛۆوُہِم

|  |  |
24. | [t͡soʋuh]

ژۆوُہ

| [t͡soʋuhjum] or [t͡soʋuhim]

ژۆوُہیُٛم or ژۆوُہِم

|  |  |
25. | [pɨnt͡sɨh]

پٕنٛژٕہ

| [pɨnt͡sɨhjum] or [pɨnt͡sɨhim]

پٕنٛژٕہیُٛم or پٕنٛژٕہِم

|  |  |
26. | [ʃatɨʋuh]

شَتہٕ وُہ

| [ʃatɨʋuhjum] or [ʃatɨʋuhim]

شَتہٕ وُہیُٛم or شَتہٕ وُہِم

|  |  |
27. | [satoːʋuh]

سَتووُہ

| [satoːʋuhjum] or [satoːʋuhim]

سَتووُہیُٛم or سَتووُہِم

|  |  |
28. | [aʈʰoːʋuh]

اَٹھووُہ

| [aʈʰoːʋuhjum] or [aʈʰoːʋuhim]

اَٹھووُہیُٛم or اَٹھووُہِم

|  |  |
29. | [kunɨtrɨh]

کُنہٕ ترٕٛہ

| [kunɨtrɨhjum] or [kunɨtrɨhim]

کُنہٕ ترٕٛہیُٛم or کُنہٕ ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
30. | [trɨh]

ترٕٛہ

| [trɨhjum] or [trɨhim]

ترٕٛہیُٛم or ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
31. | [akɨtrɨh]

اَکہٕ ترٕٛہ

| [akɨtrɨhjum] or [akɨtrɨhim]

اَکہٕ ترٕٛہیُٛم or اَکہٕ ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
32. | [dɔjitrɨh]

دۄیہِ ترٕٛہ

| [dɔjitrɨhjum] or [dɔjitrɨhjim]

دۄیہِ ترٕٛہیُٛم or دۄیہِ ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
33. | [tejitrɨh]

تیٚیہِ ترٕٛہ

| [tejitrɨhjum] or [tejitrɨhim]

تیٚیہِ ترٕٛہیُٛم or تیٚیہِ ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
34. | [t͡sɔjitrɨh]

ژۄیہِ ترٕٛہ

| [t͡sɔjitrɨhjum] or [t͡sɔjitrɨhim]

ژۄیہِ ترٕٛہیُٛم or ژۄیہِ ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
35. | [pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨh] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨh]

پٲنٛژٕ ترٕٛہ or پانٛژٕ ترٕٛہ

| [pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨhjum] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨhjum]

پٲنٛژٕ ترٕٛہیُٛم or پانٛژٕ ترٕٛہیُٛم

[pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨhim] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨhim]

پٲنٛژٕ ترٕٛہِم or پانٛژٕ ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
36. | [ʃejitrɨh]

شیٚیہِ ترٕٛہ

| [ʃejitrɨhjum] or [ʃejitrɨhim]

شیٚیہِ ترٕٛہیُٛم or شیٚیہِ ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
37. | [satɨtrɨh]

سَتہٕ ترٕٛہ

| [satɨtrɨhjum] or [satɨtrɨhim]

سَتہٕ ترٕٛہیُٛم or سَتہٕ ترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
38. | [arɨtrɨh]

اَرٕترٕٛہ

| [arɨtrɨhjum] or [arɨtrɨhim]

اَرٕترٕٛہیُٛم or اَرٕترٕٛہِم

|  |  |
39. | [kunɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [kunɨtəːd͡ʒiː]

کُنہٕ تٲجِہہ or کُنہٕ تٲجی

| [kunɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [kunɨtəːd͡ʒihim]

کُنہٕ تٲجِہیُٛم or کُنہٕ تٲجِہِم

|  |  |
40. | [t͡satd͡ʒih] or [t͡satd͡ʒiː]

ژَتجِہہ or ژَتجی

| [t͡satd͡ʒihjum] or [t͡satd͡ʒihim]

ژَتجِہیُٛم or ژَتجِہِم

|  |  |
41. | [akɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [akɨtəːd͡ʒiː]

اَکہٕ تٲجِہہ or اَکہٕ تٲجی

| [akɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [akɨtəːd͡ʒihim]

اَکہٕ تٲجِہیُٛم or اَکہٕ تٲجِہِم

|  |  |
42. | [dɔjitəːd͡ʒih] or [dɔjitəːd͡ʒiː]

دۄیہِ تٲجِہہ or دۄیہِ تٲجی

| [dɔjitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [dɔjitəːd͡ʒihim]

دۄیہِ تٲجِہیُٛم or دۄیہِ تٲجِہِم

|  |  |
43. | [tejitəːd͡ʒih] or [tejitəːd͡ʒiː]

تیٚیہِ تٲجِہہ or تیٚیہِ تٲجی

| [tejitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [tejitəːd͡ʒihim]

تیٚیہِ تٲجِہیُٛم or تیٚیہِ تٲجِہِم

|  |  |
44. | [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒih] or [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒiː]

ژۄیہِ تٲجِہہ or ژۄیہِ تٲجی

| [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒihim]

ژۄیہِ تٲجِہیُٛم or ژۄیہِ تٲجِہِم

|  |  |
45. | [pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒiː] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒiː]

پٲنٛژٕ تٲجِہہ or پانٛژٕ تٲجِہہ or پٲنٛژٕ تٲجی or پانٛژٕ تٲجی

| [pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim]

پٲنٛژٕ تٲجِہیُٛم or پانٛژٕ تٲجِہیُٛم

[pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim]

پٲنٛژٕ تٲجِہِم or پانٛژٕ تٲجِہِم

|  |  |
46. | [ʃejitəːd͡ʒih] or [ʃejitəːd͡ʒiː]

شیٚیہِ تٲجِہہ or شیٚیہِ تٲجی

| [ʃejitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [ʃejitəːd͡ʒihim]

شیٚیہِ تٲجِہیُٛم or شیٚیہِ تٲجِہِم

|  |  |
47. | [satɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [satɨtəːd͡ʒiː]

سَتہٕ تٲجِہہ or سَتہٕ تٲجی

| [satɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [satɨtəːd͡ʒihim]

سَتہٕ تٲجِہیُٛم or سَتہٕ تٲجِہِم

|  |  |
48. | [arɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [arɨtəːd͡ʒiː]

اَرٕتٲجِہہ or اَرٕتٲجی

| [arɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [arɨtəːd͡ʒihim]

اَرٕتٲجِہیُٛم or اَرٕتٲجِہِم

|  |  |
49. | [kunɨʋanzaːh]

کُنہٕ وَنٛزاہ

| [kunɨʋanzəːhjum] or [kunɨʋanzəːhim]

کُنہٕ وَنٛزٲہیُٛم or کُنہٕ وَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
50. | [pant͡saːh]

پَنٛژاہ

| [pant͡səːhjum] or [pant͡səːhim]

پَنٛژٲہیُٛم or پَنٛژٲہِم

|  |  |
51. | [akɨʋanzaːh]

اَکہٕ وَنٛزاہ

| [akɨʋanzəːhjum] or [akɨʋanzəːhim]

اَکہٕ وَنٛزٲہیُٛم or اَکہٕ وَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
52. | [duʋanzaːh]

دُوَنٛزاہ

| [duʋanzəːhjum] or [duʋanzəːhim]

دُوَنٛزٲہیُٛم or دُوَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
53. | [truʋanzaːh] or [trɨʋanzaːh]

ترُٛوَنٛزاہ or ترٕٛوَنٛزاہ

| [truʋanzəːhjum] or [truʋanzəːhim]

ترُٛوَنٛزٲہیُٛم or ترُٛوَنٛزٲہِم

[trɨʋanzəːhjum] or [trɨʋanzəːhim]

ترٕٛوَنٛزٲہیُٛم or ترٕٛوَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
54. | [t͡suʋanzaːh]

ژُوَنٛزاہ

| [t͡suʋanzəːhjum] or [t͡suʋanzəːhim]

ژُوَنٛزٲہیُٛم or ژُوَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
55. | [pə̃ːt͡sɨʋanzaːh] or [pãːt͡sɨʋanzaːh]

پٲنٛژٕ وَنٛزاہ or پانٛژٕ وَنٛزاہ

| [pə̃ːt͡sɨʋanzəːhjum] or [pãːt͡sɨʋanzəːhjum]

پٲنٛژٕ وَنٛزٲہیُٛم or پانٛژٕ وَنٛزٲہیُٛم

[pə̃ːt͡sɨʋanzəːhim] or [pãːt͡sɨʋanzəːhim]

پٲنٛژٕ وَنٛزٲہِم or پانٛژٕ وَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
56. | [ʃuʋanzaːh]

شُوَنٛزاہ

| [ʃuʋanzəːhjum] or [ʃuʋanzəːhim]

شُوَنٛزٲہیُٛم or شُوَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
57. | [satɨʋanzaːh]

سَتہٕ وَنٛزاہ

| [satɨʋanzəːhjum] or [satɨʋanzəːhim]

سَتہٕ وَنٛزٲہیُٛم or سَتہٕ وَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
58. | [arɨʋanzaːh]

اَرٕوَنٛزاہ

| [arɨʋanzəːhjum] or [arɨʋanzəːhim]

اَرٕوَنٛزٲہیُٛم or اَرٕوَنٛزٲہِم

|  |  |
59. | [kunɨhəːʈʰ]

کُنہٕ ہٲٹھ

| [kunɨhəːʈʰjum] or [kunɨhəːʈʰim]

کُنہٕ ہٲٹھیُٛم or کُنہٕ ہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
60. | [ʃeːʈʰ]

شیٹھ

| [ʃeːʈʰjum] or [ʃeːʈʰim]

شیٹھیُٛم or شیٹھِم

|  |  |
61. | [akɨhəːʈʰ]

اَکہٕ ہٲٹھ

| [akɨhəːʈʰjum] or [akɨhəːʈʰim]

اَکہٕ ہٲٹھیُٛم or اَکہٕ ہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
62. | [duhəːʈʰ]

دُ ہٲٹھ

| [duhəːʈʰjum] or [duhəːʈʰim]

دُ ہٲٹھیُٛم or دُ ہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
63. | [truhəːʈʰ] or [trɨhəːʈʰ]

ترُٛہٲٹھ or ترٕٛہٲٹھ

| [truhəːʈʰjum] or [truhəːʈʰim]

ترُٛہٲٹھیُٛم or ترُٛہٲٹھِم

[trɨhəːʈʰjum] or [trɨhəːʈʰim]

ترٕٛہٲٹھیُٛم or ترٕٛہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
64. | [t͡suhəːʈʰ]

ژُہٲٹھ

| [t͡suhəːʈʰjum] or [t͡suhəːʈʰim]

ژُہٲٹھیُٛم or ژُہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
65. | [pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰ]

پٲنٛژٕ ہٲٹھ or پانٛژٕ ہٲٹھ

| [pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰjum] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰjum]

پٲنٛژٕ ہٲٹھیُٛم or پانٛژٕ ہٲٹھیُٛم

[pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰim] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰim]

پٲنٛژٕ ہٲٹھِم or پانٛژٕ ہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
66. | [ʃuhəːʈʰ]

شُہٲٹھ

| [ʃuhəːʈʰjum] or [ʃuhəːʈʰim]

شُہٲٹھیُٛم or شُہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
67. | [satɨhəːʈʰ]

سَتہٕ ہٲٹھ

| [satɨhəːʈʰjum] or [satɨhəːʈʰim]

سَتہٕ ہٲٹھیُٛم or سَتہٕ ہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
68. | [arɨhəːʈʰ]

اَرٕہٲٹھ

| [arɨhəːʈʰjum] or [arɨhəːʈʰim]

اَرٕہٲٹھیُٛم or اَرٕہٲٹھِم

|  |  |
69. | [kunɨsatatʰ]

کُنہٕ سَتَتھ

| [kunɨsatatyum] or [kunɨsatatim]

کُنہٕ سَتَتیُٛم or کُنہٕ سَتَتِم

|  |  |
70. | [satatʰ]

سَتَتھ

| [satatjum] or [satatim]

سَتَتیُٛم or سَتَتِم

|  |  |
71. | [akɨsatatʰ]

اَکہٕ سَتَتھ

| [akɨsatatjum] or [akɨsatatim]

اَکہٕ سَتَتیُٛم or اَکہٕ سَتَتِم

|  |  |
72. | [dusatatʰ]

دُسَتَتھ

| [dusatatjum] or [dusatatim]

دُسَتَتیُٛم or دُسَتَتِم

|  |  |
73. | [trusatatʰ] or [trɨsatatʰ]

ترُٛسَتَتھ or ترٕٛسَتَتھ

| [trusatatjum] or [trusatatim]

ترُٛسَتَتیُٛم or ترُٛسَتَتِم

[trɨsatatjum] or [trɨsatatim]

ترٕٛسَتَتیُٛم or ترٕٛسَتَتِم

|  |  |
74. | [t͡susatatʰ]

ژُسَتَتھ

| [t͡susatatjum] or [t͡susatatim]

ژُسَتَتیُٛم or ژُسَتَتِم

|  |  |
75. | [pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatʰ]

پٲنٛژٕ سَتَتھ or پانٛژٕ سَتَتھ

| [pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatjum] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatjum]

پٲنٛژٕ سَتَتیُٛم or پانٛژٕ سَتَتیُٛم

[pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatim] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatim]

پٲنٛژٕ سَتَتِم or پانٛژٕ سَتَتِم

|  |  |
76. | [ʃusatatʰ]

شُسَتَتھ

| [ʃusatatjum] or [ʃusatatim]

شُسَتَتیُٛم or شُسَتَتِم

|  |  |
77. | [satɨsatatʰ]

سَتہٕ سَتَتھ

| [satɨsatatjum] or [satɨsatatim]

سَتہٕ سَتَتیُٛم or سَتہٕ سَتَتِم

|  |  |
78. | [arɨsatatʰ]

اَرٕسَتَتھ

| [arɨsatatjum] or [arɨsatatim]

اَرٕسَتَتیُٛم or اَرٕسَتَتِم

|  |  |
79. | [kunɨʃiːtʰ]

کُنہٕ شيٖتھ

| [kunɨʃiːtjum] or [kunɨʃiːtim]

کُنہٕ شيٖتیُٛم or کُنہٕ شيٖتِم

|  |  |
80. | [ʃiːtʰ]

شيٖتھ

| [ʃiːtjum] or [ʃiːtjim]

شيٖتیُٛم or شيٖتِم

|  |  |
81. | [akɨʃiːtʰ]

اَکہٕ شيٖتھ

| [akɨʃiːtjum] or [akɨʃiːtim]

اَکہٕ شيٖتیُٛم or اَکہٕ شيٖتِم

|  |  |
82. | [dɔjiʃiːtʰ]

دۄیہِ شيٖتھ

| [dɔjiʃiːtjum] or [dɔjiʃiːtjum]

دۄیہِ شيٖتیُٛم or دۄیہِ شيٖتِم

|  |  |
83. | [trejiʃiːtʰ]

ترٛیٚیہِ شيٖتھ

| [trejiʃiːtjum] or [trejiʃiːtim]

ترٛیٚیہِ شيٖتیُٛم or ترٛیٚیہِ شيٖتِم

|  |  |
84. | [t͡sɔjiʃiːtʰ]

ژۄیہِ شيٖتھ

| [t͡sɔjiʃiːtjum] or [t͡sɔjiʃiːtim]

ژۄیہِ شيٖتیُٛم or ژۄیہِ شيٖتِم

|  |  |
85. | [pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtʰ]

پٲنٛژٕ شيٖتھ or پانٛژٕ شيٖتھ

| [pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtjum] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtjum]

پٲنٛژٕ شيٖتیُٛم or پانٛژٕ شيٖتیُٛم

[pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtim] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtim]

پٲنٛژٕ شيٖتِم or پانٛژٕ شيٖتِم

|  |  |
86. | [ʃejiʃiːtʰ]

شیٚیہِ شيٖتھ

| [ʃejiʃiːtjum] or [ʃejiʃiːtim]

شیٚیہِ شيٖتیُٛم or شیٚیہِ شيٖتِم

|  |  |
87. | [satɨʃiːtʰ]

سَتہٕ شيٖتھ

| [satɨʃiːtjum] or [satɨʃiːtim]

سَتہٕ شيٖتیُٛم or سَتہٕ شيٖتِم

|  |  |
88. | [arɨʃiːtʰ]

اَرٕشيٖتھ

| [arɨʃiːtjum] or [arɨʃiːtim]

اَرٕشيٖتیُٛم or اَرٕشيٖتِم

|  |  |
89. | [kunɨnamatʰ]

کُنہٕ نَمَتھ

| [kunɨnamatjum] or [kunɨnamatim]

کُنہٕ نَمَتیُٛم or کُنہٕ نَمَتِم

|  |  |
90. | [namatʰ]

نَمَتھ

| [namatjum] or [namatim]

نَمَتیُٛم or نَمَتِم

|  |  |
91. | [akɨnamatʰ]

اَکہٕ نَمَتھ

| [akɨnamatjum] or [akɨnamatim]

اَکہٕ نَمَتیُٛم or اَکہٕ نَمَتِم

|  |  |
92. | [dunamatʰ]

دُنَمَتھ

| [dunamatjum] or [dunamatim]

دُنَمَتیُٛم or دُنَمَتِم

|  |  |
93. | [trunamatʰ] or [trɨnamatʰ]

ترُٛنَمَتھ or ترٕٛنَمَتھ

| [trunamatjum] or [trunamatim]

ترُٛنَمَتیُٛم or ترُٛنَمَتِم

[trɨnamatjum] or [trɨnamatim]

ترٕٛنَمَتیُٛم or ترٕٛنَمَتِم

|  |  |
94. | [t͡sunamatʰ]

ژُنَمَتھ

| [t͡sunamatjum] or [t͡sunamatim]

ژُنَمَتیُٛم or ژُنَمَتِم

|  |  |
95. | [pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatʰ]

پٲنٛژٕ نَمَتھ or پانٛژٕ نَمَتھ

| [pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatjum] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatjum]

پٲنٛژٕ نَمَتیُٛم or پانٛژٕ نَمَتیُٛم

[pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatim] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatim]

پٲنٛژٕ نَمَتِم or پانٛژٕ نَمَتِم

|  |  |
96. | [ʃunamatʰ]

شُنَمَتھ

| [ʃunamatjum] or [ʃunamatim]

شُنَمَتیُٛم or شُنَمَتِم

|  |  |
97. | [satɨnamatʰ]

سَتہٕ نَمَتھ

| [satɨnamatjum] or [satɨnamatim]

سَتہٕ نَمَتیُٛم or سَتہٕ نَمَتِم

|  |  |
98. | [arɨnamatʰ]

اَرٕنَمَتھ

| [arɨnamatjum] or [arɨnamatjim]

اَرٕنَمَتیُٛم or اَرٕنَمَتِم

|  |  |
99. | [namɨnamatʰ]

نَمہٕ نَمَتھ

| [namɨnamatjum] or [namɨnamatim]

نَمہٕ نَمَتیُٛم or نَمہٕ نَمَتِم

|  |  |
100. | [hatʰ]

ہَتھ

| [hatyum] or [hatim]

ہَتیُٛم or ہَتِم

|  |  |
101. | [akʰ hatʰ tɨ akʰ]

اَکھ ہَتھ تہٕ اَکھ

| [akʰ hatʰ tɨ ǝkjum] or [akʰ hatʰ tɨ ǝkim]

اَکھ ہَتھ تہٕ أکیُٛم or اَکھ ہَتھ تہٕ أکِم

|  |  |
102. | [akʰ hatʰ tɨ zɨ]

اَکھ ہَتھ تہٕ زٕ

| [akʰ hatʰ tɨ dojum] or [akʰ hatʰ tɨ dojim]

اَکھ ہَتھ تہٕ دۆیُم or اَکھ ہَتھ تہٕ دۆیِم

|  |  |
200. | [zɨ hatʰ]

زٕ ہَتھ

| [du hatyum] or [duhatim]

دُہَتیُٛم or دُہَتِم

|  |  |
300. | [tre hatʰ]

ترٛےٚ ہَتھ

| [trɨ hatyum] or [trɨ hatim]

ترٕٛہَتیُٛم or ترٕٛہَتِم

|  |  |
400. | [t͡soːr hatʰ]

ژور ہَتھ

| [t͡su hatyum] or [t͡su hatim]

ژُہَتیُٛم or ژُہَتِم

|  |  |
500. | [pə̃ːt͡sʰ hatʰ] or [pãːt͡sʰ hatʰ]

پٲنٛژھ ہَتھ or پانٛژھ ہَتھ

| [pə̃ːt͡sɨ hatyum] or [pãːt͡sɨ hatyum]

پٲنٛژٕ ہَتیُٛم or پانٛژٕ ہَتیُٛم

[pə̃ːt͡sɨ hatim] or [pãːt͡sɨ hatim]

پٲنٛژٕ ہَتِم or پانٛژٕ ہَتِم

|  |  |
600. | [ʃe hatʰ]

شےٚ ہَتھ

| [ʃe hatyum] or [ʃe hatim]

شےٚ ہَتیُٛم or شےٚ ہَتِم

|  |  |
700. | [satʰ hatʰ]

سَتھ ہَتھ

| [ʃatɨ hatyum] or [ʃatɨ hatim]

سَتہٕ ہَتیُٛم or سَتہٕ ہَتِم

|  |  |
800. | [əːʈʰ ʃatʰ]

ٲٹھ شَتھ

| [əːʈʰ ʃatjum] or [əːʈʰ ʃatim]

ٲٹھ شَتیُٛم or ٲٹھ شَتِم

|  |  |
900. | [naʋ ʃatʰ]

نَو شَتھ

| [naʋ ʃatjum] or [naʋ ʃatim]

نَو شَتیُٛم or نَو شَتِم

|  |  |
1000. | [saːs]

ساس

| [səːsjum] or [səːsim]

سٲسیُٛم or سٲسِم

|  |  |
1001. | [akʰ saːs akʰ]

اَکھ ساس اَکھ

| [akʰ saːs ǝkjum] or [akʰ saːs ǝkim]

اَکھ ساس أکیُٛم or اَکھ ساس أکِم

|  |  |
1002. | [akʰ saːs zɨ]

اَکھ ساس زٕ

| [akʰ saːs dojum] or [akʰ saːs dojim]

اَکھ ساس دۆیُم or اَکھ ساس دۆیِم

|  |  |
1100. | [akʰ saːs hatʰ]

اَکھ ساس ہَتھ

[kah ʃatʰ] or [kaːh ʃatʰ]

کَہہ شَتھ or کاہ شَتھ

| [akʰ saːs hatjum] or [akʰ saːs hatim]

اَکھ ساس ہَتیُٛم or اَکھ ساس ہَتِم

[kah ʃatjum] or [kaːh ʃatjum]

کَہہ شَتیُٛم or کاہ شَتیُٛم

[kah ʃatim] or [kaːh ʃatim]

کَہہ شَتِم or کاہ شَتِم

|  |  |
1500. | [akʰ saːs pãːt͡sʰ hatʰ]

اَکھ ساس پانٛژھ ہَتھ

[pandaːh ʃatʰ]

پَنٛداہ شَتھ

| [akʰ saːs pãːt͡sɨ hatjum] or [akʰ saːs pãːt͡sɨ hatim]

اَکھ ساس پانٛژٕ ہَتیُٛم or اَکھ ساس پانٛژٕ ہَتِم

[pandaːh ʃatjum] or [pandaːh ʃatim]

پَنٛداہ شَتیُٛم or پَنٛداہ شَتِم

|  |  |
10,000. | [dəh saːs] or [daːh saːs]

دٔہ ساس or داہ ساس

| [dəh səːsjum] or [daːh səːsjum]

دٔہ سٲسیُٛم or داہ سٲسیُٛم

[dəh səːsim] or [daːh səːsim]

دٔہ سٲسِم or داہ سٲسِم

|  |  |
Hundred thousand | [lat͡ʃʰ]

لَچھ

| [lat͡ʃʰjum] or [lat͡ʃʰim]

لَچھیُٛم or لَچھِم

|  |  |
Million | [dəh lat͡ʃʰ] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰ]

دٔہ لَچھ or داہ لَچھ

| [dəh lat͡ʃʰjum] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰjum]

دٔہ لَچھیُٛم or داہ لَچھیُٛم

[dəh lat͡ʃʰim] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰim]

دٔہ لَچھِم or داہ لَچھِم

|  |  |
Ten million | [kɔroːr] or [karoːr]

کۄرور or کَرور

| [kɔroːrjum] or [karoːrjum]

کۄروریُٛم or کَروریُٛم

[kɔroːrim] or [karoːrim]

کۄرورِم or کَرورِم

|  |  |
Billion | [arab]

اَرَب

| [arabjum] or [arabim]

اَرَبیُٛم or اَرَبِم

|  |  |
Hundred billion | [kʰarab]

کھَرَب

| [kʰarabjum] or [kʰarabim]

کھَرَبیُٛم or کھَرَبِم

|  |  |
The ordinal number "1st" which is [ǝkʲum] أکیُٛم for its masculine gender and [ǝkim] أکِم for its feminine gender is also known as [ɡɔɖnʲuk] گۄڈنیُٛک and [ɡɔɖnit͡ʃ] گۄڈنِچ respectively.[105]

## Vocabulary

[edit]

Kashmiri is an Indo-Aryan language and was heavily influenced by Sanskrit, especially early on.[106][107][108] After the arrival of Islamic administrative rule in India, Kashmiri acquired many Persian loanwords.[108] In modern times, Kashmiri vocabulary has imported words from English, Hindustani and Punjabi.[109]

### Preservation of old Indo-Aryan vocabulary

[edit]

Kashmiri retains several features of Old Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi.[42] Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from the Vedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-form yodvai (meaning if), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use the word yadi instead.[42]

### First person pronoun

[edit]

Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. The Indo-European root for this is reconstructed as *eǵHom, which is preserved in Sanskrit as aham and in Avestan Persian as azam. This contrasts with the m- form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such as ma(-m). However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced with m- in words such as ma-n and mai. However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' is ba/bi/bo in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the other me terms. 'Mine' is myon in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature include Dogri (aun vs me-), Gujarati (hu-n vs ma-ri), Konkani (hā̃v vs mhazo), and Braj (hau-M vs mai-M). The Iranian Pashto preserves it too (za vs. maa), as well as Nuristani languages, such as Askunu (âi vs iũ).[110]

### Variations

[edit]

There are very minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims.[111] For 'fire', a traditional Hindu uses the word اۆگُن [oɡun] while a Muslim more often uses the Arabic word نار [naːr].[112]

## Sample text

[edit]

### Perso-Arabic script

[edit]

Art. 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

سٲری اِنسان چھِ آزاد زامٕتؠ۔ وؠقار تہٕ حۆقوٗق چھِ ہِوی۔ تِمَن چھُ سوچ سَمَج عَطا کَرنہٕ آمُت تہٕ تِمَن پَزِ بٲے بَرادٔری ہٕنٛدِس جَذباتَس تَحَت اَکھ أکِس اَکار بَکار یُن ۔[113]

[səːriː insaːn t͡ʃʰi aːzaːd zaːmɨtʲ . ʋʲaqaːr tɨ hoquːq t͡ʃʰi hiʋiː . timan t͡ʃʰu soːt͡ʃ samad͡ʒ ataː karnɨ aːmut tɨ timan pazi bəːj baraːdəriː hɨndis d͡ʒazbaːtas tahat akʰ əkis akaːr bakaːr jun]

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

### Sharada script

[edit]

Verses by Lalleshwari:[114]

𑆏𑆩𑆶𑆅 𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆪 𑆃𑆗𑆶𑆫 𑆥𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆱𑆶𑆅 𑆩𑆳𑆬𑆴 𑆫𑆾𑆛𑆶𑆩 𑆮𑆶𑆤𑇀𑆢𑆱 𑆩𑆁𑆘 𑆱𑆶𑆅 𑆩𑆳𑆬𑆴 𑆑𑆤𑆴 𑆥𑇀𑆪𑆜 𑆓𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆠 𑆖𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆃𑆱𑆱 𑆱𑆳𑆱 𑆠 𑆱𑆥𑆤𑇀𑆪𑆱 𑆱𑆾𑆤𑇆

[oːmuj akuj at͡ʃʰur porum, suj maːli roʈum ʋɔndas manz, suj maːli kani pʲaʈʰ gorum tɨ t͡sorum, əːsɨs saːs tɨ sapnis sɔn.]

"I kept reciting the unique divine word "Om" and kept it safe in my heart through my resolute dedication and love. I was simply ash and by its divine grace got metamorphosed into gold."

𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆪 𑆏𑆀𑆑𑆳𑆫 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆤𑆳𑆨𑆴 𑆣𑆫𑆼 𑆑𑆶𑆩𑇀𑆮𑆪 𑆧𑇀𑆫𑆲𑇀𑆩𑆳𑆟𑇀𑆝𑆱 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆓𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆒 𑆩𑆶𑆪 𑆩𑆁𑆠𑇀𑆫 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆖𑇀𑆪𑆠𑆱 𑆑𑆫𑆼 𑆠𑆱 𑆱𑆳𑆱 𑆩𑆁𑆠𑇀𑆫 𑆑𑇀𑆪𑆳 𑆑𑆫𑆼𑇆

[akuj omkaːr jus naːbi dareː, kumbeː brahmaːnɖas sum gareː, akʰ suj mantʰɨr t͡sʲatas kareː, tas saːs mantʰɨr kjaː kareː.]

One who recites the divine word "Omkār" by devotion is capable to build a bridge between his own and the cosmic consciousness. By staying committed to this sacred word, one doesn't require any other mantra out of thousands others.

## See also

[edit]

* Poetry portal

* Kashmir Valley
* Literature of Kashmir
* Kashmiri Wikipedia
* List of Kashmiri poets
* List of topics on the land and the people of “Jammu and Kashmir”
* Shina language
* States of India by Kashmiri speakers

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ At the beginning of a word it can either come with diacritic, or it can be stand-alone and silent, succeeded by a vowel letter. Diacritics  اَ اِ، اُ can be omitted in writing. Other diacritics (i.e. آ، أ، ٲ، إ، اٟ) are never omitted. For example, اَخبار "akhbār" is often written as اخبار, whereas أچھ " ȧchh" is never written as اچھ.
2. ^ Used mainly for Arabic loanwords.
3. ^ The letter wāw can either represent consonant ([ʋ]) or vowel ([oː]). It can also act as a carrier of vowel diacritics, representing several other vowels وٗ, ۆ, ۄ (uː], [o], [ɔ]). At the beginning of a word, when representing a consonant, the letter wāw will appear as a standalone character, followed by the appropriate vowel. If representing a vowel at the beginning of a word, the letter wāw needs to be preceded by an ạlif, او, اوٗ, اۆ, اۄ.
4. ^ This letter differs from do-chashmi hē (ھ) and they are not interchangeable. Similar to Urdu,do-chashmi hē (ھ) is exclusively used as a second part of digraphs for representing aspirated consonants.
5. ^ In initial and medial position, the letter hē always represents the consonant [h]. In final position, The letter hē can either represent consonant ([h]) or vowel ([a]). In final position, only in its attached form, and not in isolated form, it can also act as a carrier of vowel diacritics, representing several other vowels ـٔہ, ـہٕ ([ə], [ɨ]). For example, whereas a final "-rạ" is written as ـرٔ, a final "-gạ" is written as ـگٔہ.
6. ^ The letter yē can either represent consonant ("y" [j]) or vowel ("ē" [eː] or "ī" [iː]). The letter yē can represent [j] in initial or medial position, or it can represent "ē" [eː] or "ī" [iː] in medial positions, or "ī" [iː] in final position. In combination with specific diacritics, the letter yē in its medial position, can represent "ī" [iː], "e" [e], "ĕ" [ʲa], or ' [◌ʲ] as well. To represent the consonant "y" [j] or the vowel "ē" [eː] in final position, the letter boḍ yē (ے) is used. The letter boḍ yē (ے), in combination with specific diacritics, can represent "e" [e] in final position.
7. ^ The letter boḍ yē only occurs in final position. The letter boḍ yē represents the consonant "y" [j] or the vowel "ē" [eː]. With specific diacritics, vowel "e" [e] is also shown with the letter boḍ yē.

## References

[edit]

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3. ^ Nicolaus, Peter (2015). "Residues of Ancient Beliefs among the Shin in the Gilgit-Division and Western Ladakh". Iran & the Caucasus. 19 (3): 201–264\. doi:10.1163/1573384X-20150302. ISSN 1609-8498. JSTOR 43899199.
4. ^ a b c d Sociolinguistics. Mouton de Gruyter. 1977. ISBN 9789027977229. Retrieved 30 August 2009.
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24. ^ Kiani, Khaleeq (28 May 2018). "CCI defers approval of census results until elections". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
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27. ^ Hock, Hans Henrich; Bashir, Elena (24 May 2016). The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia: A Comprehensive Guide. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 811\. ISBN 978-3-11-042338-9. "In Pakistan-controlled Kashmir, Kashmiri speakers are shifting to Urdu (Dhar 2009)"
28. ^ "Up north: Call for exploration of archaeological sites". The Express Tribune. 4 June 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2020. "He said Kundal Shahi and Kashmiri languages, which were spoken in the Neelum Valley, were on the verge of dying."
29. ^ Khan, Zafar Ali (20 February 2016). "Lack of preservation causing regional languages to die a slow death". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 25 October 2020. "Dr Khawaja Abdul Rehman, who spoke on Pahari and Kashmiri, said pluralistic and tolerance-promoting Kashmiri literature was fast dying, as its older generation had failed to transfer the language to its youth. He said that after a few decades, not a single Kashmiri-speaking person will be found in Muzaffarabad..."
30. ^ a b Rahman, Tariq (1996). Language and politics in Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577692-8.
31. ^ "Scheduled Languages of India". Central Institute of Indian Languages. Archived from the original on 24 May 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
32. ^ "The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir (India)" (PDF). General Administrative Department of the Government of Jammu & Kashmir (India). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
33. ^ —"What census data reveals about use of Indian languages". Deccan Herald. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
—"Hindi Added 100Mn Speakers In A Decade; Kashmiri 2nd Fast Growing Language". 28 June 2018. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
—"Hindi fastest growing language in India, finds 100 million new speakers".
—"Hindi grew rapidly in non-Hindi states even without official mandate". India Today. 11 April 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2023.
34. ^ Weber, Siegfried (1 May 2012). "kashmir iii. Persian language in the state administration". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
35. ^ Bhat, M. Ashraf (2017). The Changing Language Roles and Linguistic Identities of the Kashmiri speech community. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 75\. ISBN 9781443862608.
36. ^ "The Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020" (PDF). The Gazette of India. 27 September 2020. Retrieved 27 September 2020.
37. ^ "Parliament passes JK Official Languages Bill, 2020". Rising Kashmir. 23 September 2020. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 23 September 2020.
38. ^ ANI. "BJP president congratulates J-K people on passing of Jammu and Kashmir Official Language Bill 2020". BW Businessworld. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
39. ^ Farooq Ahamad Mir, Imtiaz Hansnain, Azzizudin Khan. "Kashmiri: A Phonological Sketch". East European Journal of Psycholinguistics. 5 (2): 32–41\. doi:10.5281/zenodo.2583186. Retrieved 10 May 2025.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
40. ^ "Koshur: Spoken Kashmiri: A Language Course: Transcription". Retrieved 21 May 2014.
41. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 9–16.
42. ^ a b c d K.L. Kalla (1985), The Literary Heritage of Kashmir, Mittal Publications, "... Kashmiri alone of all the modern Indian languages preserves the dvi (Kashmiri du) of Sanskrit, in numbers such as dusatath (Sanskrit dvisaptati), dunamat (Sanskrit dvanavatih) ... the latter (Yodvai) is archaic and is to be come across mainly in the Vedas ..."
43. ^ "Sarada". Lawrence. Archived from the original on 24 February 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
44. ^ a b c d e Pandey, Anshuman (18 February 2022). "N3545: Proposal to Encode the Sharada Script in ISO/IEC 10646" (PDF). Working Group Document, ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2.
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48. ^ Kaw, M.K (2004). Kashmir and It's [sic] People: Studies in the Evolution of Kashmiri Society. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. pp. 303–304\. ISBN 9788176485371.
49. ^ Mahapatra, B.P (1989). The Written Languages of the World: A Survey of the Degree and Modes of Use : India : Book 1 Constitutional Languages. Presses Université Laval. p. 270\. ISBN 9782763771861.
50. ^ "Braj B. Kachru: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri". www.koshur.org. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
51. ^ "Spoken Kashmiri: A Language Course". www.koshur.org. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
52. ^ "Braj B. Kachru: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri". www.koshur.org. Retrieved 5 February 2022.
53. ^ "Valley divide impacts Kashmiri, Pandit youth switch to Devnagari". Indian Express. 8 June 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
54. ^ "Devnagari Script for Kashmiri: A Study in its Necessity, Feasibility and Practicality". Kashmiri Overseas Association. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
55. ^ "Nastaliq to Devanagari: After Language, Kashmir Watching Script Campaign". MENAFN. 2020. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
56. ^ https://kashmiridictionary.org/zȧri-achar-_-consonants/
57. ^ a b Koul, O. N., Raina, S. N., & Bhat, R. (2000). Kashmiri-English Dictionary for Second Language Learners. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
58. ^ https://kashmiridictionary.org/ȧrⁱ-achar-_-vowels/
59. ^ "Kashmiri (deva)". r12a.github.io. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
60. ^ Everson, Michael & Pravin Satpute. (2006). Proposal to add four characters for Kashmiri to the BMP of the UCS.
61. ^ "Project ZAAN: Basic Reader for Kashmiri Language". www.koausa.org. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
62. ^ Raina, M. K. (4 May 2020). "One Page Primer on Kashmiri Language". M K Raina. Retrieved 26 November 2020.
63. ^ Government of India. (2009). Proposal to add six characters in the Devanagari block for representation of Kashmiri language in Devanagari script.
64. ^ Pandey, Anshuman. (2009). Comments on India’s Proposal to Add Devanagari Characters for Kashmiri.
65. ^ The central vowels are typically transcribed ⟨ạ⟩ and ⟨u’⟩ when transliterating Arabic script, ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ when transliterating Nagari.
66. ^ a b Pandey, Anshuman. (2009). Proposal to Encode the Sharada Script in ISO/IEC 10646.
67. ^ Grierson, George (1916). On the Sarada Alphabet. pp. 8–12.
68. ^ a b c Koul & Wali 2006, p. 25.
69. ^ Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri (2002). Kashmir News Network, pp.80.
70. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. ii.
71. ^ a b Koul & Wali 2006, p. 28.
72. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 26–28.
73. ^ a b c Koul & Wali 2006, p. 31.
74. ^ Wade 1888, p. 16.
75. ^ Bhatt, Rajesh (2007)."Ergativity in Indo-Aryan Languages", MIT Ergativity Seminar, pp.6.
76. ^ a b Koul & Wali 2006, p. 32.
77. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 39.
78. ^ Wade 1888, pp. 10–15.
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80. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 119.
81. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 84.
82. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 86.
83. ^ a b c Koul & Wali 2006, p. 87.
84. ^ Zakharyin, Boris (2015). "Indo-Aryan Ergativity and its Analogues in Languages of Central and Western Eurasia", The Poznań Society for the Advancement of Arts and Sciences, PL ISSN 0079-4740, pp.66.
85. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 89–90.
86. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 91–92.
87. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 93.
88. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 94.
89. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 94–95.
90. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 96–97.
91. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 96–99.
92. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, pp. 100–101.
93. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 103.
94. ^ a b Koul & Wali 2006, p. 105.
95. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 107.
96. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 108.
97. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 53.
98. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 52.
99. ^ Koshur 2002, pp.79.
100. ^ Wade 1888, p. 19.
101. ^ a b Wade 1888, p. 20.
102. ^ Koul & Wali 2006, p. 59.
103. ^ Wade 1888, p. 21.
104. ^ a b Koul & Wali 2006, p. 64.
105. ^ Toushikhani S. k, Koul J. lal. Kashir Dictionary Vol 1.
106. ^ Eggeling, Hans Julius (1911). "Sanskrit" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 156–183.
107. ^ Grierson, George Abraham (1911). "Kashmiri" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 689–693\. "Sanskrit has been actively studied for many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its grammar, are now largely Indian. So much is this the case that, for convenience' sake, it is now frequently classed as belonging to the north-western group of languages, instead of as belonging to the Piśāca family as its origin demands. It cannot be said that either classification is wrong."
108. ^ a b Gorekar, Niẓāmuddīn Es (2002). Indo-Islamic Relations. KnowledgeCity Books. p. 67\. "The Kashmiri language was in the beginning greatly influenced by the Sanskrit language, but with the coming of the Muslims and monarchs like Zainu'l-Abedin it began to accept the influence of Persian which was the language of the rulers."
109. ^ Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. 6 April 2010. p. 582\. ISBN 978-0-08-087775-4. "Kashmiri vocabulary can be broadly categorized into Kashmiri/Dardic, Sanskrit, Punjabi, Hindi/Urdu, Persian, and Arabic origins."
110. ^ John D. Bengtson, Harold Crane Fleming (2008), In hot pursuit of language in prehistory: essays in the four fields of anthropology, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2008, ISBN 978-90-272-3252-6, "... However, Gujarati as well as a Dardic language like Kashmiri still preserve the root alternation between subject and non-subject forms (but they replaced the derivative of the Sanskrit subject form ahám by new forms) ..."
111. ^ Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie (6 April 2010), Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world, Elsevier, 2008, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7, "... Kashmiri occupies a special position in the Dardic group, being probably the only dardic language that has a written literature dating back to the early 13th century ..."
112. ^ Krishna, Gopi (1967). Kundalini: The Evolutionary Energy in Man. Boston: Shambhala. p. 212\. ISBN 978-1-57062-280-9. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
113. ^ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Kashmiri Language" (PDF).
114. ^ "Lal Vakh in Sharada script".

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Chopra, R. M (2013). "Indo-Persian Literature in Kashmir". The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House. OCLC 909254259.
* Grierson, George Abraham (1911). "Indo-Aryan Languages" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 487–490.
* Koul, Omkar N; Wali, Kashi (2006). Modern Kashmiri Grammar (PDF). Springfield: Dunwoody Press. ISBN 1-931546-07-X.
* Wade, TR (1888). A Grammar of the Kashmiri Language. SPCK.

## External links

[edit]

Kashmiri edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kashmiri language.

Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Kashmiri.

* Bhat, Roop Krishen (1982). Kashir Kitab level 1 : (state level school reader in Kashmiri for non-Kashmiri speaking students). Central Institute of Indian Languages.
* Bhat, Roop Krishen (1988). Urdu Kashmiri Reader. JK Press.
* Ganjoo, Triloki Nath (1979). Kạ̄shur-Hindi Reader. Kạ̄shur Department, University of Kashmir.
* Grierson, George Abraham (1932). A dictionary of the Kashmiri language. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
* Handoo, Jawaharlal; Handoo, Lalita (1975). Hindi-Kashmiri Common Words. Central Institute of Indian languages.
* Handoo, Jawaharlal (1973). Kashmiri Phonetic Reader. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
* Hassan, Sheeba. "A pronouncing dictionary of Kashmiri language". Digital Dictionaries of South Asia. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
* Hindi-Kashmiri Conversational Guide. Central Hindi Directorate, Government of India. 1990.
* Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 1\. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
* Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 2\. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
* Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. Vol. 3\. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988.
* Hinton, James Knowles (1885). A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs & Sayings: Explained and Illustrated From the Rich and Interesting Folklore of the Valley. Bombay: Education Society's Press.
* Hook, Peter E. 1976\. Is Kashmiri an SVO language? Indian Linguistics 37: 133–142.
* "Indo Wordnet : A wordnet of Indian languages".
* Kamil, Amin (1966). Achar Zan. Walidarul Kitabat.
* Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class1
* Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 2
* Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 3
* Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 6
* Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 8
* Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 10
* Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri
* Koul, Ashok K (2008). Lexical Borrowings in Kashmiri. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies. ISBN 9788186323298.
* Koul, Omkar Nath (1985). An Intensive Course in Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages. ISBN 9780781801768.
* Koul, Omkar Nath (1995). An intermediate course in Kashmiri Language. Central Institute of Indian Languages. ISBN 8173420270.
* Koul, Omkar Nath (1992). A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs (PDF). Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies. ISBN 9788186323212.
* Koul, Omkar Nath (2000). kəːʃir dəpitʲ dikʃənəriː (A dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs). Central Institute of Indian Languages.
* Koul, Omkar Nath; Talashi, Rattan Lal (1999). Punjabi Kashmiri Kosh. Bhasha Vibhag Punjab.
* Koul, Omkar Nath; Kumari, B Syamala (1996). Nursery Rhymes in Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
* Koul, Omkar N; Bhat, Roop Krishen; Betab, Brij Nath (2010). English – Kashmiri Administrative Terminology. New Delhi: Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology.[permanent dead link]
* Koul, Omkar N; Raina, S.N.; Bhat, Roop Krishen (2000). Kashmiri-English Dictionary for Second Language Learners. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
* Library and Information Science Glossary (English-Hindi-Kashmiri). Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. 2018.
* "Neab", Kashmiri Language Literary Magazine
* Raina, Soom Nath (2011). An advance course in Kashmiri. Central institute of Indian languages.
* "Sangarmal", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
* Shauq, Shafi (2017). Kaesher Lugaat (A dictionary of the Kashmiri Language). Srinagar: Ali Mohammad and Sons.
* "Soan Meeraas", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
* Subbiah, Pon (2000). Tests of Language Proficiency : Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages.
* Tickoo, Jawahir Lal (2006). Kashmiri-English Dictionary. Indian Institute of Language Studies.
* Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 1\. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
* Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 2\. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
* Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 3\. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
* Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 4\. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
* Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 5\. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
* Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 6\. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
* Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. Vol. 7\. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages.
* the word koshur (𑆑𑆳𑆯𑆶𑆫𑇀) written on New Testament in Kashmiri (manuscript)

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Kashmir

Dardic languages|

* Kashmiri
* Shina
* Khowar

Other Indo-Aryan languages|

* Dogri
* Gojri
* Pahari-Pothwari
* Pahari
* Bhadrawahi
* Sarazi

Iranic languages|

* Wakhi

Sino-Tibetan languages|

* Ladakhi
* Balti
* Purki
* Tibetan

Isolate languages|

* Burushaski

Other languages|

* Urdu
* Hindi
* English
* Punjabi
* Mandarin

Related topics|

* Indo-Aryan languages
* Dardic languages
* Iranic languages
* Sino-Tibetan languages
* Languages of India
* Languages of Pakistan
* Languages of China

* v
* t
* e

Languages of India

Official
languages|

| Union-level|

* Hindi
* English

|

8th schedule to the
Constitution of India|

| Classical|

* Assamese
* Bengali
* Kannada
* Malayalam
* Marathi
* Odia
* Sanskrit
* Tamil
* Telugu

|

Non-classical|

* Bodo
* Dogri
* Gujarati
* Hindi
* Kashmiri
* Konkani
* Maithili
* Meitei (Manipuri)
* Nepali
* Punjabi
* Santali
* Sindhi
* Urdu

State-level only|

* Angika
* Bhojpuri
* Chhattisgarhi
* Garo
* Gurung
* Ho
* Kamatapuri
* Kharia
* Khasi
* Khortha
* Kokborok
* Kurmali
* Kurukh
* Lepcha
* Limbu
* Magahi
* Magar
* Mizo
* Mundari
* Newari
* Rai
* Rajbangshi
* Sadri
* Sherpa
* Sikkimese
* Sunwar
* Tamang

Major
unofficial
languages|

| Over 1 million
speakers|

* Awadhi
* Bagheli
* Bagri
* Bajjika
* Bhili
* Bundeli
* Dhundhari
* Garhwali
* Gondi
* Harauti
* Haryanvi
* Kangri
* Khandeshi
* Kumaoni
* Lambadi
* Malvi
* Marwari
* Mewari
* Nimadi
* Rajasthani
* Surjapuri
* Tulu
* Wagdi
* Varhadi

|

100,000 – 1 million
speakers|

* Adi
* Angami
* Ao
* Badaga
* Dimasa
* Halbi
* Karbi
* Khotta
* Kodava
* Kolami
* Konyak
* Korku
* Koya
* Kui
* Kuvi
* Ladakhi
* Lotha
* Malto
* Mising
* Nishi
* Phom
* Rabha
* Sema
* Sora
* Tangkhul
* Thadou

* Linguistic history
* Classical
* Multilingualism
* Endangered
* Scheduled languages in states

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Pakistan

Official languages|

* Urdu (national)
* English

Other languages
(by administrative unit)|

| Azad Kashmir|

* Dogri
* Gujari
* Kashmiri
* Kundal Shahi
* Pahari-Pothwari

|

Balochistan|

* Balochi
* Brahui
* Dehwari
* Hazaragi
* Jadgali
* Khetrani
* Pashto
* Wanetsi

Gilgit-Baltistan|

* Balti
* Burushaski
* Dawoodi
* Khowar
* Purgi
* Shina
* Wakhi

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|

* Burushaski
* Badeshi
* Bateri
* Chilisso
* Dameli
* Gawar-Bati
* Gowro
* Hindko
* Indus Kohistani
* Kalami
* Kalasha-mun
* Kalkoti
* Kamviri
* Khowar
* Kohistani Shina
* Mankiyali
* Munji
* Ormuri
* Palula
* Pashto
* Sawi
* Shekhani
* Torwali
* Ushoji
* Wazir
* Yidgha

Punjab|

* Bagri
* Dogri
* Hindko
* Kabutra
* Marwari
* Mewari
* Pothwari Punjabi
* Punjabi
* dialects
* Saraiki
* Rajasthani
* Rangri

Sindh|

* Aer
* Bagri
* Bengali
* Bhaya
* Dhatki
* Goaria
* Gujarati
* Jandavra
* Jogi
* Koli
* Kachi
* Parkari
* Wadiyara
* Kutchi
* Loarki
* Marwari
* Memoni
* Mewari
* Od
* Rajasthani
* Rangri
* Sindhi
* Urdu
* Vaghri

Related topics|

* Indo-Aryan languages
* Dardic languages
* Iranic languages
* Pakistani Sign Language
* Arabic
* Persian
* Pakistani Hindi (Hindi)
* Chagatai

* v
* t
* e

Arabic alphabets

† indicates the language is no longer written using Arabic

Europe|

* Albanian †
* Aljamiado †
* Avar †
* Azerbaijani
* Belarusian †
* Chechen †
* Circassian
* Adyghe †
* Kabardian †
* Crimean Tatar †
* Dargwa †
* Dobrujan Tatar †
* Greek †
* Karachay-Balkar †
* Kazakh
* Kumyk †
* Lak †
* Ottoman Turkish †
* Serbo-Croatian †

Asia|

* Aer
* Arabic
* Azerbaijani
* Balochi
* Balti
* Bashkir
* Brahui
* Buri Wolio
* Burushaski
* Chagatay †
* Cham Jawi
* Jawi
* Kashmiri
* Kazakh
* Khowar
* Kurdish
* Kyrgyz
* Malayalam
* Ottoman Turkish †
* Marwari (Rajasthani)
* Pamir (Munjani
* Sarikoli
* Shughni
* Wakhi)
* Palula
* Parkari
* Pashto
* Pegon
* Persian
* Rohingya
* Saraiki
* Sindhi
* Shahmukhi
* Shina
* Gilgiti
* Kohistani
* Sulat Sug
* Tamil
* Tatar (İske imlâ
* Yaña imlâ)
* Torwali
* Turkmen
* Urdu
* Ushoji
* Uyghur
* Uzbek
* Xiao'erjing

Africa|

* Afrikaans †
* Berber
* Comorian
* Fula Ajami
* Adamawa
* Bagirmi
* Nigeria
* Fuuta Jalon
* Fuuta Tooro
* Maasina
* Kibushi
* Harari
* Hausa Ajami
* Kanembu
* Maba
* Serer Ajami
* Shimaore
* Songhay
* Humburi
* Koyra Chiini
* Koyraboro Senni
* Zarma
* Sorabe
* Tigre
* Tuareg
* Air Tamajeq
* Tawellemmet
* Swahili Ajami
* Wadaad †
* Wolof
* Yoruba

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Indo-Aryan languages

Dardic|

| Kashmiri|

* Kashmiri
* Kishtwari

|

Shina|

* Shina
* Brokskat
* Kundal Shahi
* Kalkoti
* Ushoji
* Palula
* Sawi

Pashayi|

* Pashayi

Kunar|

* Dameli
* Gawar-Bati
* Nangalami
* Shumashti
* Wotapuri-Katarqalai

Chitral|

* Kalasha
* Khowar

Hazara Division|

* Indus Kohistani
* Bateri
* Chilisso
* Gowro
* Kalami
* Tirahi
* Mankiyali

Northern|

| Eastern|

* Doteli
* Jumli
* Nepali

|

Central|

* Garhwali
* Kumaoni

Western|

* Dogri
* Kangri
* Bhadarwahi
* Churahi
* Bhateali
* Bilaspuri
* Chambeali
* Gaddi
* Pangwali
* Mandeali
* Mahasu Pahari
* Jaunsari
* Kullui
* Pahari Kinnauri
* Hinduri
* Sirmauri
* Sarazi

Northwestern|

| Punjabi|

| Eastern|

* Punjabi
* dialects
* Sansi

|

Lahnda|

* Hindko
* Inku
* Khetrani
* Pahari-Pothwari
* Saraiki

Sindhi|

* Jadgali
* Kholosi
* Kutchi
* Luwati
* Memoni
* Sindhi

Western|

| Gujarati|

* Aer
* Gujarati
* Lisan ud-Dawat
* Jandavra
* Koli
* Kachi
* Parkari
* Wadiyara
* Saurashtra
* Vaghri

|

Rajasthani|

* Bagri
* Goaria
* Loarki
* Gujari
* Dhundari
* Harauti
* Malvi
* Marwari
* Mewati
* Mewari
* Shekhawati
* Dhatki
* Od
* Nimadi

Bhil|

* Bhili
* Bhilali
* Chodri
* Dhodia–Kukna
* Dhanki
* Dubli
* Bauria
* Bhilori
* Mawchi
* Magari
* Palya Bareli
* Pauri Bareli
* Rathwi Bareli
* Pardhi
* Gamit
* Kalto
* Vasavi
* Wagdi
* Vaagri Booli

Others|

* Khandeshi
* Lambadi
* Dawoodi
* Domari
* Romani
* list of languages

Central|

| Western|

* Braj Bhasha
* Bundeli
* Haryanvi
* Hindustani
* Kauravi
* Hindi
* Hinglish/Urdish
* Urdu
* Deccani
* Judeo-Urdu
* Hyderabadi Urdu
* Rekhta
* Kannauji
* Sansi
* Sadhukkadi

|

Eastern|

* Awadhi
* Bagheli
* Chhattisgarhi
* Fiji Hindi

Others|

* Parya

Eastern|

| Bihari|

| Bhojpuric|

* Bhojpuri
* Caribbean Hindustani

|

Magahi|

* Magahi
* Khortha

Maithili|

* Maithili
* Angika
* Bajjika

Sadanic|

* Sadri
* Kurmali

Tharuic|

* Tharu
* Kochila
* Buksa
* Majhi
* Musasa

Others|

* Kumhali
* Kuswaric
* Bote-Darai
* Danwar

Gauda–
Kamarupa|

| Bengali|

* Bengali
* dialects
* Bishnupriya Manipuri
* Hajong
* Kharia Thar
* Kurmukar
* Mal Paharia
* Noakhali
* Sylheti
* Tanchangya
* Chittagonian
* Chakma
* Rohingya

|

Kamarupic|

* Assamese
* Kamrupi
* Dehan
* Goalpariya
* Rajbanshi (Nepal)
* Rangpuri
* Surjapuri

Odia|

* Odia
* Sambalpuri
* Desia
* Bhatri
* Bodo Parja
* Reli
* Kupia

Halbic|

* Halbi
* Kamar
* Bhunjia
* Nahari

Southern|

| Marathi–
Konkani|

| Marathic|

* Marathi
* Varhadi
* Andh
* Berar Deccan
* Varli
* Phudagi
* Katkari
* Kadodi

|

Konkanic|

* Konkani
* Maharashtrian Konkani
* Nawayathi

Insular|

* Maldivian
* Sinhala

Old|

* Sanskrit
* Vedic
* Classical
* Mitanni superstrate

Middle|

| Early|

* Ashokan Prakrit
* Pāli
* Early Ardhamagadhi

|

Middle (Prakrit)|

* Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit
* Dramatic Prakrits
* Ardhamagadhi
* Magadhi
* Maharashtri
* Shauraseni
* Gāndhārī
* Gaudi
* Paishachi

Late (Apabhraṃśa)|

* Abahattha
* Apabhraṃśa
* Elu
* Kamarupi
* Khasa Prakrit

Proto-
languages|

* Proto-Indo-Iranian
* Proto-Indo-Aryan

Unclassified|

* Badeshi (unknown further classification)
* Bazigar
* Chinali–Lahul
* Chinali
* Lahul Lohar
* Sheikhgal

Pidgins
and creoles|

* Andaman Creole Hindi
* Bombay Hindi
* Haflong Hindi
* Nagamese
* Nefamese
* Vedda

See also
Indo-Iranian languages
Nuristani languages
Iranian languages

Authority control databases: National |

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Israel

|

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