Kingdom of Zimbabwe

Ancient/medieval kingdom in Southern Africa

This article is about the pre-colonial African kingdom. For the modern-day Republic of Zimbabwe, see Zimbabwe.

Kingdom of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe

13th century–16th/17th century

Zimbabwe Bird

Great Zimbabwe appears on Abraham Ortelius' 1570 map Africae Tabula Nova, rendered "Simbaoe".

Capital| Great Zimbabwe
Religion

| Belief in Mwari
Government| Monarchy
Mambo|

• 13th century

| Chigwagu Rusvingo (the first Mambo of Great Zimbabwe, according to Ken Mufuka)
History|

• Established

| 13th century

• Fall of Mapungubwe, rise of Great Zimbabwe

| c. 1300

• Nyatsimba Mutota leaves to establish the Kingdom of Mutapa

| c. 1450

• Abandonment of Great Zimbabwe

| 16th/17th century
Area

• Total

| 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi)
ISO 3166 code| ZW

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Gumanye

|

| Kingdom of Mapungubwe
| Mutapa Empire |

|

Kingdom of Butua |
Today part of| Zimbabwe, and parts of South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia, and Botswana.
Aerial view of the Great Enclosure and Valley Complex at Great Zimbabwe, looking west

Part of a series on the

History of Zimbabwe
Ancient history|  Leopard's Kopje|  c. 650 – c. 1075

|

Mapungubwe Kingdom|  c. 1220 – c. 1300
Zimbabwe Kingdom|  c. 1300 – c. 1450
Mutapa Kingdom|  c. 1430–1760
Butua Kingdom|  c. 1450–1683
White settlement pre-1923|  Rozvi Empire|  c. 1660–1866

|

Mthwakazi|  1840–1893
Rudd Concession|  1888
BSA Company rule|  1890–1923
First Matabele War|  1893–1894
Second Matabele War|  1896–1897
World War I involvement|  1914–1918
Colony of Southern Rhodesia|  1923–1965
World War II involvement|  1939–1945
Malayan Emergency
involvement|  1948–1960
Federation with Northern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland|  1953–1963
Rhodesian Bush War|  1964–1979

Unilateral Declaration of
Independence (UDI)

|  1965
Rhodesia|  1965–1979
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia|  June–December 1979

Lancaster House Agreement

|  December 1979
British Dependency|  1979–1980
Zimbabwe|  1980–present
Gukurahundi|  1982–1987
Second Congo War|  1998–2003
Coup d'état|  2017

* v
* t
* e

The Kingdom of Zimbabwe was a Shona kingdom located in modern-day Zimbabwe. Its capital was Great Zimbabwe, the largest stone structure in precolonial Southern Africa, which had a population of 10,000. Around 1300, Great Zimbabwe replaced Mapungubwe as the most important trading centre in the interior, exporting gold via Swahili city-states into the Indian Ocean trade. At Great Zimbabwe's centre was the Great Enclosure which is thought to have housed royalty and had demarcated spaces for rituals, while commoners surrounded them within the second perimeter wall. The Zimbabwe state was composed of over 150 smaller zimbabwes and likely covered 50,000 km² (19,000 square miles).

It is unknown what caused Great Zimbabwe's decline and migration of the Shona to other places from the 15th century, however land depletion or a depletion of critical resources, increased regional competition, shifting trade routes, and overpopulation likely played a role. By the 16th century, the Mutapa Empire and the Kingdom of Butua centred on Khami had replaced Great Zimbabwe as the major powers in the region. Great Zimbabwe likely continued to be inhabited into the 17th century, before it was eventually abandoned.

## Etymology

[edit]

See also: Zimbabwe § Etymology

The Kingdom of Zimbabwe derives its name from its capital, Great Zimbabwe. The name "dzimbabwe" is Shona for "great house of stone", from the nouns 'dzimba-' meaning "great house" and 'ibwe' meaning "-stone". "Zimbabwe" derives from Zimba-ra-mabwe or Zimba-re-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as "houses of stones" (dzimba = augmentative noun of imba, "house"; mabwe = plural of ibwe, "stone"; ra/re = preposition for of).[1][2][3]

## History

[edit]

### Origins and rise

[edit]

The region had been inhabited by the San dating back over 100,000 years,[a] and was inhabited by Bantu-speaking peoples from 150 BC, who from the 4th century formed various agricultural chiefdoms.[5]: 11–12 An early settlement and predecessor was Gumanye.[6] The site of what would become Great Zimbabwe had been occupied since 1000 by speakers of proto-Karanga (south-central Shona).[b][8][9] The settlement lay on the margins of mainstream developments occurring to its south from the 10th century in the Limpopo-Shashe Basin, where states and chiefdoms competed over gold and other goods for the Indian Ocean trade.[10] In the 13th century Great Zimbabwe was on the fringe of the Mapungubwe state.[11]: 55

From the 12th century, Great Zimbabwe wrestled with other settlements, such as Chivowa, for economic and political dominance in the Southern Zambezi Escarpment. Agriculture and cattle played a key role in developing a vital social network, and served to "enfranchise management of goods and services distributed as benefits within traditional political and social institutions", while long distance trade was crucial for the transformation of localised organisations into regional ones. This process rapidly advanced during the 13th century, which saw large dry masonry stone walls raised, and by 1250 Great Zimbabwe had become an important trade centre. Gold production increased rapidly during this time.[10] By 1300, trade routes had shifted north as merchants bypassed the Limpopo and Mapungubwe by travelling the Save River into the gold-producing interior, precipitating Mapungubwe's rapid decline and the dominance of Great Zimbabwe.[12]

### Apogee

[edit]

At its peak Great Zimbabwe covered 7.22 km² and became a centre for industry and political power.[13] At Great Zimbabwe's centre was the Great Enclosure which housed royalty and had demarcated spaces for rituals. Commoners surrounded them within the second perimeter wall, and its population was around 10,000.[10] Great Zimbabwe dominated trade routes despite not directly controlling village-based mining and smelting, and engaged in the Indian Ocean trade via Swahili city-states such as Sofala.[8] The state was composed of over 150 smaller zimbabwes, and likely covered 50,000 km².[14][15]: 7 Stone structures were built around the north-eastern plateau, likely provincial outposts controlling areas of gold production.[16]: 202–203 The institutionalisation of Great Zimbabwe's politico-religious ideology served to legitimise the position of the king (mambo), with a link between leaders, their ancestors, and God.[17][18] Ken Mufuka writes that the shrine in the Hill Complex was the home of spirit mediums (svikiro) who were tasked with acting as the conscience of the state, and preserving the traditions of the founders, reported to be Chigwagu Rusvingo (the first mambo), Chaminuka, Chimurenga, Tovera, and Soro-rezhou among others.[19] The community incorporated dhaka pits into a complex water management system.[20]

It is unclear to what extent coercion and conflict played in Great Zimbabwe's growth and dominance due to this being challenging to recognise archaeologically. While the Great Enclosure served to display prestige and status, and to reinforce inequalities between elites and commoners, it likely also served to deter contestation for political power amid the close linkage between wealth accumulation and political authority, with rivals for power, such as district chiefs and regional governors, located outside the settlement in prestige enclosures.[18] The perimeter walls also likely served a defensive purpose, indicating warfare was conventional.[17]

### Decline

[edit]

Map of trade centres and routes in precolonial Zimbabwe.

It is unknown what caused Great Zimbabwe's demise and its eventual abandonment.[c] It is unclear to what extent climate change played a role, however Great Zimbabwe's location in a favourable rainfall zone makes this unlikely to have been a primary cause. Great Zimbabwe's dominance over the region depended on its continual extension and projection of influence, as its growing population needed more farming land and traders more gold.[10] Shona oral tradition attributes Great Zimbabwe's demise to a salt shortage, which may be a figurative way of speaking of land depletion for agriculturalists or of the depletion of critical resources for the community.[21][22]: 10 It is plausible the aquifer Great Zimbabwe sat on top of ran out of water, or the growing population contaminated the water.[20]

From the early 15th century, international trade began to decline amid a global economic downturn, reducing demand for gold, which adversely affected Great Zimbabwe. In response to this, elites possibly expanded regional trading networks, resulting in greater prosperity for other settlements in the region. By the late 15th century, the consequences of this decision would have begun to manifest, as offshoots from Great Zimbabwe's royal family formed new dynasties, possibly as a result of losing succession disputes.[23] According to oral tradition, Nyatsimba Mutota, a member of Great Zimbabwe's royal family, led part of the population north in search for salt to found the Mutapa Empire.[d][10] It was believed that only their most recent ancestors would follow them, with older ancestors staying at Great Zimbabwe and providing protection there.[18] Angoche traders opened a new route along the Zambezi via Mutapa and Ingombe Ilede to reach the goldfields west of Great Zimbabwe, precipitating its decline and the rise of Khami, the capital of the Kingdom of Butua.[25]: 50 By the 16th century, political and economic power had shifted away from Great Zimbabwe to the north and west. The site likely continued to be inhabited into the 17th century, before it was eventually abandoned.[10]

## Government

[edit]

The social institution had a mambo as its sacred leader, aided by a designated brother or sister,[18] along with an increasingly rigid three-tiered class structure. The kingdom taxed other rulers throughout the region, and was composed of over 150 tributaries headquartered in their own minor zimbabwes.[15]: 7

## Society and culture

[edit]

Great Zimbabwe was likely a centre for crafts and a place of great religious significance,[5]: 17 however, unlike at Mapungubwe, rainmaking centres and cults were kept distant from the centre of power, and it was often entrusted to native members of particular regions.[10] There was a mystical relationship between leaders and the land, and a link between leaders, their ancestors, and God.[18] The mambo's first wife held authority over his other wives.[18] Royalty initially lived at the Eastern and Western enclosures, with archaeological research uncovering ritual spears, gongs, and soapstone bird effigies. The public surrounded them until the space became too limited for the growing population and the royalty moved to the Great Enclosure, constructed throughout the 13th and 14th centuries. The Great Enclosure partitioned domestic and public spaces, the latter likely used for rituals.[18] Similar to Venda tradition (who diverged from the Shona in the 17th century), the Great Enclosure could have been used for circumcision rites and served as a pre-marital school for girls and boys, called Domba.[26]

Nobles resolved disputes in a private court, while commoners resolved them in public.[18] Common homes were built out of mud on wooden frame structures.[10][17] Exotic goods found in the kingdom's region acquired local meanings in rituals, aesthetics, and status, such as Persian earthenware bowls and Chinese celadon.[14] Metalworking and iron bloomery were in the domain of men.[26] As the spiritual home of the Mutapa dynasty, in the 16th century the Mutapa king kept some wives at Great Zimbabwe, which served as the site for the masungiro ritual, involving the parents of both wife and husband.[27]

## Economy

[edit]

The Kingdom of Zimbabwe had a mosaic political economy which embedded production and circulation to address needs at individual, household, village, district, capital, and state levels within a multidimensional environment dependent on local qualities. This system later incorporated global trade, however imports were relatively minimal, and it was not solely responsible for the region's economic development.[14]

Great Zimbabwe's wealth was derived from cattle rearing, agriculture, and the domination of trade routes from the goldfields of the Zimbabwean Plateau to the Swahili coast. Cattle was important to the elites in the kingdom since their wealth came from the management of cattle.[28] The large cattle herd that supplied the city moved seasonally and was managed by the court.[29] Salt, cattle, grain, and copper were traded as far north as the Kundelungu Plateau in present-day DR Congo.[30][5]: 17 They had extensive regional and long-distance trading networks with central Africa, the Swahili coast, the Persian Gulf, India, and the Far East.[10][14] Trade routes shifting north from the Save River, which linked Great Zimbabwe to Sofala, to the Zambezi, which linked Khami to Ingombe Ilede, Mutapa, Angoche, and Quelimane, likely contributed to Great Zimbabwe's demise.[25]: 50

## Stone masonry

[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2024)

|

The rulers of Zimbabwe (called Mambo) brought artistic and stone masonry traditions found across the Zambezi and Limpopo basins, including at Mapungubwe. The construction of elaborate stone buildings and walls reached its apex in the kingdom. Until recently, traditional knowledge of dry-stone masonry has never been recorded in Zimbabwe or in other Southern African countries, however some universities are now aiming to document this knowledge.[31]

## Historiography and the site

[edit]

Further information: Great Zimbabwe

European antiquarians looted and pillaged Great Zimbabwe and similar structures from the 1890s to 1920s, greatly inhibiting the work of future archaeologists. Mired in racial prejudice, Rhodesians found it inconceivable that the structures could have been built be indigenous Africans, stipulating that archaeological discoveries of Persian bowls and Chinese celadon were the result of pre-Bantu settlement. The colonial government pressured archaeologists to deny that the structure was built by indigenous Africans, and the refutation of various fantastical and dehumanising theories ascribing the construction to Jews, Arabs, Phoenicians, and anyone but the Shona, along with other activities of the antiquarians, dominated the historiography of Great Zimbabwe throughout the 20th century.[10][32] Its African origin only became consensus by the 1950s.[33]

Local narratives, despite each clan claiming the site of Great Zimbabwe, are very similar in lamenting both the European antiquarians and the professional archaeologists for desecrating and appropriating a sacred site. They hold the government responsible for the "silence" and "closure" of Great Zimbabwe due to their refusal to "acknowledge the ownership and control of the site by the ancestors and Mwari".[34]

## Rulers

[edit]

The following is a list of Mambo (also called Mwene-Mutapa) of the Zimbabwe Kingdom according to Mhare Yenhaka, a Zimbabwean historian.[35]

1. Kutamadzoka Chaminuka (Mutapa I, capital at Wedza[36])
2. Chingwangu Rusvingo (Mutapa II, moved the capital to Great Zimbabwe)
3. Chidyamatamba
4. Chimedzamabwe
5. Mombemuriwo
6. Mavhudzi (Chibatamtosi)
7. Kangambeu-Kurima-Kwakona (Dyambeu)
8. Nyatsimba Mutota (he would later moved to establish the Mutapa Kingdom)
9. Munembire Mudadi

## See also

[edit]

* Kingdom of Butua
* Kingdom of Mutapa
* Khami
* Danan'ombe

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Some scholars contest that cultures and identities can't be considered fixed or invariable, especially over such a long time period.[4]
2. ^ The term Karanga began as an exonym of the Shona used by outsiders, however in the modern day it refers to a dialect of Shona in south-central Zimbabwe.[7]: 4
3. ^ A major factor involves the actions of European antiquarians and prospectors during the colonial period in the looting of the site, destroying its stratigraphy.
4. ^ According to tradition, the move came about because the king was tired of eating salt made from goat's dung.[24]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Zimbabwe – big house of stone". Somali Press. Archived from the original on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2008.
2. ^ Lafon, Michel (1994). "Shona Class 5 revisited: a case against *ri as Class 5 nominal prefix" (PDF). Zambezia. 21: 51–80.
3. ^ Vale, Lawrence J. (1999). "Mediated monuments and national identity". Journal of Architecture. 4 (4): 391–408\. doi:10.1080/136023699373774.
4. ^ Pargeter, Justin; Mackay, Alex; Mitchell, Peter; Shea, John; Stewart, Brian (2016). "Primordialism and the 'Pleistocene San' of southern Africa". Antiquity. 90 (352).
5. ^ a b c Mlambo, A. S. (2014). A history of Zimbabwe. Internet Archive. New York, NY : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02170-9.
6. ^ Chirikure, Shadreck; Manyanga, Munyaradzi; Pikirayi, Innocent; Pollard, Mark (1 December 2013). "New Pathways of Sociopolitical Complexity in Southern Africa". African Archaeological Review. 30 (4): 339–366\. doi:10.1007/s10437-013-9142-3. hdl:2263/41780. ISSN 1572-9842.
7. ^ Raftopoulos, Brian; Mlambo, Alois (2009). Becoming Zimbabwe : a history from the pre-colonial period to 2008. African Books Collective. ISBN 978-1-77922-083-7.
8. ^ a b Delius, Peter; Chewins, Linell; Forssman, Tim (2024). "Turning South African History Upside Down: Ivory and Gold Production, the Indian Ocean Trading System and the Shaping of Southern African Society, 600–1900 AD". Journal of Southern African Studies. 50 (3): 499–520\. Bibcode:2024JSAfS..50..499D. doi:10.1080/03057070.2024.2436329. ISSN 0305-7070.
9. ^ Huffman, Thomas N.; du Piesanie, Justin (2011). "Khami and the Venda in the Mapungubwe Landscape". Journal of African Archaeology. 9 (2): 189–206\. doi:10.3213/2191-5784-10197. ISSN 1612-1651. JSTOR 43135550.
10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Pikirayi, Innocent (2020), "Great Zimbabwe, 1100–1600 AD, Rise, Development, and Demise of", in Smith, Claire (ed.), Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 4696–4709, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30018-0_2666, ISBN 978-3-030-30018-0, retrieved 20 December 2024
11. ^ Huffman, Thomas N. (2005). Mapungubwe : ancient African civilisation on the Limpopo. Internet Archive. Johannesburg : Wits University Press. ISBN 978-1-86814-408-2.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
12. ^ Chirikure, Shadreck; Delius, Peter; Esterhuysen, Amanda; Hall, Simon; Lekgoathi, Sekibakiba; Maulaudzi, Maanda; Neluvhalani, Vele; Ntsoane, Otsile; Pearce, David (1 October 2015). Mapungubwe Reconsidered: A Living Legacy: Exploring Beyond the Rise and Decline of the Mapungubwe State. Real African Publishers Pty Ltd. ISBN 978-1-920655-06-8.
13. ^ Meredith, Martin (14 October 2014). The Fortunes of Africa: A 5000-Year History of Wealth, Greed, and Endeavor. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-61039-460-4.
14. ^ a b c d Chirikure, Shadreck (1 June 2020). "New Perspectives on the Political Economy of Great Zimbabwe". Journal of Archaeological Research. 28 (2): 139–186\. doi:10.1007/s10814-019-09133-w. ISSN 1573-7756.
15. ^ a b Oyekan Owomoyela (2002). Culture and customs of Zimbabwe. Internet Archive. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31583-1.
16. ^ Oliver, Roland; Atmore, Anthony (2001). Medieval Africa, 1250 1800.
17. ^ a b c Kim, Nam C.; Kusimba, Chapurukha M.; Keeley, Lawrence H. (2015). "Coercion and Warfare in the Rise of State Societies in Southern Zambezia". The African Archaeological Review. 32 (1): 1–34\. doi:10.1007/s10437-015-9183-x. ISSN 0263-0338. JSTOR 43916844.
18. ^ a b c d e f g h Huffman, Thomas N. (1 April 2014). "Ritual Space in the Zimbabwe Culture". Journal of Archaeological, Ethnographic and Experimental Studies. 6 (1): 4–39\. doi:10.1179/1944289013z.0000000008. ISSN 1944-2890.
19. ^ Mufuka, Kenneth (2005). "Great Zimbabwe: Origins and Rise". In Shillington, Kevin (ed.). Encyclopedia of African History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203483862. ISBN 978-1-135-45670-2.
20. ^ a b Pikirayi, Innocent (1 May 2024). "Granite Landforms and Water Storage at Great Zimbabwe". The Medieval History Journal. 27 (1): 254–279\. doi:10.1177/09719458241258551. ISSN 0971-9458.
21. ^ Silva, Alberto da Costa (2009). "15. Zimbabué". A enxada e a lança: a África antes dos Portugueses [The Hoe and the Spear: Africa before the Portuguese] (in Portuguese). Rio de Janeiro: Editora Nova Fronteira Participações S.A. ISBN 9788520939475.
22. ^ Pikirayi, Innocent (2006). "The Demise of Great Zimbabwe, ad 1420–1550: An Environmental Re-Appraisal". Cities in the World: 1500-2000: v. 3 (1st ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315095677. ISBN 978-1-315-09567-7.
23. ^ Newitt, Malyn (24 May 2018), "Southern Zambezia States and Indian Ocean Trade, 1450–1900", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.289, ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4, retrieved 18 February 2025
24. ^ Huffman, T. N. (1972). "The Rise and Fall of Zimbabwe". The Journal of African History. 13 (3): 353–366\. doi:10.1017/S0021853700011683. ISSN 1469-5138.
25. ^ a b Waarden, Catrien Van (2012). Butua and the End of an Era: The Effect of the Collapse of the Kalanga State on Ordinary Citizens : an Analysis of Behaviour Under Stress. Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-4073-1019-0.
26. ^ a b Chirikure, Shadreck; Pikirayi, Innocent (2008). "Inside and outside the dry stone walls: revisiting the material culture of Great Zimbabwe". Antiquity. 82 (318): 976–993\. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00097726. ISSN 0003-598X.
27. ^ Huffman, Thomas N.; Woodborne, Stephan (5 May 2020). "AMS Dates and the Chronology of Great Zimbabwe". Journal of African Archaeology. 18 (1): 86–108\. doi:10.1163/21915784-20200006. ISSN 1612-1651.
28. ^ "Great Zimbabwe (11th–15th Century)". MET museum. October 2001.
29. ^ Garlake (2002) 158
30. ^ Mugabe, Bedone (2022). Circulation of copper and copper alloys in hinterland southern Africa: material evidence from Great Zimbabwe (1000-1700CE) (Thesis).
31. ^ "Dry-stone Masonry: An Endangered Material Knowledge in the Conservation of Great Zimbabwe World Heritage Site | York Consortium for Conservation and Craftsmanship". www.conservationyork.org.uk. Archived from the original on 18 June 2024. Retrieved 20 March 2025.
32. ^ Leaver, Daniel (2005). "Great Zimbabwe: Colonial historiography". In Shillington, Kevin (ed.). Encyclopedia of African History. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203483862. ISBN 978-1-135-45670-2.
33. ^ Frederikse, Julie (1990) [1982]. "(1) Before the war". None But Ourselves. Biddy Partridge (photographer). Harare: Oral Traditions Association of Zimbabwe with Anvil Press. pp. 10–11\. ISBN 0-7974-0961-0.
34. ^ Fontein, Joost (1 December 2006). "Silence, Destruction and Closure at Great Zimbabwe: Local Narratives of Desecration and Alienation". Journal of Southern African Studies. 32 (4): 771–794\. doi:10.1080/03057070600995723. ISSN 0305-7070.
35. ^ "A History of The Mutapa Empire | PDF". Scribd. Retrieved 13 May 2025.
36. ^ aghiras. Encyclopedia Of African Religion.

## Sources

[edit]

* Böhmer-Bauer, Kunigunde (2000). Great Zimbabwe: eine ethnologische Untersuchung. R. Köppe. ISBN 389645210X.
* Oliver, Roland & Anthony Atmore (1975). Medieval Africa 1250–1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 738. ISBN 0-521-20413-5.
* Owomoyela, Oyekan (2002). Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe. Westport: Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-313-31583-1.
* Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers. Jefferson: McFarland. pp. 395. ISBN 0-89950-390-X.
* Wieschhoff, H. A. (2006). The Zimbabwe-Monomotapa Culture in Southeast Africa. Whitefish: Kessinger. p. 116\. ISBN 1-4286-5488-7.

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