Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom

Branch of Sasanian Persians ruling Bactria (c. 230–365)

Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom

Kushanshahr

c. 230 CE–c. 365 CE

Map of the domains governed by the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom

Capital| Balkh
Common languages| Middle Persian
Bactrian
Religion

| Buddhism
Zoroastrianism
Hinduism
Government| Feudal monarchy
Historical era| Late Antiquity

• Established

| c. 230 CE

• Disestablished

| c. 365 CE

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Kushan Empire

|

| Paratarajas
| Kidarites |

|

The Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom (or Indo-Sasanians) was a polity established by the Sasanian Empire in Bactria during the 3rd and 4th centuries. The Sasanian Empire captured the provinces of Sogdia, Bactria and Gandhara from the declining Kushan Empire following a series of wars in 225 CE.[1] The local Sasanian governors then went on to take the title of Kushanshah (KΟÞANΟ ÞAΟ or Koshano Shao in the Bactrian language[2]) or "King of the Kushans", and to mint coins.[1] They are sometimes considered as forming a "sub-kingdom" inside the Sasanian Empire.[3]

This administration continued until 360–370,[1] when the Kushano-Sasanians lost much of their domains to the invading Kidarites; the remainder was incorporated into the Sasanian Empire proper.[4] Later, the Kidarites were in turn displaced by the Hephthalites.[5]

The Kushanshahs are mainly known through their coins. Their coins were minted at Kabul, Balkh, Herat, and Merv, attesting the extent of their realm.[6]

A rebellion of Hormizd I Kushanshah (277–286 CE), who issued coins with the title Kushan-shahanshah ("King of kings of the Kushans"), seems to have occurred against contemporary emperor Bahram II (276–293 CE) of the Sasanian Empire, but failed.[1]

## History

[edit]

Portrait of Kushano-Sasanian ruler Hormizd I Kushanshah (c. 277-286 CE) in Kushan style.

The Sassanids, shortly after victory over the Parthians, extended their dominion into Bactria during the reign of Ardashir I around 230 CE, then further to the eastern parts of their empire in western Pakistan during the reign of his son Shapur I (240–270). Thus the Kushans lost their western territory (including Bactria and Gandhara) to the rule of Sassanid nobles named Kushanshahs or "Kings of the Kushans". The farthest extent of the Kushano-Sasanians to the east appears to have been Gandhara, and they apparently did not cross the Indus River, since almost none of their coinage has been found in the city of Taxila just beyond the Indus.[7]

The Kushano-Sasanians under Hormizd I Kushanshah seem to have led a rebellion against contemporary emperor Bahram II (276-293 CE) of the Sasanian Empire, but failed.[1] According to the Panegyrici Latini (3rd-4th century CE), there was a rebellion of a certain Ormis (Ormisdas) against his brother Bahram II, and Ormis was supported by the people of Saccis (Sakastan).[6] Hormizd I Kushanshah issued coins with the title Kushanshahanshah ("King of kings of the Kushans"),[8] probably in defiance of imperial Sasanian rule.[1]

Around 325, Shapur II was directly in charge of the southern part of the territory, while in the north the Kushanshahs maintained their rule. Important finds of Sasanian coinage beyond the Indus in the city of Taxila only start with the reigns of Shapur II (r.309-379) and Shapur III (r.383-388), suggesting that the expansion of Sasanian control beyond the Indus was the result of the wars of Shapur II "with the Chionites and Kushans" in 350-358 as described by Ammianus Marcellinus.[7] They probably maintained control until the rise of the Kidarites under their ruler Kidara.[7]

The decline of the Kushans and their defeat by the Kushano-Sasanians and the Sasanians, was followed by the rise of the Kidarites and then the Hephthalites (Alchon Huns) who in turn conquered Bactria and Gandhara and went as far as central India. They were later followed by Turk Shahi and then the Hindu Shahi, until the arrival of Muslims to north-western parts of India.

## Religious influences

[edit]

Coin of the last Kushano-Sasanian ruler Bahram Kushanshah (circa 350-365 CE) in Kushan style.
Obv: Bahram with characteristic headdress.
Rev: Shiva with Nandi in Kushan style.

Coins depicting Shiva and Nandi have been discovered, indicating a strong influence of Shaivism. [citation needed]

The prophet Mani (210–276), founder of Manichaeism, followed the Sasanian expansion to the east, which exposed him to the thriving Buddhist culture of Gandhara. He is said to have visited Bamiyan, where several religious paintings are attributed to him, and is believed to have lived and taught for some time. He is also related to have sailed to the Indus Valley area (now in Pakistan) in 240 or 241 and converted a Buddhist king, the Turan Shah of India.[9]

On that occasion, various Buddhist influences seem to have permeated Manichaeism: "Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the 'elect') and lay follower (the 'hearers') who supported them, appears to be based on that of the Buddhist sangha".[9]

## Coinage

[edit]

The Kushano-Sassanids created an extensive coinage with legend in Brahmi, Pahlavi or Bactrian, sometimes inspired from Kushan coinage, and sometimes more clearly Sassanid.

The obverse of the coin usually depicts the ruler with elaborate headdress and on the reverse either a fire temple or Shiva with Nandi.

* Kushano-Sasanian ruler Ardashir I Kushanshah, circa 230-250 CE. Merv mint.

* Ardashir I Kushanshah in the name of Kushan ruler Vasudeva I, circa 230-245 CE.[10]

* Hormizd I Kushanshah with mention of Mazda and Anahita. Merv mint.[8]

* Indo-Sassanid coin.

* A gold Indo-Sassanid coin.

## Kushano-Sasanian art

[edit]

The Indo-Sassanids traded goods such as silverware and textiles depicting the Sassanid emperors engaged in hunting or administering justice.

* Kushano-Sasanian footed cup with medallion, 3rd-4th century CE, Bactria, Metropolitan Museum of Art.[11]

* Possible Kushano-Sasanian plate, excavated in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, 350-400 CE.[12] British Museum 124093.[13][14]

* Terracotta head of a male figure, Kushano-Sasanian period, Gandhara region, 4th-5th century CE

* A probable Kushano-Sasanian plate with hunting scene, found in the 504 CE tomb of Feng Hetu in China. Shanxi Museum. It is dated the 3rd-4th century CE, and was probably manufactured in northern Afghanistan.[15][16][17]

### Artistic influences

[edit]

Vishnu Nicolo Seal: Kushano-Sasanian or Kidarite prince worshipping Vishnu or Vāsudeva, with Bactrian inscription. Found in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. 4th century CE. British Museum.[18][19][20]

The example of Sassanid art was influential on Kushan art, and this influence remained active for several centuries in the northwest South Asia. Plates seemingly belonging to the art of the Kushano-Sasanians have also been found in Northern Wei tombs in China, such as a plate depicting a boar hunt found in the 504 CE tomb of Feng Hetu.[21]

## Main Kushano-Sassanid rulers

[edit]

The following Kushanshahs were:[22]

* Ardashir I Kushanshah (230–245)
* Peroz I Kushanshah (245–275)
* Hormizd I Kushanshah (275–300)
* Hormizd II Kushanshah (300–303)
* Peroz II Kushanshah (303–330)
* Varahran Kushanshah (330–365)

## See also

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom.

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## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e f The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3, E. Yarshater p.209 ff
2. ^ Rezakhani, Khodadad (2021). "From the Kushans to the Western Turks". King of the Seven Climes: 204.
3. ^ The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila, Michael Maas, Cambridge University Press, 2014 p.284 ff
4. ^ Rezakhani 2017b, p. 83.
5. ^ Sasanian Seals and Sealings, Rika Gyselen, Peeters Publishers, 2007, p.1
6. ^ a b Encyclopedia Iranica
7. ^ a b c Ghosh, Amalananda (1965). Taxila. CUP Archive. pp. 790–791.
8. ^ a b CNG Coins
9. ^ a b Richard Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010
10. ^ CNG Coins
11. ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
12. ^ For the precise date: Sundermann, Werner; Hintze, Almut; Blois, François de (2009). Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 284, note 14. ISBN 978-3-447-05937-4.
13. ^ "Plate British Museum". The British Museum.
14. ^ Sims, Vice-President Eleanor G.; Sims, Eleanor; Marshak, Boris Ilʹich; Grube, Ernst J.; I, Boris Marshak (January 2002). Peerless Images: Persian Painting and Its Sources. Yale University Press. p. 13\. ISBN 978-0-300-09038-3.
15. ^ Carter, M.L. "Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. "A gilt silver plate depicting a princely boar hunt, excavated from a tomb near Datong dated to 504 CE, is close to early Sasanian royal hunting plates in style and technical aspects, but diverges enough to suggest a Bactrian origin dating from the era of the Kushano-Sasanian rule (ca. 275-350 CE)"
16. ^ HARPER, PRUDENCE O. (1990). "An Iranian Silver Vessel from the Tomb of Feng Hetu". Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 4: 51–59. ISSN 0890-4464. JSTOR 24048350.
17. ^ Watt, James C. Y. (2004). China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 152–153. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.
18. ^ "Seal British Museum". The British Museum.
19. ^ "a Sasanian prince is represented adoring before the Indian god Vishnu" in Herzfeld, Ernst (1930). Kushano-Sasanian Coins. Government of India central publication branch. p. 16.
20. ^ "South Asia Bulletin: Volume 27, Issue 2". South Asia Bulletin. University of California, Los Angeles. 2007. p. 478: "A seal inscribed in Bactrian , fourth to fifth century AD , shows a Kushano - Sasanian or Kidarite official worshipping Vishnu : Pierfrancesco Callieri , Seals and Sealings from the North - West of the Indian Subcontinent and Afghanistan."
21. ^ Carter, M.L. "Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. "A gilt silver plate depicting a princely boar hunt, excavated from a tomb near Datong dated to 504 CE, is close to early Sasanian royal hunting plates in style and technical aspects, but diverges enough to suggest a Bactrian origin dating from the era of the Kushano-Sasanian rule (ca. 275-350 CE)"
22. ^ Rezakhani 2017b, p. 78.

## Sources

[edit]

* Cribb, Joe (2018). Rienjang, Wannaporn; Stewart, Peter (eds.). Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017. University of Oxford The Classical Art Research Centre Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-78491-855-2.
* Cribb, Joe (2010). Alram, M. (ed.). "The Kidarites, the numismatic evidence.pdf". Coins, Art and Chronology Ii, Edited by M. Alram et al. Coins, Art and Chronology II: 91–146.
* Daryaee, Touraj; Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017a). "The Sasanian Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 978-0-692-86440-1.
* Payne, Richard (2016). "The Making of Turan: The Fall and Transformation of the Iranian East in Late Antiquity". Journal of Late Antiquity. 9. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 4–41. doi:10.1353/jla.2016.0011. S2CID 156673274.
* Rapp, Stephen H. (2014). The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature. London: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4724-2552-2.
* Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017b). "East Iran in Late Antiquity". ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–256. ISBN 978-1-4744-0030-5. JSTOR 10.3366/j.ctt1g04zr8. (registration required)
* Rypka, Jan; Jahn, Karl (1968). History of Iranian literature. D. Reidel. ISBN 9789401034791.
* Sastri, Nilakanta (1957). A Comprehensive History of India: The Mauryas & Satavahanas. Orient Longmans. p. 246\. ISBN 9788170070030.
* Vaissière, Étienne de La (2016). "Kushanshahs i. History". Encyclopaedia Iranica.
* Wiesehöfer, Joseph (1986). "Ardašīr I i. History". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4. pp. 371–376.

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* Turkistan (city)
* Urpek
* Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi
* Araltobe kurgan

Kyrgyzstan|

* Aigyr-Zhal 2
* Balasagun
* Burana Tower
* Issyk-Kul
* Koshoy Korgon
* Manas Ordo
* Navekat
* Özgön
* Shakh Fazil
* Suyab
* Tash Rabat

Uzbekistan|

* Afrasiyab
* Akchakhan-Kala
* Akhsikath
* Ancient Pap
* Ayaz-Kala
* Balalyk Tepe
* Burchmulla
* Dalverzin Tepe
* Desert castles of ancient Khorezm
* Fayaz Tepe
* Guldursun-Kala
* Hazorasp
* Itchan Kala
* Kafir-kala
* Kampir Tepe
* Kara Tepe
* Khalchayan
* Khiva
* Koi Krylgan Kala
* Koktepe
* Kyzyl-Kala
* Obi-Rakhmat Grotto
* Poykent
* Sarmishsay
* Shahrukhiya
* Siypantosh Rock Paintings
* Tavka Kurgan
* Toprak-Kala
* Varakhsha
* Zarautsoy Rock Paintings

Tajikistan|

* Bunjikat
* Penjikent
* Ajina tepe
* Cyropolis
* Kafir-kala
* Sarazm
* Takht-i Kuwad
* Takht-i Sangin
* Kalai Kafirnigan

Turkmenistan|

* Cave of Dzhebel
* Abiward
* Altyndepe
* Anau culture
* Anau
* Dev-Kesken
* Gonur Depe
* Jeitun
* Konye-Urgench
* Kutlug Timur Minaret
* Merv
* Monjukli Depe
* Namazga-Tepe
* Nisa
* Togolok
* Ulug Depe

Afghanistan|

* Tepe Fullol
* Ai-Khanoum
* Dilberjin Tepe
* Hadda
* Tapa Shotor
* Chakhil-i-Ghoundi
* Shotorak
* Paitava
* Bimaran
* Tapa-i Kafariha
* Mes Aynak
* Fondukistan
* Khair Khaneh
* Tapa Sardar
* Tepe Narenj
* Takht-e Rostam
* Tepe Fullol
* Tillya Tepe
* Yemshi Tepe
* Alexandria Prophthasia
* Aq Kupruk
* Asqalan
* Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex
* Buddhas of Bamiyan
* Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa
* Darra-e Kur
* Dasht-e Nawar
* Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan
* Firozkoh
* Gawhar Shad Mausoleum
* Haji Piyada
* Khair Khaneh
* Mundigak
* Musalla Complex
* Nagara
* Qala-i-Jangi
* Rag-i-Bibi
* Surkh Kotal

Iran|

* Bandian complex
* Mount Khajeh
* Shahr-e Sukhteh

Artifacts|

* Sokh snakes
* Orlat plaques
* Hephthalite silver bowl
* Chilek silver bowl
* Gardez Ganesha
* Mogao Christian painting
* Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho
* Penjikent murals
* Sampul tapestry
* Sogdian Daēnās
* Oxus Treasure
* Bimaran Casket
* Buddhas of Bamiyan
* Kabul hoard
* Aramaic Inscription of Laghman
* Kandahar Aramaic inscription
* Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription
* Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription
* Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka
* Afrasiab murals
* Stamp seal (BM 119999)
* Seal of Khingila
* Siberian Ice Maiden
* Ai-Khanoum plaque
* Saksanokhur gold buckle
* Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)
* Siberian Collection of Peter the Great

* v
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* e

Rulers of Ancient Central Asia

|  | Territories/
dates | Khorasan | Margiana | Bactria | Sogdia | Trans-Jaxartes steppes | Altai Mountains

|
|
|
|
|
|

| Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period
3500–2500 BCE  | (Eastern migration of the Yamnaya culture from the Pontic steppe through the Eurasian Steppe,as far as the Altai region)
| Afanasievo culture
(Proto-Tocharian)
2400–2000 BCE  |  | Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex

2000–1900 BCE  | Andronovo Culture
2000–900 BCE  |
626–539 BCE  | Median Empire
Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages | Saka
Massagetae
Tomyris | Saka
Skunkha | Saka
(Arzhan culture)
(Pazyryk Culture)

539–331 BCE  | Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
331–256 BCE  | Hellenistic Period
Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus

Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II

| Saka | Yuezhi
256–160 BCE  | Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I | Yuezhi | Xiongnu
Modu Chanyu Laoshang

Hunnic tribes
160–141 BCE  | Parthian Empire
Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I Vologases III Parthamaspates Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV | Eucratides
141 BCE–30 CE  | Yuezhi
Arseiles Sapadbizes Heraios
30 –224 CE  | Kushan Empire
Kujula Kadphises Vima Takto Vima Kadphises Kanishka I Huvishka Vasudeva I | Saka
224–350 CE  | Sasanian Empire
Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm Khosrow II Kavad II Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh | Kushano-Sasanians
Ardashir I Peroz I Hormizd I Hormizd II Peroz II Varahran | Kangju
Wanunkhur
320 CE–467 CE  | Kidarites
Yosada Kirada Peroz Kidara Grumbates Kungas Brahmi Buddhatala Varhran (II) Goboziko
370 CE–540 CE  | Alchon Huns
Khingila Javukha Mehama Lakhana Udayaditya Aduman Toramana Mihirakula
440 CE–560 CE  | Hephthalites
Akhshunwar Kun-khi Ghadfar
560 CE–651 CE  | First Turkic Khaganate
(Ashina Tuwu) Bumin Qaghan Issik Qaghan Muqan Qaghan Taspar Qaghan Ashina Anluo Ishbara Qaghan Bagha Qaghan Tulan Qaghan (Istämi) (Empress Ashina) (Apa Qaghan) (Yangsu Tegin) (Tamgan)
560 CE–625 CE  | Western Turks
(vassal of the Tang dynasty 657–742)
Niri Qaghan Heshana Khagan Sheguy Tong Yabghu Qaghan
625 CE–651 CE  | Tokhara Yabghus
Tardush Shad Ishbara Yabgu Wu-shih-po Pantu Nili  | Külüg Sibir Irbis Bolun Cabgu Duolu Qaghan Ishbara Tolis Yukuk Shad Irbis Seguy Ashina Helu
651–673 CE  | Muslim conquest of Persia
673–751 CE  | Muslim conquest of Transoxiana | Second Turkic Khaganate
Rulers of the Ancient Near-East

* v
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* e

Middle kingdoms of India

|  | Timeline and
cultural period  | Northwestern India
(Punjab-Sapta Sindhu)  | Indo-Gangetic Plain | Central India  | Southern India

|
|
|
|

Upper Gangetic Plain
(Ganga-Yamuna doab)  | Middle Gangetic Plain  | Lower Gangetic Plain
IRON AGE
Culture | Late Vedic Period | Late Vedic Period
(Srauta culture)[a]
Painted Grey Ware culture | Late Vedic Period
(Shramanic culture)[b]
Northern Black Polished Ware | Pre-history
6th century BCE | Gandhara | Kuru-Panchala | Magadha |  | Adivasi (tribes) | Assaka
Culture | Persian-Greek influences | "Second Urbanisation"
Rise of Shramana movements
Jainism \- Buddhism \- Ājīvika \- Yoga | Pre-history
5th century BCE | (Persian conquests)  |  | Shaishunaga dynasty |  | Adivasi (tribes) | Assaka
4th century BCE | (Greek conquests)  | Nanda empire |
HISTORICAL AGE
Culture | Spread of Buddhism | Pre-history |
3rd century BCE | Maurya Empire | Satavahana dynasty
Sangam period
(300 BCE – 200 CE)
Early Cholas
Early Pandyan kingdom
Cheras

Culture | Preclassical Hinduism[c] \- "Hindu Synthesis"[d] (ca. 200 BC - 300 CE)[e][f]
Epics \- Puranas \- Ramayana \- Mahabharata \- Bhagavad Gita \- Brahma Sutras \- Smarta Tradition
Mahayana Buddhism |
2nd century BCE | Indo-Greek Kingdom | Shunga Empire
Maha-Meghavahana Dynasty | Satavahana dynasty
Sangam period
(300 BCE – 200 CE)
Early Cholas
Early Pandyan kingdom
Cheras

1st century BCE
1st century CE |

Indo-Scythians
Indo-Parthians

| Kuninda Kingdom |  |
2nd century | Kushan Empire
3rd century | Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom | Kushan Empire | Western Satraps | Kamarupa kingdom  | Adivasi (tribes)
Culture | "Golden Age of Hinduism"(ca. CE 320-650)[g]
Puranas
Co-existence of Hinduism and Buddhism
4th century | Kidarites | Gupta Empire
Varman dynasty | Andhra Ikshvakus
Kalabhra dynasty
Kadamba Dynasty
Western Ganga Dynasty
5th century | Hephthalite Empire | Alchon Huns | Vishnukundina
Kalabhra dynasty

6th century | Nezak Huns
Kabul Shahi |  | Maitraka |  | Adivasi (tribes) | Vishnukundina
Badami Chalukyas
Kalabhra dynasty

Culture | Late-Classical Hinduism (ca. CE 650-1100)[h]
Advaita Vedanta \- Tantra
Decline of Buddhism in India
7th century | Indo-Sassanids |  | Vakataka dynasty
Empire of Harsha | Mlechchha dynasty | Adivasi (tribes) | Badami Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas
Pandyan kingdom (revival)
Pallava
8th century | Kabul Shahi |  | Pala Empire | Eastern Chalukyas
Pandyan kingdom
Kalachuri
9th century |  | Gurjara-Pratihara |  | Rashtrakuta dynasty
Eastern Chalukyas
Pandyan kingdom
Medieval Cholas
Chera Perumals of Makkotai
10th century | Ghaznavids |  |  | Pala dynasty
Kamboja-Pala dynasty | Kalyani Chalukyas
Eastern Chalukyas
Medieval Cholas
Chera Perumals of Makkotai
Rashtrakuta

References and sources for table

References

1. ^ Samuel
2. ^ Samuel
3. ^ Michaels (2004) p.39
4. ^ Hiltebeitel (2002)
5. ^ Michaels (2004) p.39
6. ^ Hiltebeitel (2002)
7. ^ Michaels (2004) p.40
8. ^ Michaels (2004) p.41

Sources

* Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press
* Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa, "The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture", Routledge
* Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
* Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press

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* t
* e

Provinces of the Sasanian Empire

* Abarshahr
* Adurbadagan
* Albania
* Arbayistan
* Armenia
* Asoristan
* Balasagan
* Dihistan
* Egypt*
* Eran-Khwarrah-Yazdegerd*
* Garamig ud Nodardashiragan
* Garmekan
* Gurgan
* Harev
* Hind
* Iberia
* Kadagistan*
* Khuzistan
* Kirman
* Kushanshahr
* Khwarazm
* Lazica*
* Machelonia
* Makuran
* Marw
* Mazun
* Media
* Meshan
* Nodardashiragan
* Paradan
* Padishkhwargar
* Pars
* Parthia
* Sakastan
* Sogdia
* Spahan
* Suristan
* Turan
* Yemen

* indicates short living provinces

* v
* t
* e

Sasanian Empire

* List of monarchs
* Timeline

Dynasty|

* House of Sasan
* Family tree
* Seven Great Houses
* Kayus

Culture|

* Architecture
* Art
* Coinage
* Crowns
* Dressing
* Education
* Glassware
* Inscriptions
* Literature
* Music
* Punishment
* Women

Military and wars|

* Military of the Sasanian Empire
* Navy
* Defense lines
* Roman–Persian Wars
* Arab tribes
* Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars
* Göktürk–Persian wars
* Aksumite–Persian wars
* Revolts and civil wars
* Muslim conquest of Persia

Descendants|

* Dabuyids
* Bavands
* Baduspanids
* Banu al-Munajjim
* Mikalids
* Qarinvand

Related|

* Roads
* Economy
* Roman–Iranian relations
* Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom
* ērān and anērān

Category
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*[c.]: circa