LGBTQ adoption and parenting in Australia

Main article: LGBT parenting

Law in Australia with regard to children is often based on what is considered to be in the best interest of the child. The traditional and often used assumption is that children need both a mother and a father, which plays an important role in divorce and custodial proceedings, and has carried over into adoption and fertility procedures.[1][2][3][4][5] As of April 2018 all Australian states and territories allow adoption by same-sex couples.[6] In April 2025, it was formally announced that Medicare rebates would now include single individuals and same-sex couples who undergo IVF treatments, but not surrogacy - for decades only heterosexual couples could access the Medicare rebates on IVF treatments. It also removed the outdated and archaic definitions of infertility.[7]

## Overview

[edit]

| Same-sex couple joint petition  | LGBTQ individual adoption  | Same-sex stepparent adoption

|
|
|

New South Wales and Norfolk Island |  Yes (since 2010)[8] |  Yes (since 2000)[9] |  Yes (since 2010)
ACT |  Yes (since 2004)  |  Yes (since 1993)[10] |  Yes (since 2004)
Western Australia |  Yes (since 2002)  |  Yes[11] |  Yes (since 2002)
Tasmania |  Yes (since 2013)  |  Yes[12] |  Yes (since 2004)
Victoria |  Yes (since 2016)  |  Yes[13] |  Yes (since 2007)
Queensland |  Yes (since 2016)  |  Yes (since 2016)  |  Yes (since 2016)
South Australia |  Yes (since 2017)  |  Yes (since 2017)[nb 1] |  Yes (since 2017)
Northern Territory |  Yes (since 2018)[14] | Only in exceptional circumstances[15] |  Yes (since 2018)[14]

## Legislative progress

[edit]

Since April 2018, adoption by same-sex couples is legally available in all jurisdictions of Australia.

South Australia, introduced a bill to the South Australian Parliament that allows same-sex couples to adopt children in September 2016 and which passed the Parliament in December 2016.[16] That bill received Royal Assent a week later and took effect in February 2017.[17][18]

In Queensland, same-sex couples have been legally allowed to adopt since passage of a law in November 2016.[19][20] Single LGBT people may adopt in some states, but individuals seeking to adopt are considered less of a priority than couples and lengthy waiting lists for adoption make it virtually impossible. Individuals may usually only adopt a child with special needs or in cases of exceptional circumstances.

Western Australia became the first Australian state to allow same-sex adoptions when its Labor government passed the Acts Amendment (Lesbian and Gay Law Reform) Act 2002 which in turn amended the Adoption Act 1994 (WA). This allowed same-sex couples to adopt in accordance with criteria that assesses the suitability of couples and individuals to be parents, regardless of sexual orientation.

Australia's first legal gay adoption, by two men, occurred in Western Australia in June 2007.[21][22][23][24] Subsequently, on 2 August 2007, the federal government under Prime Minister John Howard announced it would legislate to stop same-sex couples adopting a child from overseas, and would further not recognise adopted children of same-sex couples. The federal Coalition's proposed Family Law (Same Sex Adoption) Bill would amend the Family Law Act 1975 and override state and territory laws that currently cover international adoptions. The bill was due to be introduced in the spring 2007 session of parliament, but has been taken off the agenda following the 2007 federal election.[25][26]

In July 2009 the NSW Law and Justice Committee decided that the Adoption Act 2000 should be amended to allow same-sex couples the right to adopt. Committee chair Christine Robertson said, "The committee has concluded that reform to allow same-sex couples to adopt will help to ensure that the best interests of children are met by our adoption laws and all recommendations were implemented in 2010."[27]

## Same-sex step-parent adoption

[edit]

Where joint adoption of children by same-sex couples is legal, so too is step-parent adoption. In all jurisdictions within Australia, a lesbian co-mother or gay co-father may use stepparent adoption provisions, although female couples in those states whose children were born through assisted conception may not actually need to adopt them, as the law there presumes the mother's female partner to be a legal parent as long as she consented to the conception.[28][29][30] As of 2017, all states and territories, allow both same-sex partners to have a legally recognised relationship with their child - except Western Australia within surrogacy.

However, even those laws contain a general presumption against making an adoption order because an adoption order severs the legal relationship between the child and one of the child's birth parents. Due to the serious consequences of an adoption order, all step-parent adoption laws (including those applying to opposite-sex couples) contain a strong preference for dealing with new parenting arrangements through a parenting order rather than an adoption order.

Alternately, the lesbian co-mother or gay co-father of a child may apply to the Family Court of Australia for a parenting order, as 'other people significant to the care, welfare and development' of the child. It provides an important "status quo" if the birth mother were to die, preventing other family members from taking immediate custody of the child.[31]

The Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) issued a report in 2007 entitled National Inquiry into Discrimination against People in Same-Sex Relationships recommended amending or creating laws recognising the relationship between a child and both same-sex parents. In particular, "'Stepparent adoption' laws should more readily consider adoption by a lesbian co-mother or gay co-father. This will require amendments to remove the prohibition on same-sex stepparent adoption in all state and territory laws other than in WA, the ACT and Tasmania." The final report of the Same-Sex: Same Entitlements Inquiry was tabled in Parliament on 21 June 2007.[32]

## Assisted reproduction and surrogacy

[edit]

Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) and surrogacy comes under the jurisdiction of states and territories in Australia so national legislation cannot be used to no its practice. ART services (which include but are not limited to In Vitro Fertilization and artificial insemination) and other reproductive technologies are legal in all states and territories (see LGBT rights in Australia for more). Western Australia is the only state that bans altruistic surrogacy for singles and same-sex couples.

Commercial surrogacy and related advertising remains illegal in all of Australia, regardless. Altruistic surrogacy, where the surrogate receives no financial reward for her pregnancy or the relinquishment of the child, is legal in all of Australia, though in Western Australia it is reserved for opposite-sex couples only. South Australia and the Northern Territory recently legally allowed same-sex couples the right to altruistic surrogacy arrangements by legislation (see LGBT rights in South Australia for more). With altruistic surrogacy, only expenses related to the pregnancy and birth are paid by the intended parents such as medical expenses, maternity clothing, and other related expenses.

The practice of altruistic surrogacy for same-sex couples and single people remains illegal only in Western Australia.[33] It is believed that only 1 in 20 surrogacy arrangements take place in Australia; almost all involving foreign surrogates from South-East Asia and the United States.[33] In Tasmania, until 30 April 2012 then the Surrogacy Contracts Act 1993 is then repealed and replaced on 1 May 2013 with the Surrogacy Act 2012 becoming effective to allow altruistic surrogacy for all singles and couples of all genders.[34] In Queensland where the newly elected state Liberal National Party government who won the Queensland state election in March 2012 with a massive super-majority, has announced that they will re-criminalise altruistic surrogacy for singles, same-sex couples and opposite-sex couples who have been in a de facto relationship for less than 2 years.[35] In November 2006, Attorneys-General from all states and territories agreed in principle to uniform surrogacy regulations which meant couples would no longer have to travel to avoid illegal arrangements in their home state after Victorian Senator Stephen Conroy and his wife, Paula Benson, revealed that their daughter Isabella had been born to a surrogate mother in Sydney via the in-vitro fertilisation of a donated egg.[36][37][38] In April 2007, Federal Attorney-General Philip Ruddock called for national surrogacy laws, so couples in some states no longer have to travel elsewhere to undergo the procedure legally.[39]

Obtaining legal parental rights for same sex partners of birth parents has only recently been addressed in limited ways. All states and territories recognise female co-mothers as birth parents of children conceived through in vitro fertilisation or artificial insemination. Male couples who arrange altruistic surrogacy (since commercial surrogacy is illegal) using one partner's sperm, which may be legally possible in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Tasmania,[34] Queensland, Victoria and South Australia, will face legal difficulties gaining rights for the genetic father as a 'sperm donor', and terminating the surrogate mother's rights (ideally through a stepparent adoption), which will be required in order to obtain legal recognition for the non-biological male partner. A growing number of male couples from around the world are attempting to become parents through surrogacy in America due to its favourable laws.[40] However, it is a criminal offence for a person ordinarily resident in Queensland, New South Wales or the ACT to enter into a commercial surrogacy arrangement anywhere in the world.

| ART/IVF for surrogates of male couples  | ART/IVF for lesbian couples  | Commercial surrogacy  | Altruistic surrogacy  | Automatically recognise non-genetic parent at birth

|
|
|
|
|

Queensland |  Yes  |  Legal  |  Illegal  |  Legal  |  Yes (for all couples)
ACT |  Yes  |  Legal  |  Illegal  |  Legal  |  Yes (for all couples)
Tasmania |  Yes[34] |  Legal  |  Illegal  |  Legal[34] |  Yes (for all couples)[34]
Victoria |  Yes  |  Legal  |  Illegal  |  Legal  |  Yes (for all couples)
New South Wales and Norfolk Island |  Yes  |  Legal  |  Illegal  |  Legal  |  Yes (for all couples)
South Australia |  Yes  |  Legal  |  Illegal  |  Legal  |  Yes (for all couples)
Northern Territory |  Yes  |  Legal  |  Illegal  |  Legal  |  Yes (for all couples)
Western Australia |  Illegal  |  Legal  |  Illegal  |  Illegal (banned for singles and same sex couples; bill pending to remove ban);[41] Legal (for heterosexual couples who are married or in a de facto relationship)[42] |  Yes (for all couples),  No (male couples)

### ACT

[edit]

Main article: LGBT rights in the Australian Capital Territory

The Parentage Act 2004 made non-commercial surrogacy legal but the birth mother and her husband were deemed to be the parents unless the genetic parents adopt the child back. In 2000, The ACT became the first state or territory to allow the genetic parents who are heterosexual of a child born through surrogacy to become its legal parents, allowing them to easily obtain a parenting order and avoid adoption.[43][44] It is illegal to advertise for a surrogate and to pay for a surrogate or an ovum donor. When two women are in a same-sex relationship, and one of them gives birth as a result of ART, her partner is presumed to be a parent of the child. The ACT's birth registration process allows for a person to be registered as a 'mother', 'father' or 'parent', enabling lesbian couples to be recognised as parents on a child's birth documents.

### New South Wales

[edit]

Main article: LGBT rights in New South Wales

### Northern Territory

[edit]

The Northern Territory was the second jurisdiction to extend a presumption of parentage to lesbian partners in 2003 with its Status of Children Act 2003, following Western Australia's lead in 2002.[45][46] The Northern Territory became the last jurisdiction within Australia to legally allow both unmarried different-sex couples and same-sex couples to adopt children, when the Adoption of Children Legislation Amendment (Equality) Bill 2017 passed the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in March 2018. The bill received royal assent on 19 April 2018, becoming the Adoption of Children Legislation Amendment (Equality) Act 2018 and commenced the following day.[47]

### Queensland

[edit]

Main article: LGBT rights in Queensland

### South Australia

[edit]

Main article: LGBT rights in South Australia

### Tasmania

[edit]

The Status of Children Act 1974 states that the woman who gives birth to the child is the mother, regardless of genetics. The Act does make a mention of "parentage" of both co-mothers in section 10C, however a report back in 2003 by the Joint Standing Committee on Community Development proposed amending the Act to recognise the lesbian partner as a parent via the Relationships (Consequential Amendments) Bill 2003 but it failed to pass in the upper house by just one vote.[48] In June 2009, the Relationships (Miscellaneous Amendments) Bill proposed reform to the state's Adoption Act and Status of Children Act, allowing non-biological lesbian parents to be legally considered the parents of a child conceived using IVF.[49] The bill passed the lower house 45–3 on 20 August, opposed by three Liberal MHA's who had been given a conscience vote. The Legislative Council (Upper House) ratified the bill with amendments to back date the law to 1 January 2004 in October without dissent.[50] The lower house approved of the amendments made in the upper house in November 2009 and then passed the Tasmanian parliament.[51]

In 2012, Tasmania passed two pieces of legislation to legally allow altruistic surrogacy. The two laws are called the Surrogacy Act No 34 and the Surrogacy (Consequential Amendments) Act No 31.[34][52] Proposed altruistic surrogacy legislation was drafted and passed by both houses of the Tasmanian parliament – only after a review of the Surrogacy Contracts Act 1993 No 4[53][54] and after an ongoing community consultation process. Under the altruistic surrogacy legislation, the surrogate must be at least 25 years old and it cannot be her first pregnancy. The new altruistic surrogacy laws went into effect on 1 May 2013.[34]

### Victoria

[edit]

Main article: LGBT rights in Victoria (Australia)

### Western Australia

[edit]

The Human Reproductive Technology Act 1991 (WA) established that to use any ART, a woman must be unable to conceive a child for medical reasons (clinical infertility) and "persons seeking to be treated as a couple must be married or in a de facto relationship and must be of the opposite sex to each other".[55]

In 2002, the Artificial Conception Act 1985 was amended to deal with lesbian couples. It stated that, where a woman who is in a de facto relationship with another woman undergoes, with the consent of her de facto partner, an artificial fertilisation procedure, the de facto partner of the pregnant woman is conclusively presumed to be a parent of the unborn child and is a parent of any child born as a result of the pregnancy.[56]

Western Australia's Registry of Births, Deaths and Marriages allows for registration of a parent other than a 'mother' and/or 'father' on the birth documents of the child. The birth registration form provides same-sex couples with the option of describing themselves as 'mother' and 'parent'; 'mother' and 'mother'; or 'parent' and 'parent'. Provided proper consent has been given by both the woman and her same-sex partner, the partner will conclusively be presumed to be the parent of any resulting child.

The Surrogacy Bill 2007 was passed by the Legislative Assembly (Lower House) in September 2007, and was referred to the Standing Committee on Legislation within the Legislative Council (Upper House) in November 2007. It was sent back to the Legislative Council (with amendments to ban single people and same-sex couples from altruistic surrogacy arrangements) for a third reading in June 2008. The legislation was passed on 4 December 2008.[57][58]

## See also

[edit]

* LGBT parenting
* LGBT adoption
* LGBT rights in Australia

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ The laws regarding single persons (LGBT and non-LGBT) and adoption are more restrictive than other states. In South Australia, single people can have an adoption order granted where "the Court is satisfied that there are special circumstances justifying the making of the order". See LGBT rights in South Australia#Same-sex adoption for more.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Microsoft Word – APA California Amicus Brief – As Filed.DOC" (PDF). Retrieved 20 January 2011.
2. ^ Canadian Psychological Association: Brief presented to the Legislative House of Commons Committee on Bill C38 By the Canadian Psychological Association 2 June 2005. Archived 13 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ Short, Elizabeth; Damien W. Riggs; Amaryll Perlesz; Rhonda Brown; Graeme Kane (August 2007). "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society" (PDF). The Australian Psychological Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
4. ^ "Children's Development of Social Competence Across Family Types" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 September 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
5. ^ Michael Lamb, PhD: Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts (2009) Archived 25 January 2010 at WebCite
6. ^ "Australia now has adoption equality". Human Rights Law Centre. 20 April 2018.
7. ^ "'Massive win for our community': More Australians to be able to access subsidised IVF". 30 July 2024.
8. ^ "Australian state votes for adoption by same-sex couples". The Hindu. India. Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 2 September 2010. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
9. ^ "ADOPTION ACT 2000". Austlii.edu.au. 1 January 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
10. ^ "ADOPTION ACT 1993". Austlii.edu.au. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
11. ^ "ADOPTION ACT 1994". Austlii.edu.au. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
12. ^ "Adoption Act 1988 (Tas) – Sect 20. Persons in whose favour adoption orders may be made". Austlii. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
13. ^ "Adoption Act 1984 – SECT 11". Austlii. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
14. ^ a b "Legislation Database". legislation.nt.gov.au. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
15. ^ "Adoption of Children Act (NT)". Austlii. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
16. ^ "Adoption (review) amendment bill 2016" (PDF). House of Assembly. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 30 July 2025.
17. ^ "Adoption (Review) Amendment Act (Commencement) Proclamation 2017" (PDF). Legislation.sa.gov.au. 17 February 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 17 February 2017.
18. ^ "Adoption equality now a reality for South Australians". Human Rights Law Centre. 17 February 2017. Archived from the original on 17 February 2017.
19. ^ Gail Burke (3 November 2016). "Adoption laws in Queensland changed to allow same-sex couples to become parents". Australia: ABC News.
20. ^ "Same sex couples". Legal Aid Queensland. Archived from the original on 25 May 2008. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
21. ^ "Gay adoption 'groundbreaking'". PerthNow. 12 June 2007. Archived from the original on 3 April 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
22. ^ "First Legal Gay Adoption in Australia". SameSame.com.au. Archived from the original on 10 February 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
23. ^ "Australia's First Legal Adoption For Gay Couple". efluxmedia. Archived from the original on 21 June 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
24. ^ "Australia's First Gay Adoption". ProudParenting.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
25. ^ "Green Left – Stop the proposed same-sex adoption ban". Green Left. Archived from the original on 18 February 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
26. ^ "Gay couples face overseas adoption ban". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2 August 2007. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
27. ^ "Adoption Inquiry Backs Same-Sex Couples". SSO Net. 9 July 2009. Retrieved 15 May 2008.
28. ^ "Is second parent adoption possible in Australia?". Gay & Lesbian Rights Lobby. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
29. ^ "Same-sex parenting". PHD Blog It. 5 January 2006. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
30. ^ Grattan, Michelle (27 April 2004). "Gay adoption law to stay". The Age. Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
31. ^ "Same Sex, Same Entitlements". Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
32. ^ "Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission". Hreoc.gov.au. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
33. ^ a b "Two dads and a surrogate create legal landmark".
34. ^ a b c d e f g "Numerical Table of the Acts of Parliament 2012". Tasmania Department of Premier and Cabinet. 27 February 2013. Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
35. ^ "Gays face surrogacy ban as LNP pushes civil union changes". Brisbane Times. 22 June 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
36. ^ "Desperate plea for end to secret trade in human eggs". The Sydney Morning Herald. 12 November 2006. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
37. ^ "Church (3 February 2006)". The Age. Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
38. ^ "Surrogacy laws too varied, Ruddock tells states". The Sydney Morning Herald. 8 November 2006. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
39. ^ MacNamara, Lisa (7 April 2007). "Call for uniform surrogacy laws". The Australian. Archived from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
40. ^ "Surrogate mothers fulfilling gay men's parenthood dreams". The Sydney Morning Herald. 7 May 2008. Archived from the original on 14 July 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
41. ^ "Progress of Bills". www.parliament.wa.gov.au.
42. ^ "Surrogacy Act".
43. ^ "Parentage Act 2004" (PDF). Retrieved 20 January 2011.
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45. ^ Millbank, Jenni (2 April 2008). "One state, one mother". SX News. Archived from the original on 11 August 2008. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
46. ^ "Status of Children Act". NT Department of Justice. 17 March 2004. Archived from the original on 31 August 2006. Retrieved 3 June 2008.
47. ^ "Legislation Database". legislation.nt.gov.au. Archived from the original on 21 April 2018.
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49. ^ Noonan, Andie (23 June 2009). "Tasmania to grant parental rights". Sydney Star Observer. Retrieved 3 September 2009.
50. ^ Hackney, Peter (2 November 2009). "Tasmania approves same-sex family law". MCV. Archived from the original on 8 November 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2009.
51. ^ "Parliament of Tasmania – Annual Register of Bills". Parliament.tas.gov.au. Archived from the original on 24 March 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
52. ^ "Parliament passes landmark Surrogacy laws". Tasmania Department of Premier and Cabinet. 25 September 2012. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
53. ^ "Surrogacy Contracts Act 1993". Thelaw.tas.gov.au. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
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55. ^ "Human Reproductive Technology Act 1991 (WA)". Austlii. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
56. ^ "Artificial Conception Act 1985 – Section 6a. Rule relating to parentage – same sex de facto relationships". Austlii. Retrieved 14 May 2008.
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58. ^ "Surrogacy Act 2008" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2011.

* v
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LGBTQ in Australia

LGBTQ rights and laws|

| By state|

* Australian Capital Territory
* New South Wales
* Northern Territory
* Queensland
* South Australia
* Tasmania
* Victoria
* Western Australia

|

By topic|

* Intersex rights
* Transgender rights
* Adoption and parenting
* Marriage
* History
* Public opinion
* Survey
* in the ACT
* Marriage Equality Act 2013 (ACT)
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* Military service

History|

* Daughters of Bilitis
* Tasty nightclub raid
* Murder of George Duncan
* Suicide of Tyrone Unsworth
* LGBTI holders of political offices
* Re Alex
* Re Kevin – validity of marriage of transsexual
* Toonen v. Australia
* Gay gang murders

Culture and events|

* Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras
* Melbourne Queer Film Festival
* Brisbane Pride Festival
* Cairns Tropical Pride
* ChillOut Festival (Daylesford)
* Feast Festival (Adelaide)
* Midsumma Festival (Melbourne)
* Star Observer
* SX News
* Queensland Pride
* QNews Magazine
* Joy 94.9 Melbourne radio station

Organisations|

* Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome Support Group Australia
* The Aurora Group
* Australian Equality Party (Marriage)
* Australian Lesbian and Gay Archives
* Australian Marriage Equality
* Coalition of Activist Lesbians Australia
* Community Action Against Homophobia
* Equal Love
* Kaleidoscope Australia Human Rights Foundation
* National LGBTI Health Alliance
* Intersex Human Rights Australia
* Safe Schools Coalition Australia
* Transgender Victoria
* Victorian Pride Lobby
* Zoe Belle Gender Collective

* v
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* e

Adoption and foster care

Adoption by country|

* Australia
* France
* Guatemala
* Italy
* Philippines
* United Arab Emirates
* United States
* South Korea
* Switzerland

Foster care by country|

* Australia
* Canada
* United Kingdom
* United States

Issues|

* Adopted child syndrome
* Adoption disclosure
* Adoption home study
* Adoption reunion registry
* Adoptee rights
* Adoption tax credit
* Aging out
* Child abuse
* Child laundering
* Political abuse of psychiatry
* Closed adoption
* Cultural variations in adoption
* Disruption
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* International adoption
* Interracial adoption
* Language of adoption
* Same-sex adoption
* Australia
* Brazil
* Europe
* United Kingdom
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* Open adoption
* Sealed birth records
* History of children in the military

Laws|

* Access to Adoption Records Act (Ontario)
* Adoption Information Disclosure Act (Ontario)
* Adoption and Safe Families Act (US)
* Child Citizenship Act of 2000 (US)
* Christian law of adoption (India)
* Dima Yakovlev Law (Russia)
* Foster Care Independence Act (US)
* Hague Adoption Convention
* Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (India)
* Indian Child Welfare Act (US)
* Islamic adoptional jurisprudence
* Putative father registry (US)
* Uniform Adoption Act (US)

History|

* Adoption in ancient Rome
* Fosterage

Controversial violations of rights
in adoption or child custody|

* List of international adoption scandals
* American Indian boarding schools/American Indian outing programs
* Indian Placement Program
* Canadian Indian residential school system
* Tennessee Children's Home Society
* Baby Scoop Era
* Sixties Scoop
* Home Children
* Michael A. Hess
* Forced adoption in Australia
* Forced adoption in the United Kingdom
* Devshirme
* Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany
* Tianjin Massacre
* Mortara case
* Child abductions in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
* Postremo mense
* Romanian orphanage phenomenon
* Jewish orphans controversy

Historical criticism of orphanages|

* Duplessis Orphans
* Mount Cashel Orphanage
* Mary Norris
* St. John's Orphanage

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