Kerinci language

Malayic language spoken in Indonesia

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Kerinci

* basê Kinci
* basê Kincai

'Suhat incoung' (Incoung script), the original script of the Kerinci language

Pronunciation| /ba.sə kiɲ.t͡ʃai̯/
Native to| Indonesia (Jambi and Bengkulu)
Region| Sumatra
Ethnicity| Kerinci

Native speakers

| (254,125 cited Jambi, 2000)[1]

Language family

Austronesian

* Malayo-Polynesian
* Malayic
* Kerinci

Dialects|

* Belui Air Hangat
* Danau Kerinci
* Gunung Kerinci
* Gunung Raya
* Pembantu Sungai Tutung
* Sitinjau Laut
* Sungai Penuh

Writing system

| Latin (Indonesian alphabet)
Incung
Jawi
Language codes
ISO 639-3| `kvr`
Glottolog| `keri1250`
Linguasphere| `33-AFA-da`

Areas where Kerinci language is a majority

Areas where Kerinci language is a minority

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Kerinci language (basê Kinci or basê Kincai) is an Austronesian language primarily spoken by the Kerinci people in Sungai Penuh, Kerinci Regency, and parts of Merangin and Bungo Regency in western Jambi,[2] as well as several hamlets in Mukomuko Regency in Bengkulu.[3] This language is also spoken by the Kerinci diaspora in other regions of Indonesia, such as West Sumatra and Java, as well as outside Indonesia, such as Negeri Sembilan and Selangor in Malaysia.[4][5] The total number of Kerinci language speakers was estimated to be around 250,000 in 2000.[1] As an Austronesian language from the Malayo-Polynesian sub-group, the Kerinci language is also closely related to the Minangkabau and Jambi Malay languages spoken in neighboring regions.[6]

The Kerinci language exhibits very high diversity; it is estimated that there are 130 sub-dialects and seven main dialects, which are the Gunung Raya, Danau Kerinci, Sitinjau Laut, Sungai Penuh, Pembantu Sungai Tutung, Belui Air Hangat, and Gunung Kerinci dialects.[7] Based on dialectometric calculations, the percentage difference between these seven dialects ranges from 51 to 65.5%. In comparison, the Kerinci language has a percentage difference ranging from 81 to 100% when compared to the Bengkulu and Minangkabau languages.[2]

## Classification

[edit]

The Kerinci language is one of the many varieties of the Malayic languages. Linguists believe that the Malay language, one of the varieties of the Malayic languages, originally derived from Proto-Malayic, which was spoken in the area stretching from West Kalimantan to the northern coast of Brunei around 1000 BCE. Its ancestor, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, is believed to have originated from Proto-Austronesian, which split around 2000 BCE due to the large-scale expansion of the Austronesian people into Maritime Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan.[8]

The Kerinci language is a member of the Austronesian language family, which encompasses various languages in Southeast Asia, the Pacific Ocean, and Madagascar, as well as some languages in mainland Asia. Uniquely, the Kerinci language also shares some phonemes with Austroasiatic languages.[9] The Malagasy language, Filipino, the indigenous languages of Taiwan, and Māori are also members of this language family. Although each language in this family is not mutually intelligible, their similarities are quite striking. Many basic words have remained almost unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian. There are numerous cognates found in basic words for kinship, health, body parts, and common animals. Even the words for numbers exhibit a remarkable level of similarity.[10]

## Geographic distribution and usage

[edit]

The Kerinci language is typically used by the Kerinci people who inhabit the Kerinci highlands and its surrounding areas, specifically the area around Kerinci Seblat National Park. Administratively, these areas are currently within the city of Sungai Penuh and the Kerinci Regency, as well as parts of the Merangin and Bungo Regencies in Jambi. In the Kerinci Regency, the language is spoken in the Pengasih Lama village in Bukitkerman district, the Koto Tuo Ujung Pasir and the Seleman villages in the Danau Kerinci district, the Hiang Tinggi village in the Sitinjau Laut district, the Koto Lebu and Koto Lolo villages in the Pondong Tinggi district, the Sungaiabu village in the Kerinci district, the Belui village in the Air Hangat Timur district, and the Mukai Tinggi and Sung Betung Ilir villages in the Gunung Kerinci district.[2] The Kerinci language is also spoken in small parts of neighboring Bengkulu, specifically in the Mukomuko Regency.[3] In addition, the Kerinci people have also migrated to the Malay Peninsula since the 19th century.[11] In Malaysia, the Kerinci language is mainly spoken on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, such as Selangor, Kuala Lumpur, Perak, Negeri Sembilan, and Johor, due to their proximity to Sumatra.[12] However, the status of the Kerinci language in Malaysia is currently threatened due to the process of gradual assimilation and acculturation with the language and culture of the local community, especially the local Malay community.[12]

In the Kerinci highlands, the Kerinci language stands as the predominant means of daily communication, effortlessly traversing both informal and formal settings throughout the region. However, its predominant use is informal, while Indonesian serves as the lingua franca in governmental institutions, education, and interethnic communication. As Indonesian usage continues to expand, fueled by increasing educational opportunities, it has become increasingly commonplace for Kerinci speakers to engage in code-switching between Kerinci and Indonesian, and vice versa.

The Kerinci language continues to hold significant importance among its speakers in the Kerinci Regency and the city of Sungai Penuh in Jambi. The Kerinci language is a key part of the local culture of the Kerinci community.[13] In the midst of a growing multilingual and multiethnic society due to migration from other parts of Indonesia, Kerinci speakers face challenges in preserving the integrity of the Kerinci language. The presence of other languages in the region is gradually changing the Kerinci language as Kerinci speakers have begun to master other languages.[14] In response, efforts have been made by the government to preserve the usage of the Kerinci language. In Sungai Penuh, it is compulsory for students to enroll in Kerinci language courses as part of the school curriculum.[7] Additionally, the Jambi provincial government has initiated training programs for teachers aimed at enhancing their understanding and teaching skills while promoting the use of the Kerinci language. These programs include instruction in writing and reading using the Incung script, composing and reciting poetry in Kerinci, storytelling, delivering speeches, writing short stories, singing traditional songs, and acting in solo comedy performances—all conducted in the Kerinci language.[15]

## Dialects

[edit]

The number of dialects of the Kerinci language is disputed. This is because the boundaries of Kerinci language dialects have not been definitively defined due to the lack of specific research on the geographic boundaries of the Kerinci region.[16] According to Anwar et al. (1984), the Kerinci language is classified into three major dialect groups, namely the Upper Kerinci dialect (Kerinci Hulu), the Middle Kerinci dialect (Kerinci Tengah), and the Lower Kerinci dialect (Kerinci Hilir). Usman (1990), in his research report, suggests that there are two dialects in the Kerinci language, namely the "i" dialect and the "ai" dialect, each of which has its own sub-dialects. Furthermore, Amirruddin et al. (2003) state that there are approximately 177 dialects in the Kerinci language. The number of dialects corresponds to the number of villages (dusun) in the Kerinci Regency.[16]

The Indonesian Agency for Language Development and Cultivation identifies approximately 130 dialects of the Kerinci language, consisting of seven major dialects, which are Gunung Raya, Danau Kerinci, Sitinjau Laut, Sungai Penuh, Pembantu Sungai Tutung, Air Hangat, and Gunung Kerinci.[17][18] The Gunung Raya dialect is spoken in the Pengasih Lama village in the Bukitkerman District. The Danau Kerinci dialect is spoken in the Koto Tuo Ujung Pasir village and the Seleman village in the Danau Kerinci District. The Sitinjau Laut dialect is spoken in the Hiang Tinggi village in the Sitinjau Laut District. The Sungai Penuh dialect is spoken in the Koto Lebu village and the Koto Lolo village in the Pondong Tinggi District. The Pembantu Sungai Tutung dialect is spoken in the Sungaiabu village in the Kerinci District. The Belui Air Hangat dialect is spoken in the Belui village, in the Air Hangat Timur District. The Gunung Kerinci dialect is spoken in the Mukai Tinggi village and the Sung Betung Ilir village in the Gunung Kerinci District.[18]

The Kerinci language dialects can be very different between villages even though they are very close, such as Tanah Kampung, Kemantan, and Dusun Baru, which are only separated by a river.[19] Administratively, these three villages belong to different districts and regencies. Dusun Baru Lempur and Kemantan are located in the Kerinci Regency but are in different districts, while Tanah Kampung is part of Sungai Penuh. Although part of Sungai Penuh, the inhabitants of Tanah Kampung use a different dialect, specifically the Tanah Kampung dialect. Kemantan Raya is included in the Air Hangat Timur District of Kerinci Regency, where the community uses the Tanah Kemantan dialect. Meanwhile, Dusun Baru Lempur is in the Gunung Raya District of Kerinci Regency, and its inhabitants use the Dusun Baru dialect.[19] This dialect is not to be confused with another dialect spoken in Dusun Baru near the town center of Sungai Penuh. Next to the latter Dusun Baru speech area, the Sungai Penuh dialect is spoken, separated by a market from Pondok Tinggi. In turn, the Koto Renah dialect is spoken only a market away from Pondok Tinggi, while Koto Keras is almost contiguous with Koto Renah.[20] The Kerinci dialect has various variations that differ in both phonological and lexical aspects among the dialects. However, the dialects are generally mutually intelligible with one another.[19] The Kerinci language is also known for its phonological variations, such as the sound [a] at the end position before [t]. In the Sungai Penuh, [a] changes to [e], in Pondok Tinggi it becomes [uə], while in Lempur and Semurup it remains [a], and in Dusun Baru, it changes to [o].[21] An illustration of phonological distinctions across Kerinci dialects can be observed in the pronunciation of the word "girl". In Sungai Penuh dialect, it may be pronounced as gadɔyh/gadeih, in Tanjung Pauh as gadeh/gadyh, and in Koto Keras as gaduh/gadi.[13]

The following table compares several dialects spoken in the vicinity of Sungai Penuh (less than 7-kilometre from the town centre):[20]

Dialectal variation in Kerinci[22][a] Standard
Malay  | Pondok
Tinggi  | Koto
Renah  | Koto
Keras  | Sungai
Penuh  | Dusun
Baru  | Rawang  | Sungai
Deras  | Tanjung
Pauh Mudik

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

gəlas
'glass'  | gəloah
gəleh | gəloʌh
gəleh | gəlɔh
gəleh | gəlɛh
gəlɛih | gəloah
gəlɛh | gəlaoh
gəlɛh | gəlouh
gəlejh | glih
glɨjh
duri
'thorn'  | duhoi
duhi | duhui
duhi | duhu
duhi | duhoi
duhi | duhui
duhi | duhiw
duhɛw | duhuh
duhi | duhʌe
duhɨj
batu
'stone'  | bateu
batu | bati
batu | batiu
batu | bateu
batu | batiu
batu | batɛw
batiw | bati
batu | batəo
batɨw

In addition, Kerinci language spoken in Malaysia has diverged from its original form and is no longer spoken as it is by native Kerinci speakers in Indonesia. The Kerinci language in Malaysia has been significantly influenced by local languages such as Malay, thus deviating from the Kerinci language spoken in the Kerinci region in Jambi.[23]

## Phonology

[edit]

### Vowels

[edit]

The table below illustrates the vowel inventories of the Pondok Tinggi dialect of Kerinci:[24]

Pondok Tinggi vowels[25] | Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

Close | i |  | u
Mid | e | ə | o
Open |  | a |

Pondok Tinggi /e/ and /o/ in closed syllables have the allophones of [ɛ] and [ɔ], respectively.[26] The latter two vowels, however, are phonemic in the Sungai Penuh dialect.[27]

Sungai Penuh vowels[27] | Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

Close | i |  | u
Mid | e | ə | o
Open-mid  | ɛ |  | ɔ
Open |  | a |

Pondok Tinggi Kerinci has a rich inventory of diphthongs—that is, sequences of vowels within the same syllable that can be considered a single V segment.[28] Ernanda lists a total of 12 diphthongs for the Pondok Tinggi dialect, given in the table below according to whether the sequences are opening or closing (i.e., whether they are moving towards open/low vowels or closed/high vowels). Diphthongs /ia/ and /ao/ are only found in open syllables.[29]

Pondok Tinggi diphthongs[30] | Open syllable | Closed syllable

|
|

Opening | ia | iɟia 'nothing'  |
ua | ladua 'field.A'
ɟalua 'road.A'  | gaguah 'handsome.A'
banuaʔ 'to give birth.A'
oa | dəroa 'scattered.A’
guloa 'dish.A'  | ɟəloah 'clear.A’
gəloah 'glass.A'
ea | buŋea 'flower.A'
dadea 'chest.A'  | təgeaʔ 'well-built.A'
deaʔ 'TAG'
Closing | ai | matai 'to die.A'
cucai 'to wash.A'  | laŋaiʔ 'sky.A'
sihaih 'betel.A'
au | kalau 'necklace.A'
cucau 'grandchild.A'  | ambauʔ 'hair.A'
kukauh 'firm.A'
ae | pakae 'to wear.A'
lantae 'floor.A'  | kapaeh 'cotton.A'
kambaeʔ 'goat.A'
ao | warnao 'color.A'
ɲatao 'real.A'  |
eu | abeu 'ash.A'
sudeu 'spoon.A'  | tədeuh 'shaded.A'
kəɟeuʔ 'to surprise.A'
ei | cucei 'to wash.O'
pikei 'to think.O'  | iteiʔ 'duck.O'
puteih 'white.O'
oi | ganɟoi 'odd.A'
guloi 'to roll on.A'  | baloiʔ 'to come back.A’
bətoih 'calf.A’
ou | kayou 'wood.O'
tipou 'to cheat.O'  | kukouh 'firm.O'
maŋkouʔ 'bowl.O'

Sungai Penuh dialect has a fewer inventory of contrastive diphthongs, with the total number of 7.[31]

Sungai Penuh diphthongs[27][32] | Open syllable | Closed syllable

|
|

Closing | ei | bibei 'lips.A'  | kəleih 'to see.A'
eu | buceu 'to leak.A'  | tubeuh 'body.A'
ɛu | abɛu 'ashes.A'  | daɛuŋ 'leaf.A'
ɔi | bəhɔi 'to give.A'  | gigɔiʔ 'to bite.A'
ou | iɟou 'green.O'  | pəlouʔ 'to embrace.O'
ai | kakai 'foot.A'  | kulaiʔ 'skin.A'
au | kutau 'louse.A'  | pəhauʔ 'belly.A'

All diphthongs appear only in final syllables.[27] Other Kerinci dialects may distinguish different sets of vowel phonemes; cf. Tanjung Pauh Mudik with 9 plain vowels and 7 diphthongs,[33] or Semerap with 7–8 plain vowels[b] and 8 diphthongs.[34]

### Consonants

[edit]

There are nineteen consonants in Pondok Tinggi Kerinci.[35] The table below illustrates the consonant inventory of Pondok Tinggi:[36]

Pondok Tinggi consonants[36] | Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|

Plosive | voiceless | p | t | c | k | ʔ
voiced | b | d | ɟ | ɡ |
Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ |
Fricative |  | s |  |  | h
Lateral |  | l |  |  |
Trill |  | r |  |  |
Approximant | w |  | j ⟨y⟩ |  |

Sungai Penuh consonant inventory is identical to that of Pondok Tinggi with the addition of /z/,[31] which is a native phoneme (not borrowed) historically derived from medial /ŋs/ cluster, cf. Standard Malay kelongsong vs. Sungai Penuh kaluzɔŋ/kaluzon 'wrapper'.[37]

### Morphophonology

[edit]

Within a word, the presence of a voiced obstruent (/b/, /d/, /ɟ/, or /ɡ/) that is not preceded by a homorganic nasal consonant alter its final rime. Words with a non-prenasalized voiced obstruent are labeled "G-words", while those that do not have such obstruent are called "K-words". This distinction is apparent in words that historically share the same final rimes, such as shown in the table below, with examples from Pondok Tinggi.[38]

K-words and G-words[39] Historical
rimes  | K-words  | G-words

|
|

*-i  | kakai
kakei
'leg'  | dakoi
daki
'to climb'
*-u  | malau
malou
'shy'  | buleu
bulu
'fur'
*-ah  | pindah
pindoh
'to move'  | gunduah
gundoh
'depressed'

As can also be seen from the examples given in the table above, the final vowel rimes in Pondok Tinggi G-words are generally higher than those in K-words.[40] The historical *-i corresponds to modern Pondok Tinggi -ai/-ei in K-words and -oi/-i in G-words, while historical *-u corresponds to -au/-ou in K-words and -eu/-u in G-words. The word pindah/pindoh, while having a voiced obstruent, is not counted as a G-word since the obstruent is preceded by a homorganic nasal. The word gunduah/gundoh, on the other hand, has another voiced obstruent that is not part of a homorganic nasal-obstruent sequence, so it still undergoes the change associated with a G-word.[39]

This process is still productive in modern Pondok Tinggi Kerinci. For example, if the passive prefix di- (which contains a voiced obsturent) is attached to a K-word, the word would turn into a G-word and changes its final rime. However, this change would be blocked if the initial consonant of the root is also an obstruent.[41]

(1)

[Pondok Tinggi]

ambaiɁ/ambeiɁ

ihan/ihin

paŋkau/paŋkou

'to take'

'to accompany'

'to hold'

diamboiɁ/diambiɁ

diihon/diihin

dipaŋkau/dipaŋkou

'be taken'

'be along with s.o.'

'be held'

ambaiɁ/ambeiɁ {'to take'} → diamboiɁ/diambiɁ {'be taken'}

ihan/ihin {'to accompany'} → diihon/diihin {'be along with s.o.'}

paŋkau/paŋkou {'to hold'} → dipaŋkau/dipaŋkou {'be held'}

If a G-word loses its voiced obstruent due to prefixation, it would become a K-word and its final rime changes accordingly. This happens, for example, when the active prefix N- alters the initial obstruent of a root to a homorganic nasal.[42][c]

(2)

[Pondok Tinggi]

bəŋoih/bəŋih

dakoi/daki

məŋaih/məŋeih

nakai/nakei

'to be angry at'

'to climb'

bəŋoih/bəŋih → məŋaih/məŋeih {'to be angry at'}

dakoi/daki → nakai/nakei {'to climb'}

### Truncation

[edit]

Words in various Kerinci dialects, including Pondok Tinggi and Sungai Penuh, exhibit phonologically truncated or clipped forms that are both semantically and grammatically interchangeable with their full forms.[44][45] This stands in contrasts with truncation in other traditional Malayic lects, which generally affects only certain classes of words (e.g. aspect markers) or marks certain grammatical functions, e.g. Jambi Malay vocative mᵇɪŋ 'hey goat!' from kamᵇɪŋ 'goat'.[46] Compare the following examples from Sungai Penuh, where both truncated and full forms have the same glosses:[47]

(3)

[Sungai Penuh]

pəgɔi

ləzɛ

gɔi

'to go'

'clean'

pəgɔi → gɔi {'to go'}

ləzɛ → zɛ {'clean'}

In Pondok Tinggi, truncation may affect most parts of speech and all kinds of sound. Ernanda observes that it generally happens in unstressed syllables, frequently deleting the initial syllable, or its onset (particularly if it is bilabial). It can happen on a phrasal level, and for longer words, there is a tendency to elide the word-medial syllable. Truncation also interferes with the phonological alternation between K-words and G-words. For example, K-words that have been changed to G-words due to the addition of voiced obstruents from prefixation will not revert back to their original forms when truncated:[48]

(4)

[Pondok Tinggi]

di-

bar-

LOC[d]

STAT

umah

anaʔ

'house.A'

'child.A'

diumuah

baranuaʔ

'at home'

'to give birth'

dumuah

banuaʔ

umuah

anuaʔ

di- LOC[d] \+ umah {'house.A'} → diumuah {'at home'} → dumuah → umuah

bar- STAT \+ anaʔ {'child.A'} → baranuaʔ {'to give birth'} → banuaʔ → anuaʔ

In the dialect of Tanjung Pauh Mudik, the truncated monosyllabic forms are very common in naturalistic speech, to the point that the full forms found in the oral literary register (such as that of the kunaung) are considered archaic by its speakers.[46]

## Grammar

[edit]

### Phrasal alternation

[edit]

This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (June 2024)

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### Affixes

[edit]

The Kerinci language has a number of affixes that can join with the base word to form an affixed word.[49] There are three types of affixes in Kerinci: prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. Similar to other Malayic languages, Kerinci words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes. The root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C). Affixes are "glued" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words.

#### Prefixes

[edit]

The prefixes commonly used in Kerinci include ba-, di-, N-, ta-, pa-, ma-, ka-, and sa-.[50] Examples showcasing the usage of the prefix ba- are shown below:

* ba- + lahai 'run': balahoi 'to be running'
* ba- + tanak 'livestock': batanak 'to raise livestock'
* ba- + buloy 'fur': babuloy furry'
* ba- + sataw 'one': basataw 'unite'

Examples showcasing the usage of the prefix di- are shown below:

* di- \+ bli 'buy': dibli 'be bought'
* di- \+ bene 'right': dibene 'be fixed'
* di- \+ rusak 'damage': dirusak 'be damaged'
* di- \+ saain 'rival': disaain 'be rivaled'

Examples showcasing the usage of the prefix N- are shown below:

* N- \+ udud 'cigarette': ngudud 'to smoke'
* N- \+ buka 'open': mukak 'to open'
* N- \+ antak 'drop', 'send': ngantak 'to drop off'
* N- \+ gawe 'do': ngawe 'to do'

Examples showcasing the usage of the prefix ta- are shown below:

* ta- \+ panggang 'burn': tapanggang 'burnt'
* ta- \+ panjang 'long': tapanjang 'longest'
* ta- \+ pandak 'short': tapandak 'shortest'
* ta- \+ lemak 'delicious': talemak 'most delicious'

Examples showcasing the usage of the prefix pa- are shown below:

* pa- \+ tinggay 'tall': patinggay 'make taller'
* pa- \+ mace 'read': pamace 'reader'
* pa- \+ minan 'drink': paminan 'drinker'
* pa- \+ malayh 'lazy': pamalayh 'lazy person'

Examples showcasing the usage of the prefix ma- are shown below:

* ma- \+ lumpak 'jump': malumpak 'to jump'
* ma- \+ pahalawh 'smoothen': mapahalawh 'to smoothen'
* ma- \+ rapak 'get close': marapak 'to get close'
* ma- \+ inak 'remember': mainak 'to remember'

Examples showcasing the usage of the prefix ka- are shown below:

* ka- \+ lapo 'hungry': kalapo 'feeling hungry'
* ka- \+ dingin 'cold': kadingin 'feeling cold'
* ka- \+ ragun 'doubtful': karagun 'feeling doubtful'
* ka- \+ teih 'up': kateih 'upstairs'

Examples showcasing the usage of the prefix sa- are shown below:

* sa- \+ ilaêk 'good': sailaêk 'as good as'
* sa- \+ dusen 'hamlet': sadusen 'entire hamlet'
* sa- \+ paneh 'hot': sapaneh 'as hot as'
* sa- \+ gantang 'bushel': sagantang 'a bushel'

#### Suffixes

[edit]

In the Kerinci language, there is only one suffix, which is -lah.[51] Examples showcasing the usage of the suffix -lah are shown below:

* Kainanlah jeleh-jeleh sebelum ngambik kaputusan. 'Think calmly before making a decision'
* Datenglah sakalai-sakalai kumah kamai. 'Come to our house once in a while'
* Biua woelah nyo nangaih luo kamar. 'Just let her cry outside the room'
* Mamok kamai ielah gepeuk nga gdon tinggai. 'Our uncle is fat and tall'

#### Infixes

[edit]

There is only one infix in the Kerinci language, which is -ar-.[51] Examples showcasing the usage of the infix -ar- are shown below:

* -ar- + ayei 'water': barayei 'watery'
* -ar- + agi 'yeast': baragi 'yeasty'
* -ar- + ameh 'gold': barameh 'golden'
* -ar- + adeik 'younger sibling': baradeik 'have a younger sibling'

### Reduplication

[edit]

Reduplication in the Kerinci language can be divided into noun, verb, adjective, and numeral reduplication.[52] There are three types of verb reduplication, which are verb-forming reduplication that means repetitive action, verb-forming reduplication that means doing something with enjoyment, and verb-forming reduplication that means mutual action. Examples of verb-forming reduplication that means repetitive action are shown below:

* maco-maco 'to skim through'
* manjat-manjat 'to climb around'
* aloy-aloy 'to look around'

Examples of verb-forming reduplication that means doing something with enjoyment are shown below:

* minan-minan 'to drink casually'
* masak-masak 'to cook casually'
* tidew-tidew 'to sleep casually'

Examples of verb-forming reduplication that means mutual action are shown below:

* batangoyh-tangoyh 'to cry together'
* baragoyh-ragoyh 'to share together'

There are two types of noun reduplication, which are noun-forming reduplication that means 'many' and noun-forming reduplication that means 'like' or 'resembling'. Examples of noun-forming reduplication that means 'many' are shown below:

* anak-anak 'kids'
* gloyh-gloyh 'glasses'
* pisan-pisan 'bananas'

Examples of noun-forming reduplication noun-forming reduplication that means 'like' or 'resembling are shown below:

* kudow-kudow 'horse'
* umoh-umoh 'house'

There are three types of adjective reduplication, which are adjective-forming reduplication that denotes plurality, adjective-forming reduplication that indicates atmosphere, and adjective-forming reduplication that expresses condition. Examples of adjective-forming reduplication that denotes plurality are shown below:

* gduê-gduê 'very large'
* panja-panja 'very long'
* putaêh-putaêh 'very white'

Examples of adjective-forming reduplication that indicates atmosphere are shown below:

* bagduê-gduê 'on a large scale'

Examples of adjective-forming reduplication that expresses condition are shown below:

* sakayk-sakayk 'frequently sick'
* payah-payah 'persistently difficult'
* pnak-pnak 'continuously exhausted'

There is only one type of numeral word reduplication, which is the numeral-forming reduplication that indicates formation. Examples are:

* tigeê-tigeê 'three-three' or 'formation of three-three'
* dueê-dueê 'two-two'

### Nouns

[edit]

In the Kerinci language, noun can be divided into basic nouns, inflective nouns and derivative nouns.[53] Basic nouns are used when the word stands alone and is not modified. These basic nouns can occupy the positions of subject and object in a sentence, such as:

* apuêk mley bajew 'dad is buying clothes'
* nyo makan pisa 'he's a eating a banana'
* anok toh gadoyh 'that child is a girl'
* kakak minum ubuêk 'elder sibling is eating medicine'

Inflectional nouns are derived from basic words that undergo phoneme changes when the basic word is modified by another word, such as:

* pisa dalon pingga 'banana on a plate'
* pisan kunan toh dalon pingga 'that yellow banana is on a plate'
* jawow sitow 'cow over there'
* jawi putaêh sitow 'that white cow over there'

Derivative nouns are combinations of the prefix pa- with nouns, verbs, or adjectives, such as:

* pa- \+ tani 'farm': patani 'farmer'
* pa- \+ daguê 'trade': padaguê 'merchant' or 'trader'
* pa- \+ tulayh 'writer': patulayh 'writer'
* pa- \+ baceê 'read': pabaceê 'reader'

In addition, pluralization of nouns in the Kerinci language can be expressed by reduplication and numerals, such as:

* sawoh-sawoh 'lots of farms'
* umah-umah 'lots of houses'
* duwo uha 'two person'
* tujuh umoh 'seven houses'

### Verbs

[edit]

Verbs are words that denotes an action performed by a noun, such as binen ('drink'), tidew ('sleep'), baceê ('read'), tulayh ('write') and agoyh ('give').[54] According to their forms, verbs can be divided into basic verbs, inflectional verbs, and derivative verbs. Basic verbs are generally used in imperative sentences, such as:

* tulayhlah 'write it'
* baceêlah 'read it'
* agoylah 'give it'
* tidewlah 'go sleep'

Inflectional verbs are basic verbs used as intransitive or transitive verbs. These verbs undergo phoneme changes from the basic verb. Inflectional verbs occur due to the combination of prefixes and basic verbs, such as:

* nyo nulayh 'he is writing'
* nyo manjak 'he is climbing'
* nyo macaê 'he is reading'

On the other hand, Derivative verbs originate from the combination of prefixes /N-/, /ma-/, /ba-/, /di-/, and /pa-/ with nouns, adjectives, and numerals, such as:

* mangkao 'to hack using a hoe'
* babaoêk 'to get close with each other'
* nakawk 'to scare'
* malemah 'to weaken'

### Adjectives

[edit]

According to its form, adjectives in the Kerinci language are divided into basic adjectives and inflected adjectives.[55] According to their function, they can be classified into attributive and predicative functions. Adjectives can be modified by several modifiers, such as nya 'the....one', nya 'so....', sanat 'very', liwak 'very', laboyh 'more', palin 'most', and samo 'same'. Basic adjectives can be modified by modifiers, such as:

* ita nya 'so black'
* tingay nya 'so tall'
* nya pandak 'the short one'
* lebih tinggay 'taller'
* nya barsoyh 'the clean one'
* samo brot 'same weight'

Inflected adjectives are basic adjectives that undergo phonemic changes when modified by the modifier sangat or liwak, which both means 'very', such as:

* sangat itan 'very black'
* sangat bersih 'very clean'
* liwak pande 'very short'
* liwak tinggay 'very tall'

### Numerals

[edit]

Numerals in the Kerinci language, like in standard Indonesian, can be divided into two main types: definite numerals and indefinite numerals.[56] Definite numerals are numerals that indicate a specific quantity, such as:

* sataw 'one'
* dueê 'two'
* mpak 'four'
* limao 'five'
* limo pulaoh 'fifty'
* limo ratawh 'five hundred'

Indefinite numerals are numerals that do not indicate a specific quantity, such as:

* banyuêk 'many'
* dikoyk 'little'

Definite numerals like pulaoh 'tens', ratowh 'hundreds', ribu 'thousands', and juta 'millions' when given the prefix ba- can be classified into indefinite numerals, such as: bapulaoh 'tens of', baratawh 'hundreds of', baribu 'thousands of', and bajuta 'millions of'. In its usage, numerals can have the form of cardinal numerals and ordinal numerals. The basic numeral words denoting units, such as: sataw 'satu', na 'enam', tujeuh 'tujuh', salapa 'delapan', and so forth, in inflected forms can be added with numeral words pulawh 'puluh', ratawh 'ratus', ribu 'ribu', jutea 'juta', like:

* sapulawh 'ten'
* duwo ratewh 'two hundred'
* nan ribu 'six thousand'
* sajuta 'one million'

Cardinal numerals can be used in reduplcation, such as:

* sataw-sataw 'one by one'
* dueê-dueê 'two by two'
* tigeê-tigeê 'three by three'
* na-na 'six by six'

Numerals can also be prefixed with /pa-/, such as:

* padueê 'to make into two'
* patigeê 'to make into three'
* pampak 'to make into four'
* pabanyuêk 'to make into many'

### Pronouns

[edit]

Personal pronouns in Kerinci consist of first person singular and plural pronouns, such as: akaw 'I', kamay 'we', kitao 'we'; second person singular and plural pronouns, such as: mpao 'you (male)' (younger than the speaker), kaaw 'you (female)' (younger than the speaker), ikao 'you' (same age as the speaker), kayao 'you' (older than the speaker).[57] In certain situations, the second person singular pronouns can be specified further by distinguishing levels and statuses, for example:

* twao ('eldest sibling'), twaruwao ('eldest uncle), taruwao ('eldest aunt')
* tngah ('second oldest sibling'), twarengah ('second oldest uncle'), tarengah ('second oldest aunt')
* nsaw ('youngest family member'), twansaw ('youngest uncle'), tansaw ('youngest aunt')

For third person singular and plural pronouns, the following words are usually used: no 'he/she', diyuê 'he/she (respectful)', uha 'they'.

Examples of interrogative pronouns for objects or people in Kerinci language are: apo 'what', sapo 'who'.

Examples of demonstrative pronouns for objects are itoh 'that', ineh 'this'.

## Vocabulary

[edit]

The Kerinci language has extensively borrowed words from other languages, particularly Minangkabau and Indonesian.[58] Indonesian is the national language of Indonesia and serves as the language of communication in official settings, such as government institutions and schools. As education levels rise, there is greater exposure to Indonesian, resulting in the Kerinci language increasingly absorbing loanwords from Indonesian. On the other hand, the significant number of loanwords from Minangkabau is due to historical contact between Kerinci and Minangkabau speakers. These two languages are not only spoken in contiguous areas, but from the beginning until now, many people from West Sumatra have migrated to Kerinci to establish businesses, work, and even marry native Kerinci speakers. Additionally, the Minangkabau language is commonly used by spoken in Sungai Penuh, the central trade hub in Kerinci. Almost all the shopkeepers in Sungai Penuh speak Minangkabau.[58] Lastly, the Kerinci language is also related to Jambi Malay, which serves as the lingua franca in eastern Jambi. It is estimated that up to 80% of Kerinci vocabularies has a similarity with Jambi Malay.[6]

A small number of Kerinci vocabulary has also been influenced by Dutch, with words like uto ('car'), derived from the Dutch word auto, and potlot ('pencil'), derived from the Dutch word potlood.[59]

Below are examples of commonly used Kerinci vocabulary along with their Indonesian and English translations:

### Numerals

[edit]

Number  | Kerinci  | Indonesian  | English

|
|
|

1  | sataw | satu | one
2  | dueê, duwo | dua | two
3  | tigo | tiga | three
4  | mpak | empat | four
5  | limo, limao | lima | five
6  | na, nan | enam | six
7  | tujeuh | tujuh | seven
8  | salapa, lapan | delapan | eight
9  | sambilan | sembilan | nine
10  | sapulawh | sepuluh | ten
11  | sabloih | sebelas | eleven
20  | duwo pulawh | dua puluh | twenty
50  | limo pulawh | lima puluh | fifty
100  | saratewh | seratus | one hundred
500  | limo ratewh | lima ratus | five hundred
1000  | saribu | seribu | one thousand
5000  | limo ribu | lima ribu | five thousand
100,000  | saratewh ribu | seratus ribu | one hundred thousand
1,000,000  | sajuta, sataw juta | sejuta, satu juta | one million

### Directions

[edit]

Kerinci  | Indonesian  | English

|
|

ineh | ini | this
itoh | itu | that
siney | sini | here
sitow | situ, sana | sana
disiney | disini | over here
disitow | disitu, disana | over there
kahey | kesini | go here
kiyon | kesitu, kesana | go there
kidan | kiri | left
kanan | kanan | right
lateh | atas | up
bawah | bawah | down
hulu | utara | north
hilir | selatan | south
muare | timur | east
mudik | barat | west

### Personal Pronouns

[edit]

Kerinci  | Indonesian  | English

|
|

akaw, kaw | aku, saya | I, me
mpao | dia | he (younger than speaker)
kaaw | dia | she (younger than speaker)
ikao | dia | he/she (same age as speaker)
kayao | dia | he/she (older than speaker)
no, nya | dia | he/she (neutral)
kamay, kitao | kami, kita | we
uha | mereka | they

### Interrogatives Pronouns

[edit]

Kerinci  | Indonesian  | English

|
|

sapo | siapa | who
apo | apa | what
piyao | kenapa, mengapa | why
manao | mana, dimana | where
bilea, pabilea | kapan | when
manan | gimana, bagaimana | how
apea | berapa | how much
bileê | bila, apabila | if

### Nouns

[edit]

Kerinci  | Indonesian  | English

|
|

umoh | rumah | house
bateu | batu | stone
ksek | pasir | sand
sawoh | sawah | farm
uto | mobil | car
potlot | pensil | pencil
sayow | sayur | vegetable
lantaê | lantai | floor
laook | ikan | fish
kpa | kapal | ship
kapaêh | kapas | cotton
kabewk | kabut | fog
dahuêh | darah | blood
bumoy | bumi | earth
anayn | angin | wind
ambaw | rambut | hair
bal | bola | ball

### Verbs

[edit]

Kerinci  | Indonesian  | English

|
|

angkak | angkat | to carry
bankoyk | bangun | wake up
caboyk | robek | to tear
lahoy | lari | to run
gambuê | gambar | to draw
gawoê | kerja | to work
kampao | kumpul | to gather
tutawk | tutup | to close
dudeuk | duduk | to sit
janjoy  | janji | to promise
inak | inget | to remember

### Adjectives

[edit]

Kerinci  | Indonesian  | English

|
|

tinggai | tinggi | tall
ilaok | cantik | beautiful
buhuak, buhok | buruk | bad
gmouk | gemuk | fat
banyeak | banyak | many
muhah | murah | cheap
baranoy | berani | brave
lemak | enak, sedap | delicious
lkeh | cepat | fast
talambat | terlambat | late
rajain | rajin | hardworking
maleh | malas | lazy
sakiek | sakit | sick
kreh | keras | hard

### Sample Text

[edit]

The following text is an excerpt from the official translation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Indonesian and Kerinci, along with the original declaration in English:

English[60] | Indonesia[61] | Kerinci
(Sungai Penuh Dialect)

|
|

Universal Declaration of Human Rights | Pernyataan Umum tentang Hak Asasi Manusia | Panyata Saduniê Pakarò Hak-Hak Manusiò
Article 1 | Pasal 1 | Pasal 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. | Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan. | Sadou manusiò dilahe mardikê dan nahouh darjat ugê hak-hak ngan samò. Galou uhang dibêhòi akang nga atei dan musti ideuk basamò uhang laain sarupò uhang badusanak.

## Writing system

[edit]

Government signs in Kerinci Regency and Sungai Penuh are now bilingual, featuring both Latin and Incung script

Historically, the Kerinci language was written in the Incung script (Suhat Incoung). The Incung script is the only known indigenous script discovered in central Sumatra, related to both the Lampung script, employed in the Lampung language, and the Rencong script, used in the Rejang language of southern Sumatra. Linguistically, incung means slanted or tilted in the Kerinci language.[62] This script is composed of straight lines, broken and tilted segments, and curves, written at a slight angle. The Incung script is a cultural heritage left by the ancestors of the Kerinci people. This script was used to document the history of the ancestors, literature in the form of romantic and sorrowful prose, customary agreements, and spells.[63]

There is a belief among the Kerinci people that the creation of the script and the birth of literature stem from a background of cultural manifestation encompassing nature, humanity, and divinity as a whole. Consequently, the literature of the Kerinci people written on buffalo horns, bamboo, bark, cloth, and paper is considered sacred and revered. This belief remains strong in the cultural life of the Kerinci community even today. Since the 19th century, these manuscripts have been regarded as sacred objects by the Kerinci people. The Incung script was still actively used by the Kerinci people until around 1825. With the onset of the 20th century and the spread of Islam into the Kerinci community, the use of the Incung script has gradually dwindled as a means of written communication. This decline can be attributed to the growing influence of Islamic culture on the Kerinci community, leading to a shift away from the Incung script. Consequently, the Kerinci people have transitioned towards using the Jawi script (also known as Arab-Malay) for written communication.[64]

There are now very few experts who can write and read the Incung script. As a result, these ancient manuscripts written in the Incung script are threatened with extinction and abandonment by future generations.[65] This may be due to a lack of interest in reading and studying them because the script is no longer familiar to people. Additionally, the manuscripts are kept and revered by their owners, leading to a lack of desire to read, study, internalize, and disseminate the contents and values contained within them. These manuscripts hold many moral, social, cultural, historical, educational, and other values. These values or knowledge are meaningful not only in the past and present but also in the future.

The manuscripts written in the Incung script are not only scattered in the homes of residents as sacred heirlooms but are also stored in the Jambi State Museum and the National Museum of Indonesia in Jakarta. Abroad, they are kept at Leiden in the Netherlands. Currently, in Jambi, there is growing interest and attention from certain parties and government agencies to preserve and study the Incung script. Efforts include transliterating the Incung script into Latin script, conducting research, teaching reading and writing of the Incung script in schools, and using the Incung script for naming government agencies and streets, among other initiatives.[66][15]

Presently, the Kerinci language is written in various scripts including the original Incung, Latin, and Jawi. Latin script has become the predominant choice due to its widespread usage across Indonesia. Incung is primarily reserved for cultural practices and rituals, whereas Jawi finds its niche in religious contexts or within Islamic educational institutions such as Pesantren.[67]

## Literature

[edit]

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|

The Kerinci community frequently uses proverbs and idioms to communicate social values.[68] One Kerinci proverb, bajalan kincie karno ayiek, bagoyang dahan karno angin ('Walking mill because of water, swaying branches because of wind'), illustrates cause and effect. Another proverb, apo digaduh pengayuh samo di tangan biduk samo di aek ('Sitting equal, standing equal'), symbolizes the principle of equal rights and responsibilities.[68] Another example, bak membelah betung, sebelah dipijak, sebelah lagi diangkat tinggi-tinggi ('Like splitting a bamboo, one part is stepped on while the other is lifted high'), invokes a person who is willing to sacrifice others to achieve their goals. Pantun, a type of oral poetic form commonly found in the Malay world is also widespread in the Kerinci community.

Below is an example of a Kerinci pantun along with the Indonesian and English translation:[69]

Kerinci  | Indonesian  | English

|
|

Cinak ini ruponyo ahi

Patut nian buladang bawang.

Cinak ini ruponyo kami
Patut nian kami tibuang.

Tigo luhah tanah sikudung
Rumah gedang tempat berunding.

Kato alah sudah kami tilangsung
Kayo buralih ngan uhang lain.

Bukan rakit ngato nak pnoh
Buluh tirendam nak pnoh jugo.

Bukan punyakit ngato nak munoh
Rindu ngan dendam nak munoh jugo.

Tinggi nyo bukik samo di daki
Luhah ngan dalam samo ditempuh.

Tunggu lah kayo ranah kurinci

Bialah kami tibuang jauh.

Beginilah rupanya hari
Patut sekali berladang bawang.

Beginilah rupanya kami
Patut sekali kami terbuang.

Tiga lurah tanah sikudung
Rumah gadang tempat berunding.

Kata kita sudah sepakat
Anda beralih dengan orang lain.

Bukan rakit namanya jika penuh
Buluh terendam akan penuh juga.

Bukan penyakit yang akan membunuh
Rindu dan dendam akan membunuh juga.

Tinggi bukit sama didaki
Lurah yang dalam sama ditempuh.

Tunggulah kamu tanah Kerinci
Biarlah kami terbuang jauh.

Such is the day
It's worth cultivating onions.

So it is that we are
We are worth being discarded.

Three village chiefs in the land of Sikudung
Rumah Gadang, a place for deliberation.

Our words have reached an agreement
You switched to someone else.

It's not a raft if it's full
The bamboo submerged will also be full.

It's not illness that will kill
Longing and resentment will kill too.

The hill's height is the same when climbed
The deep valley is traversed the same.

Wait for us, land of Kerinci.
Let us be cast away far.

The Kerinci language is also known for its folklore, which locally is known as kunaung.[70] Kunaung is considered one of the oral literary traditions; some can be simply narrated, sung, and there are also those accompanied by specific traditional musical instruments. The accompanying musical instruments for kunaung performances vary, with the most common being the rebana and drum, but there are also instances of flute and gong usage. Some kunaung performances are solely accompanied by empty tin cans.[70] Kunaung storytellers are often skilled at expressing the emotions of the story. According to the tales, these ancient storytellers are guided or even possessed by spirits and fairies, allowing them to become deeply immersed in their narratives. They can articulate (or share) their stories fluently, making it seem as if the events are unfolding right before their audience's eyes.[70] Examples of kunaung include Putri Kemilau Air Emas, Orang Mudo Si Jaru Pantang and Semegang Tunggal from Sitinjau Laut district, Bujang Suanggau and Bujang Buje from Sungai Penuh district, Si Jaru Panta, Si Kembang Payung Paya, Siyo-Siyo Kau Tupai, Puti Limo, Puti Cikkettung and Burung Kuwa from Danau Kerinci district), as well as Nyik Kileng from Gunung Kerinci district.[70]

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Each of the Malay words in the table corresponds to two Kerinci forms: the absolute and oblique forms (on their usage, see #Phrasal alternation). Whenever two Kerinci forms are mentioned side by side in this article, the first or the upper form is always the absolute one.
2. ^ The phonemic status of Semerap schwa is uncertain.[34]
3. ^ Following the usual practice in Malay linguistics, both the root forms and the prefixed active forms are glossed as infinitives.[43]
4. ^ Homophonic with the passive prefix.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "Badan Pusat Statistik". jambi.bps.go.id. Retrieved 2021-12-26.
2. ^ a b c Sugono, Dendy; Sasangka, S. S. T. Wisnu; Rivay, Ovi Soviaty (2017). Sugono, Dendy; Sasangka, S. S. T. Wisnu; Rivay, Ovi Soviaty (eds.). Bahasa dan peta bahasa di Indonesia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. p. 37.
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5. ^ Between worlds: linguistic papers in memory of David John Prentice. K. Alexander Adelaar, D. J. Prentice, R. A. Blust, Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, the Australian National University. 2002. ISBN 0-85883-478-2. OCLC 51647238.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: others (link)
6. ^ a b Sholeha, Monica; Hendrokumoro (2022). "Kekerabatan Bahasa Kerinci, Melayu Jambi, dan Minangkabau" [Kinship of Kerinci, Jambi Malay, and Minangkabau Language]. DIGLOSIA: Jurnal Kajian Bahasa, Sastra, Dan Pengajarannya (in Indonesian). 5 (2): 399–420\. doi:10.30872/diglosia.v5i2.404. eISSN 2615-8655. ISSN 2615-725X.399-420&rft.date=2022&rft.issn=2615-725X&rft.eissn=2615-8655&rft_id=info:doi/10.30872/diglosia.v5i2.404&rft.aulast=Sholeha&rft.aufirst=Monica&rft.au=Hendrokumoro&rft_id=https://diglosiaunmul.com/index.php/diglosia/article/view/404&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
7. ^ a b Budi (2018-08-22). "Kemendikbud Ungkap Penyebab Bahasa Kerinci Terancam Punah". JPNN.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2021-12-27.
8. ^ Andaya, Leonard Y. (2001), "The Search for the 'Origins' of Melayu" (PDF), Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 32 (3): 315–330, doi:10.1017/s0022463401000169, JSTOR 20072349, S2CID 62886471, archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017, retrieved 13 October 2019315-330&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62886471#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20072349#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/s0022463401000169&rft.aulast=Andaya&rft.aufirst=Leonard+Y.&rft_id=http://sabrizain.org/malaya/library/search.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
9. ^ Van Reijn, E.O. (1974). "Some Remarks on the Dialects of North Kerintji: A link with Mon-Khmer Languages." Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 31, 2: 130–138.
10. ^ Adelaar, K. Alexander; Himmelmann, Nikolaus (2013-03-07). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge. ISBN 9781136755095.
11. ^ Zulyani, Hidayah (2015). Ensiklopedia Suku Bangsa di Indonesia. Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia. ISBN 9789794619292. OCLC 913647590.
12. ^ a b Nur Farahkhanna Mohd Rusli; Abdul Aziz, Adi Yasran; Abdul Jobar, Norfaizah (2022-12-01). "Representasi Fitur Vokal Bahasa Kerinci: Satu Penilaian Semula Berdasarkan Teori Fonologi Autosegmental" [Representation of Vowel Features in Kerinci Language: A Reassessment Based on Autosegmental Phonology Theory]. MANU Jurnal Pusat Penataran Ilmu Dan Bahasa (in Malay). 33 (2): 45–80\. doi:10.51200/manu.v33i2.3839. ISSN 2590-4086.45-80&rft.date=2022-12-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.51200/manu.v33i2.3839&rft.issn=2590-4086&rft.au=Nur+Farahkhanna+Mohd+Rusli&rft.au=Abdul+Aziz,+Adi+Yasran&rft.au=Abdul+Jobar,+Norfaizah&rft_id=https://jurcon.ums.edu.my/ojums/index.php/MANU/article/view/3839&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
13. ^ a b Rahman, Fadlul; Yandri, Yandri; Gani, Maulid Hariri (2019-07-17). "Variations in Kerinci Language of Rawang Isolect". Krinok: Jurnal Linguistik Budaya (in Indonesian). 4 (1). doi:10.36355/krinok.v4i1.336 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 2580-0728.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
14. ^ Diyanti, Viki (2021-07-05). "Sapaan kekerabatan bahasa Kerinci di Kecamatan Gunung Raya Kabupaten Kerinci". Bahtera: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa dan Sastra. 20 (2): 248–259\. doi:10.21009/bahtera.202.10. ISSN 2540-8968.248-259&rft.date=2021-07-05&rft_id=info:doi/10.21009/bahtera.202.10&rft.issn=2540-8968&rft.aulast=Diyanti&rft.aufirst=Viki&rft_id=https://journal.unj.ac.id/unj/index.php/bahtera/article/view/17704&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
15. ^ a b KBPJ, Admin (2024-05-24). "Bimbingan Teknis Guru Utama Revitalisasi Bahasa Kerinci untuk guru-guru di Kota Sungai Penuh". Kantor Bahasa Provinsi Jambi (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2024-06-08.
16. ^ a b Maiza, Suci (2018). "Sistem Perulangan Bahasa Kerinci Dialek Rawang" [Reduplication System of the Rawang Dialect of the Kerinci language]. Menara Ilmu (in Indonesian). 12 (1). eISSN 2528-7613. ISSN 1693-2617.
17. ^ Wulanda, Fitria; Asril; Yusril (2023-03-21). "Video Musik Babanca: Fenomen Berbahasa Orang Kerinci". Judikatif: Jurnal Desain Komunikasi Kreatif. 5 (1): 1–6\. doi:10.35134/judikatif.v5i1.65. ISSN 2745-9454.1-6&rft.date=2023-03-21&rft_id=info:doi/10.35134/judikatif.v5i1.65&rft.issn=2745-9454&rft.aulast=Wulanda&rft.aufirst=Fitria&rft.au=Asril&rft.au=Yusril&rft_id=https://judikatif-upiyptk.org/ojs/index.php/judikatif/article/view/65&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
18. ^ a b "Kerinci - Peta Bahasa". petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id. Retrieved 2024-06-11.
19. ^ a b c Afria, Rengki (2017-06-01). "Variasi dan Rekonstruksi Fonologis Isolek Kerinci: Studi Dialektologi Diakronis di Kecamatan Bukit Kerman" [Variations and Phonological Reconstruction of Kerinci Dialects: A Diachronic Dialectological Study in Bukit Kerman District]. GENTA BAHTERA: Jurnal Ilmiah Kebahasaan Dan Kesastraan (in Indonesian). 3 (1): 107–120\. doi:10.47269/gb.v3i1.9. ISSN 2656-1085.107-120&rft.date=2017-06-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.47269/gb.v3i1.9&rft.issn=2656-1085&rft.aulast=Afria&rft.aufirst=Rengki&rft_id=https://gentabahtera.kemdikbud.go.id/index.php/gentabahtera/article/view/9&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
20. ^ a b Ernanda 2017, pp. 11–12.
21. ^ Ananta, Aryoni; Rahman, Fadlul; Kurniati, Santi (2023-05-20). "Variasi Isolek Kerinci: Pendekatan Automated Similarity Judgement Program (ASJP) Database" [Variations in the Kerinci Dialect: An Approach Using the Automated Similarity Judgement Program (ASJP) Database]. Kajian Linguistik dan Sastra (in Indonesian). 8 (1): 100–114\. doi:10.23917/kls.v8i1.19604. ISSN 2541-2558.100-114&rft.date=2023-05-20&rft_id=info:doi/10.23917/kls.v8i1.19604&rft.issn=2541-2558&rft.aulast=Ananta&rft.aufirst=Aryoni&rft.au=Rahman,+Fadlul&rft.au=Kurniati,+Santi&rft_id=https://journals.ums.ac.id/index.php/KLS/article/view/19604&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
22. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 11.
23. ^ Rusli, Nur Farahkhanna Mohd; Aziz, Adi Yasran Abdul; Ariffin, Raja Masittah Raja; Yusop, Mohd Sharifudin; Samasu, Saidatul Faiqah. "Derivasi Rumus Reduksi Vokal dan Pembentukan Glotis dalam Bahasa Kerinci" [Derivation of Vowel Reduction Formulas and Glottal Stop Formation in the Kerinci Language]. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies (in Malay). 15 (3). ISSN 1675-8021.
24. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 15, 42.
25. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 15.
26. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 42.
27. ^ a b c d Steinhauer & Usman 1978, p. 484.
28. ^ Ernanda 2017, pp. 26, 44.
29. ^ Ernanda 2017, pp. 15, 44.
30. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 44.
31. ^ a b Usman 1985, p. vi.
32. ^ Prentice & Usman 1978.
33. ^ McKinnon et al. 2011, p. 719.
34. ^ a b Ernanda 2021, pp. 63–64.
35. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 7.
36. ^ a b Ernanda 2017, p. 15, 32.
37. ^ Steinhauer 2002, pp. 383–384.
38. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 57–58.
39. ^ a b Ernanda 2017, p. 58.
40. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 59.
41. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 60–62.
42. ^ Ernanda 2017, pp. 64, 174–176.
43. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 175.
44. ^ Ernanda 2017, p. 20.
45. ^ Usman 1988, pp. 169–170.
46. ^ a b Yanti et al. 2017, p. 92.
47. ^ Usman 1988, p. 170.
48. ^ Ernanda 2017, pp. 20–21.
49. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1985, p. 12.
50. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 50.
51. ^ a b Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 56.
52. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 57.
53. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 21.
54. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 24.
55. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 26.
56. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 28.
57. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1981, p. 22.
58. ^ a b Resmana, Jetra Aspo; Jufrizal, Jufrizal; Wahyuni, Delvi (2018). "Language Change on the Level of Lexicon in Bahasa Kerinci Found in Pulau Tengah Dialect". e-Journal English Language and Literature. 6 (2). doi:10.24036/ell.v6i2.9811 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 2302-3546.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
59. ^ Nikelas et. al. 1985, p. 23.
60. ^ Nations, United. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". United Nations. Retrieved 2021-12-26.
61. ^ "OHCHR |". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 2021-12-26.
62. ^ Adryamarthanino, Verelladevanka; Indriawati, Tri (2023-11-22). "Aksara Incung, Dulunya Digunakan oleh Suku Kerinci Halaman all" [The Incung Script, Once Used by the Kerinci Tribe]. KOMPAS.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2024-06-12.
63. ^ Jurusan Arkeologi Fakultas Ilmu Budaya Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta, Indonesia; Sunliensyar, Hafiful Hadi (2018-09-09). "Idu Tawa Lam Jampi: Mantra-mantra dalam Naskah Surat Incung Kerinci". Manuskripta. 8 (1). doi:10.33656/manuskripta.v8i1.100.
64. ^ Nazurty, Nazurty; Purba, Andiopenta (2023), Kurniawan, Dwi Agus (ed.), "Revitalization of Incung Script as an Effort to Improve Literacy Culture and Regional Cultural Innovation", Proceedings of the 4th Green Development International Conference (GDIC 2022), vol. 772, Paris: Atlantis Press SARL, pp. 548–557, doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-110-4_56, ISBN 978-2-38476-109-8, retrieved 2024-06-12548-557&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info:doi/10.2991/978-2-38476-110-4_56&rft.isbn=978-2-38476-109-8&rft.aulast=Nazurty&rft.aufirst=Nazurty&rft.au=Purba,+Andiopenta&rft_id=https://www.atlantis-press.com/doi/10.2991/978-2-38476-110-4_56&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
65. ^ Jauhari, Budhi Vrihaspathi (23 April 2015). "Aksara Incung Suku Kerinci diambang kepunahan" [The Incung Script of the Kerinci People: A Cultural Heritage on the Brink of Extinction]. ANTARA News Jambi (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2024-06-12.
66. ^ "Warisan Budaya Takbenda | Beranda". warisanbudaya.kemdikbud.go.id. Retrieved 2024-06-12.
67. ^ Iskandar, Nuzul (2022-10-31). "EMPAT RISALAH SYEKH MUKHTAR AMBAI: Pribumisasi Fikih Melalui Aksara Arab-Melayu di Kerinci". AL-SYAKHSHIYYAH Jurnal Hukum Keluarga Islam Dan Kemanusiaan. 4 (2): 101–124\. doi:10.30863/as-hki.v4i2.2845. ISSN 2685-5887.101-124&rft.date=2022-10-31&rft_id=info:doi/10.30863/as-hki.v4i2.2845&rft.issn=2685-5887&rft.aulast=Iskandar&rft.aufirst=Nuzul&rft_id=https://jurnal.iain-bone.ac.id/index.php/alsyakhshiyyah/article/view/2845&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
68. ^ a b Helida, Asvic; Zuhud, Ervizal Amir Muhammad (2021-06-17). "Oral traditions of the Kerinci community: proverbs, sayings, and old rules". ETNOSIA: Jurnal Etnografi Indonesia. 6: 66–81\. doi:10.31947/etnosia.v6i1.12455. ISSN 2548-9747.66-81&rft.date=2021-06-17&rft_id=info:doi/10.31947/etnosia.v6i1.12455&rft.issn=2548-9747&rft.aulast=Helida&rft.aufirst=Asvic&rft.au=Zuhud,+Ervizal+Amir+Muhammad&rft_id=https://journal.unhas.ac.id/index.php/etnosia/article/view/12455&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
69. ^ Sari, Ayuthia Mayang (2019-08-06). "Tradisi Tale Dalam Kehidupan Masyarakat Kerinci". Gelar: Jurnal Seni Budaya. 17 (1): 44–52\. doi:10.33153/glr.v17i1.2600. ISSN 2655-9153.44-52&rft.date=2019-08-06&rft_id=info:doi/10.33153/glr.v17i1.2600&rft.issn=2655-9153&rft.aulast=Sari&rft.aufirst=Ayuthia+Mayang&rft_id=https://jurnal.isi-ska.ac.id/index.php/gelar/article/view/2600&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
70. ^ a b c d Udin, Syamsuddin; Esten, Mursal; Semi, M. Atar; Busri; Karim, Isna Nasrul (1985). Struktur Sastra Lisan Kerinci [The Structure of Kerinci Oral Literature] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, Department of Education and Culture.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Ernanda (2017). Phrasal alternation in Kerinci (PhD dissertation). Leiden: Universiteit Leiden. hdl:1887/49206.
* Ernanda (2021). "Some notes on the Semerap dialect of Kerinci and its historical development". Wacana. 22 (1): 58–80\. doi:10.17510/wacana.v22i1.978.58-80&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info:doi/10.17510/wacana.v22i1.978&rft.au=Ernanda&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.17510%2Fwacana.v22i1.978&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
* McKinnon, Timothy; Cole, Peter; Hermon, Gabriella (2011). "Object Agreement and 'Pro-Drop' in Kerinci Malay". Language. 87 (4). Linguistic Society of America: 715–750\. doi:10.1353/lan.2011.0092. S2CID 144479579.715-750&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info:doi/10.1353/lan.2011.0092&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144479579#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=McKinnon&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Cole,+Peter&rft.au=Hermon,+Gabriella&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
* Nikelas, Syahwin; Amir, Zainuddin; Rusmali, Marah; Usman, Amir Hakim; Anwar, Jolsnidar (1981). Morfologi dan Sintaksis Bahasa Kerinci [Morphology and Syntax of the Kerinci Language] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, Department of Education and Culture.
* Nikelas, Syahwin; Rusmali, Marah; Ayub, Asni; Kasim, Yuslina; Usman, Amir Hakim (1985). Kata Tugas Bahasa Kerinci [Function Words in the Kerinci Language] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, Department of Education and Culture.
* Prentice, David J.; Usman, Amir Hakim (1978). "Kerinci sound-changes and phonotactics". In Wurm, S.A.; Carrington, L. (eds.). Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: Proceedings. Pacific Linguistics. Vol. C61. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Australian National University. pp. 121–163\. doi:10.15144/PL-C61.121.121-163&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics,+Australian+National+University&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info:doi/10.15144/PL-C61.121&rft.aulast=Prentice&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft.au=Usman,+Amir+Hakim&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
* Steinhauer, Hein (2002). "More (on) Kerinci sound-changes" (PDF). In K. Alexander Adelaar; Robert Blust (eds.). Between Worlds: Linguistic Papers in Memory of David John Prentice. Pacific Linguistics. Vol. 529\. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, Australian National University. pp. 149–176.149-176&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics,+Australian+National+University&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Steinhauer&rft.aufirst=Hein&rft_id=http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-529.149.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
* Steinhauer, Hein (2018). "Sound-changes and loanwords in Sungai Penuh Kerinci". Wacana: Journal of the Humanities of Indonesia. 19 (2): 375–407\. doi:10.17510/wacana.v19i2.708. S2CID 135209683.375-407&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info:doi/10.17510/wacana.v19i2.708&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:135209683#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Steinhauer&rft.aufirst=Hein&rft_id=http://wacana.ui.ac.id/index.php/wjhi/article/view/708&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
* Steinhauer, Hein; Usman, Amir Hakim (1978). "Notes on the morphemics of Kerinci (Sumatra)". In Wurm, S.A.; Carrington, L. (eds.). Second International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics: Proceedings. Pacific Linguistics. Vol. C61. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University. pp. 483–502\. doi:10.15144/PL-C61.483.483-502&rft.pub=Pacific+Linguistics,+The+Australian+National+University&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info:doi/10.15144/PL-C61.483&rft.aulast=Steinhauer&rft.aufirst=Hein&rft.au=Usman,+Amir+Hakim&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
* Usman, A. Hakim (1985). Kamus Umum Kerinci-Indonesia [Kerinci-Indonesian Dictionary] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and Cultivation, Department of Education and Culture.
* Usman, Amir Hakim (1988). Fonologi dan Morfologi Bahasa Kerinci Dialek Sungai Penuh [Phonology and Morphology of the Sungai Penuh Dialect of Kerinci Language] (PhD dissertation) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia.
* van Reijn, Eric (1974). "Some Remarks on the Dialects of North Kerintji: A link with Mon-Khmer Languages". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 31 (2): 130–138\. JSTOR 41492089.130-138&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41492089#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=van+Reijn&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
* Yanti; Mckinnon, Timothy; Cole, Peter; Hermon, Gabriella (2018). "The phonological basis of syntactic change in Kerinci". Oceanic Linguistics. 57 (2). University of Hawai'i Press: 433–483\. doi:10.1353/ol.2018.0018. S2CID 149686433.433-483&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info:doi/10.1353/ol.2018.0018&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149686433#id-name=S2CID&rft.au=Yanti&rft.au=Mckinnon,+Timothy&rft.au=Cole,+Peter&rft.au=Hermon,+Gabriella&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">
* Yanti; Mckinnon, Timothy; Mudra, Heri; Cole, Peter; Hermon, Gabriella (2017). "The poetic and linguistic structure of a kunaung: The story of Saripanta". NUSA: Linguistic Studies of Languages in and Around Indonesia. 63: 81–99\. doi:10.15026/91752.81-99&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info:doi/10.15026/91752&rft.au=Yanti&rft.au=Mckinnon,+Timothy&rft.au=Mudra,+Heri&rft.au=Cole,+Peter&rft.au=Hermon,+Gabriella&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">

## Further reading

[edit]

* McKinnon, Timothy (2011). The Morphology and Morphosyntax of Kerinci Word Shape Alternations (PhD dissertation). Newark: University of Delaware.
* McKinnon, Timothy, Yanti, Peter Cole, Gabriella Hermon. 2012. Divergent Varieties of Malay in Upstream Jambi. Paper given at ISMIL 16.
* McKinnon, Timothy A. What is Kerinci? An closer look at the geography of its core properties Archived 2015-06-15 at the Wayback Machine.* van Reijn, Eric (2001). Sijaro Panta (A Folktale from Kumun, Kerinci): Text, Translation, Vocabulary, and Sketch of Kumun Phonology (PDF). NUSA: Linguistic Studies of Indonesian and Other Languages in Indonesia. Vol. 48\. pp. 0–57.0-57&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=van+Reijn&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http://sealang.net/archives/nusa/pdf/nusa-v48.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Kerinci+language" class="Z3988">

Kerinci language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

* v
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* Mamasa
* Mamuju
* Mandar
* Panasuan
* Pannei
* Selayar
* Seko Padang
* Seko Tengah
* Tae’
* Talondo’
* Taman
* Toraja-Sa’dan
* Ulumanda’

Barito|

* Ampanang
* Bakumpai
* Berangas
* Bajau
* Deyah
* Kohin
* Lawangan
* Ma'anyan
* Dusun Balangan
* Malang
* Ngaju
* Ot Danum
* Sama
* Ot Siang
* Tunjung
* Witu
* Pakau

Kayan–Murik|

* Aoheng
* Aput
* Bahau
* Hovongan
* Kayan
* Krio
* Modang
* Punan Merah
* Segai

Land Dayak|

* Bakati’
* Biatah
* Bukar Sadong
* Jangkang
* Kembayan
* Laraʼ
* Nyadu’
* Rejangese
* Ribun
* Sanggau
* Sara
* Semandang
* Beginci
* Gerai
* Tringgus

North Bornean|

* Bah-Biau
* Basap
* Bukat
* Bukitan
* Kelabit
* Kenyah
* Mainstream
* Lengilu
* Lun Bawang
* Murut
* Okolod
* Selungai
* Sembakung
* Tagol
* Punan Merap
* Punan Tubu
* Sa'ban
* Sajau
* Tidung
* Burusu
* Kalabakan
* Nonukan

Philippine languages|

| Central Philippine|

* Tausug

|

Gorontalo-Mongondow|

* Bintauna
* Bolango
* Buol
* Gorontaloan
* Polahi
* Kaidipang
* Lolak
* Mongondow
* Ponosakan
* Suwawa

Minahasan|

* Tombulu
* Tondano
* Tonsawang
* Tonsea
* Tontemboan

Sangiric|

* Bantik
* Ratahan
* Sangir
* Talaud
* Miangas

Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages

| Aru|

* Barakai
* Batuley
* Dobel
* Karey
* Koba
* Kola-Kompane
* Lola
* Lorang
* Manombai
* Mariri
* Tarangan
* Ujir

|

Central Maluku|

* Alune
* Amahai
* Ambelau
* Asilulu
* Banda
* Bati
* Benggoi
* Boano
* Bobot
* Buru
* Geser
* Haruku
* Hulaliu
* Kailolo
* Pelauw
* Rohomoni-Kabauw
* Hitu
* Hoti †
* Huaulu
* Hukumina †
* Hulung †
* Kaibobo
* Kamarian †
* Kayeli
* Kowiai
* Laha
* Larike-Wakasihu
* Latu
* Liana-Seti
* Lisabata-Nuniali
* Lisela
* Loun †
* Luhu †
* Mangole
* Manipa
* Manusela
* Masiwang
* Naka'ela
* Nuaulu
* Nusa Laut †
* Paulohi
* Salas
* Saleman
* Saparua
* Seit-Kaitetu
* Sepa-Teluti
* Sula
* Taliabo
* Teor-Kur
* Tulehu
* Watubela
* Wemale
* Yalahatan

Flores–Lembata|

* Alorese
* Kedang
* Lamaholot
* Adonara
* Ile Ape
* Lamalera
* Lamatuka
* Levuka
* Lewo Eleng
* Lewotobi
* South Lembata
* West Lembata
* Sika

Halmahera-
Cenderawasih|

* Ambai
* Ambel
* Ansus
* Arguni
* As
* Bedoanas
* Biak
* Biga
* Buli
* Busami
* Dusner
* Erokwanas
* Gane
* Irarutu
* Iresim
* Kuri
* Kurudu
* Maba
* Maden
* Matbat
* Ma'ya
* Munggui
* Marau
* Meoswar
* Mor
* Papuma
* Patani
* Pom
* Roon
* Sawai
* Serui-Laut
* Taba
* Tandia †
* Wabo
* Wamesa
* Wandamen
* Waropen
* Woi
* Yaur
* Yeretuar
* Yeresiam

Kei-Tanimbar|

* Fordata
* Kei
* Onin
* Sekar
* Uruangnirin
* Yamdena

Micronesian|

Mapia †

Selaru|

* Selaru
* Seluwasan

Sumba–Flores|

* Anakalangu
* Baliledo
* Bima
* Donggo
* Dhao
* Ende
* Gaura
* Hawu
* Kambera
* Kéo
* Kodi
* Komodo
* Lamboya
* Lio
* Mamboru
* Manggarai
* Nage
* Ngadha
* Palu'e
* Pondok
* Rajong
* Rembong
* Riung
* Rongga
* So'a
* Kepo'
* Wae Rana
* Wanukaka
* Wejewa

Timor–Babar|

* Amarasi
* Bekais
* Bilba
* Dai
* Dawera-Daweloor
* Dela-Oenale
* Dengka
* East Damar
* Emplawas
* Galoli
* Helong
* Imroing
* Kemak
* Kisar
* Leti
* Lole
* Luang
* Masela
* Nila
* North Babar
* Ringgou
* Romang
* Serili
* Serua
* Southeast Babar
* Tela'a
* Termanu
* Tetum
* Te'un
* Tii
* Uab Meto
* West Damar
* Welaun
* Wetar

Western Oceanic|

* Anus
* Bonggo
* Kayupulau
* Liki
* Masimasi
* Ormu
* Podena
* Kaptiau
* Sobei
* Tarpia
* Tobati
* Wakde
* Yamna

Papuan languages

| North Halmahera|

* Galela
* Gamkonora
* Kao
* Loloda
* Modole
* Pagu
* Sahu
* Tabaru
* Ternate
* Tidore
* Tobelo
* Togutil
* Waioli
* West Makian

|

Timor–Alor–Pantar|

* Abui
* Adang
* Blagar
* Bunak
* Kaera
* Kafoa
* Kamang
* Klon
* Kui
* Kula
* Nedebang
* Oirata
* Retta
* Sawila
* Teiwa
* Wersing
* Western Pantar
* Woisika

Asmat–Mombum|

* Buruwai
* Casuarina Coast Asmat
* Central Asmat
* North Asmat
* Citak
* Mombum
* Kamberau
* Kamoro
* Koneraw
* Sempan

West Bird's Head|

* Kalabra
* Kuwani
* Moi
* Moraid
* Seget
* Tehit

South Bird's Head|

* Arandai
* Dombano
* Duriankari
* Inanwatan
* Kaburi
* Kais
* Kemberano
* Kokoda
* Konda
* Kovojab
* Puragi
* Yahadian

East Bird's Head|

* Hatam
* Mansim
* Meyah
* Moskona
* Sougb

West Bomberai|

* Baham
* Iha
* Karas

Dani|

* Grand Valley Dani
* Hupla
* Nduga
* Nggem
* Silimo
* Walak
* Wano
* Western Dani
* Yali

Paniai Lakes|

* Auye
* Dao
* Ekari
* Moni
* Wolani

Digul River|

* Aghu
* Awbono
* Bayono
* Densar
* Edera
* Jair
* Kombai
* Komyandaret
* Korowai
* Mandobo
* Pisa
* Sawi
* Shiaxa
* Tsaukambo
* Wambon

Foja Range|

* Airoran
* Bagusa
* Berik
* Betaf
* Bonerif
* Dabe
* Dineor
* Edwas
* Gresi
* Isirawa
* Itik
* Kapori
* Kauwera
* Keijar
* Kemtuik
* Kwerba
* Kwerba Mamberamo
* Kwesten
* Kwinsu
* Mander
* Massep
* Mawes †
* Mekwei
* Mlap
* Namblong
* Nimboran
* Orya
* Sause
* Oksapmin
* Samarokena
* Trimuris
* Vitou

Lakes Plain|

* Awera
* Biritai
* Doutai
* Duvle
* Eritai
* Fayu
* Foau
* Iau
* Kaiy
* Keuw
* Kirikiri
* Kwerisa
* Obokuitai
* Papasena
* Rasawa
* Sikaritai
* Tause
* Taworta
* Waritai

East Cenderawasih Bay|

* Baropasi
* Bauzi
* Burate
* Demisa
* Kofei
* Nisa-Anasi
* Sauri
* Tefaro
* Tunggare
* Woria

Yawa|

* Saweru
* Yawa

Demta–Sentani|

* Demta
* Nafri
* Sentani
* Tabla

Ok|

* Burumakok
* Faiwol
* Iwur
* Kopka
* Muyu
* Nakai
* Ngalum
* Ninggerum
* Tangko
* Tifal
* Yonggom

Momuna–Mek|

* Eipo
* Goliath
* Ketengban
* Kosarek
* Korupun
* Nalca
* Nipsan
* Somahai

Skou|

* Sangke
* Skou

South Pauwasi|

* Biksi-Yetfa
* Kembra
* Kimki
* Lepki
* Murkim

East Pauwasi|

* Emem
* Zorop

West Pauwasi|

* Namla
* Tebi
* Tofanma
* Towei
* Usku

Kaure–Kosare|

* Kaure
* Kosare

Marind–Yaqai|

* Bipim
* Marind
* Yaqay

Bulaka River|

* Maklew
* Yelmek

Kayagar|

* Atohwaim
* Kayagar
* Tamagario

Border|

* Awyi
* Elseng
* Taikat
* Manem
* Sowanda
* Viid
* Waris

Senagi|

* Dera

Mairasi|

* Mairasi
* Mer
* Semimi

Kolopom|

* Kimaghama
* Morori
* Ndom
* Riantana

Yam|

* Ngkolmpu Kanum
* Rema
* Smerki
* Tamer
* Yei

Lower Mamberamo|

* Warembori
* Yoke

Unclassfied of language isolates|

* Abinomn
* Abun
* Amung
* Burmeso
* Dem
* Kanum
* Maklew
* Maybrat
* Molof
* Momina
* Mor
* Mpur
* Pyu
* Saponi †
* Sumuri
* Tambora †
* Uhunduni

Other languages

| Creoles and Pidgins|

| Malay-based creoles|

* Alor Malay
* Ambonese Malay
* Aru
* Tenggara Jauh
* Banda Malay
* Balinese Malay
* Betawi
* Gorap
* Gorontalo Malay
* Kupang Malay
* Larantuka Malay
* Manado Malay
* Makassar Malay
* Maumere Malay
* North Moluccan Malay
* Sula
* Ternate
* Orang Pulo
* Papuan Malay
* Northwest
* Serui
* Peranakan
* Surabayan

|

Other creoles and pidgins|

* Bidau Creole Portuguese †
* Flores Creole Portuguese †
* Javindo
* Mardijker †
* Petjo
* Pidgin Iha
* Pidgin Onin
* Pidgin Tukang Besi
* Portugis †
* Tansi
* Tiong Pa

|

Immigrant languages|

| Chinese|

* Cantonese
* Fuqing
* Fuzhounese
* Hainanese
* Hakka
* Acehnese
* Bangka-Belitung
* Pontianak
* Singkawang
* Haklau
* Hokkien
* Bagan
* Batam
* Medan
* Hinghwa
* Mandarin
* Indonesian
* Siantar
* Teochew
* Batam
* Jambi
* Ketapang
* Pontianak

|

European|

* Dutch
* Indonesian Dutch
* English
* Portuguese

Indian|

* Bengali
* Gujarati
* Odia
* Pali
* Punjabi
* Sanskrit
* Sindhi
* Tamil
* Telugu
* Urdu

Middle Eastern|

* Arabic
* Indonesian Arabic
* Hadhrami Arabic
* Modern Standard Arabic

Others|

* Tagalog
* Filipino
* Japanese
* Korean

Sign languages|

* Indonesian Sign Languages
* Kata Kolok

† indicate extinct languages

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Malaysia

Main|

| Official|

* Malaysian
* English
* comparison with British English
* Arabic

|

Families|

* Austroasiatic
* Aslian
* Austronesian
* North Bornean
* Kayan–Murik
* Land Dayak
* Malayic
* Philippine
* Sama–Bajaw
* Tai-Kadai
* Tai

Natives &
Indigenous|

| Nationwide|

* Malay

|

Peninsular
Malaysia|

* Batek
* Cheq Wong
* Duanoʼ
* Jah Hut
* Jahai
* Jakun
* Jedek
* Johor–Riau Malay
* Johor Malay
* Malacca Malay
* Selangor Malay
* Judeo-Malay2
* Kedah Malay
* Kelantan-Pattani Malay
* Kenaboi1
* Kensiu
* Kintaq
* Kristang
* Lanoh
* Mah Meri
* Minriq
* Mintil
* Negeri Sembilan Malay
* Mos
* Orang Kanaq
* Orang Seletar
* Pahang Malay
* Perak Malay
* Reman Malay
* Sabüm1
* Semai
* Semaq Beri
* Semelai
* Semnam
* Southern Thai
* Temiar
* Temoq2
* Temuan
* Terengganu Malay
* Wila'1

East
Malaysia|

* Abai
* Bahau
* Bajau
* Belait
* Berawan
* Biatah
* Bintulu
* Bonggi
* Bookan
* Bruneian/Kedayan Malay
* Brunei Bisaya
* Bukar–Sadong
* Bukitan
* Coastal Kadazan
* Daro-Matu
* Dumpas
* Dusun
* Eastern Kadazan
* Ganaʼ
* Iban
* Ida'an
* Jagoi
* Jangkang
* Kajaman
* Kalabakan
* Kanowit
* Kayan
* Kelabit
* Kendayan
* Keningau Murut
* Kinabatangan
* Kiput
* Klias River Kadazan
* Kota Marudu Talantang
* Kuijau
* Lahanan
* Lelak1
* Lengilu1
* Lotud
* Lun Bawang
* Mainstream Kenyah
* Melanau
* Momogun
* Murik Kayan
* Narom
* Nonukan Tidong
* Okolod
* Paluan
* Papar
* Punan Bah-Biau
* Punan Batu2
* Penan
* Remun
* Sa'ban
* Sabah Bisaya
* Sama
* Sarawak Malay
* Sebop
* Sekapan
* Selungai Murut
* Sembakung
* Seru1
* Serudung
* Sian
* Sungai
* Tagol
* Timugon
* Tombonuwo
* Tring
* Tringgus
* Tutoh
* Ukit2
* Umaʼ Lasan

Significant
minority|

| Chinese|

* Sino-Tibetan
* Yue
* Cantonese
* Malaysian Cantonese
* Hakka
* Min
* Eastern Min
* Fuqing
* Fuzhou
* Hainanese
* Pu-Xian Min
* Southern Min
* Hokkien
* Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien
* Penang Hokkien
* Chaoshan Min
* Teochew
* Mandarin Chinese
* Malaysian Mandarin

|

Indian|

* Dravidian
* Malayalam
* Tamil
* Malaysian Tamil
* Telugu
* Indo-European
* Gujarati
* Hindi
* Punjabi
* Urdu

Indonesian
archipelago|

* Acehnese
* Banjar
* Madurese
* Bawean
* Buginese
* Javanese
* Kerinci
* Mandailing
* Minangkabau
* Rawa

Philippine|

* Philippine
* Iranun
* Maranao
* Molbog
* Suluk

Others|

* Cham

Creoles|

* Chavacano
* Kristang
* Manglish
* Malay trade and creole languages
* Baba Malay
* Chetty Malay
* Cocos Malay
* Sabah Malay

Mixed & Others|

* Rojak
* Tanglish
* Esperanto

Immigrants|

* African
* Arabic
* Bengali
* Burmese
* Khmer
* East Timorese
* Filipino
* Indonesian
* comparison with Malaysian
* Persian
* Japanese
* Korean
* Lao
* Nepalese
* Urdu
* Sri Lankan
* Thai
* Vietnamese

Signs|

| Main|

* Malaysian Sign Language
* Manually Coded Malay

|

By states|

* Penang Sign Language
* Selangor Sign Language

* 1 Extinct languages
* 2 Nearly extinct languages

* v
* t
* e

Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages

Malayo-Sumbawan|

| Sundanese|

* Sundanese (Bantenese, Baduy)

|

Madurese|

* Kangean
* Madurese

Malayo-Chamic|

| Chamic|

* Acehnese
* Cham dialects
* Chru
* Haroi
* Jarai
* Rade
* Roglai
* Tsat (Utsat)

|

Malayic|

* Bamayo
* Banjar
* Brunei/Kedayan Malay
* Berau Malay
* Bangka Malay
* Bengkulu
* Col
* Duano'
* Haji
* Iban
* Jambi Malay
* Jakun
* Kedah Malay
* Kutai Malay
* Kaur
* Kerinci
* Kelantan-Pattani Malay (Yawi)
* Kendayan
* Keninjal
* Kubu
* Orang Laut
* Lubu
* Malay (Malaysian & Indonesian)
* Minangkabau
* Musi
* Mualang
* Orang Kanaq
* Orang Seletar
* Pahang Malay
* Pekal
* Perak Malay
* Remun
* Sarawak Malay
* Seberuang
* Temuan
* Terengganu Malay
* Urak Lawoi'

Bali–Sasak|

* Balinese
* Sasak
* Sumbawa

Northwest Sumatra–
Barrier Islands|

* Enggano
* Gayo
* Mentawai
* Nias
* Sikule
* Simeulue

| Batak|

* Alas
* Batak Angkola
* Batak Dairi
* Batak Karo
* Batak Simalungun
* Batak Toba
* Mandailing

|

Lampungic|

* Lampung Api
* Lampung Nyo
* Komering

Celebic|

* Andio
* Badaic
* Bahonsuai
* Balaesang
* Balantak
* Banggai
* Batui
* Boano
* Bobongko
* Bonerate
* Bungku
* Busoa
* Cia-Cia
* Dampelas
* Dondo
* Kalao
* Kaili
* Kaimbulawa
* Kamaru
* Kodeoha
* Kulisusu
* Kumbewaha
* Lasalimu
* Laiyolo
* Lauje
* Liabuku
* Mbelala
* Moronene
* Mori Bawah
* Mori Atas
* Moma
* Muna
* Padoe
* Pancana
* Pendau
* Rahambuu
* Rampi
* Saluan
* Sarudu
* Sedoa
* Pamona
* Taje
* Tajio
* Tukang Besi
* Tolaki
* Tomadino
* Topoiyo
* Tomini
* Totoli
* Uma
* Waru
* Wawonii
* Wolio
* Wotu

South Sulawesi|

* Aralle-Tabulahan
* Bambam
* Bentong
* Budong-Budong
* Buginese
* Campalagian
* Coastal Konjo
* Dakka
* Duri
* Embaloh
* Enrekang
* Highland Konjo
* Kalumpang
* Lemolang
* Maiwa (Sulawesi)
* Makassarese
* Malimpung
* Mamasa
* Mamuju
* Mandar
* Panasuan
* Pannei
* Selayar
* Seko Padang
* Seko Tengah
* Tae’
* Talondo’
* Taman
* Toraja-Sa’dan
* Ulumanda’

Moklenic|

* Moken
* Moklen

Javanese|

* Arekan
* Banyumasan
* Mataraman
* Kawi (Old Javanese)
* Kedu
* Osing
* Tenggerese

Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian
(over 700 languages)|

| Eastern Malayo-Polynesian groups|

* South Halmahera–West New Guinea
* Oceanic languages

|

Central Malayo-Polynesian linkages|

* Aru
* Central Maluku
* Kei-Tanimbar
* Kowiai
* Selaru
* Sumba–Flores
* Teor–Kur
* Timoric
* West Damar

Unclassified|

* Chamorro
* Hukumina †
* Palauan

*[TAG]: tag question
*[LOC]: locative case
*[STAT]: stative
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