Labor relations

Study of work and workers

Vancouver Labour Temple during the general strike in 1918

Labour relations in practice is a subarea within human resource management, and the main components of it include collective bargaining, application and oversight of collective agreement obligations, and dispute resolution. Academically, employee relations, a related term, is considered a subarea of labour relations that focuses on non-union settings, whereas labour relations covers both union and non-union workplaces, and both are taxonomically classified under the broader field of industrial relations. Labour relations is defined as "for or with whom one works and under what rules. These rules (implicit or explicit, written or unwritten) determine the type of work, type and amount of remuneration, working hours, degrees of physical and psychological strain, as well as the degree of freedom and autonomy associated with the work."[1]

Labour relations is also known as labour studies in liberal arts and is a multidisciplinary field that draws from economics, sociology, history, law, and political science. Scholars in this field examine labour unions and labour movements. In an interdisciplinary context, it is considered a subfield of labour history that explores human relationships with work in the broadest sense and how these relationships intersect with issues of social inequality. In contemporary contexts, labour relations refers to the study and management of unionized employment settings, which include the employer, management, union(s), and the unionized employees.

Conflicts related to labour relations are addressed through a hierarchy of legal forums, depending on the nature and severity of the issue. In unionized workplaces, the grievance process under the collective agreement is the primary mechanism for resolving disputes, with unresolved issues escalated to quasi-judicial bodies like labour boards or arbitration tribunals that issue binding decisions. When a matter involves discrimination based on a protected characteristic, such as race, sex, or disability, recourse may be available through a human rights tribunal. For claims that require extensive evidence gathering or seek substantial monetary compensation, the civil courts offer a broader legal remedy. However, in cases involving immediate danger to health or safety, the most appropriate forum is occupational health and safety enforcement, where an inspector can intervene promptly to assess and mitigate the risk.[2]

## Labour relations in North America

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### Labour relations in United States

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Labour relations in the United States are governed by a combination of federal and state legislation, depending on the sector and type of employment. For most private sector workers involved in interstate commerce, the National Labor Relations Act provides the foundational framework for collective bargaining, union representation, and the regulation of unfair labor practices. This legislation is enforced by the National Labor Relations Board, which applies federal standards uniformly across all states. An employer in the United States is not obligated by law to formally bargain with employees unless they are represented by a union certified by the National Labor Relations Board, which serves as the central legal authority for upholding labor rights in the United States. Workers in the railroad and airline industries fall under the Railway Labor Act, which emphasizes mediation and arbitration to prevent service disruptions. Public sector labour relations are governed differently. At the federal level, the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 regulates labour-management relations for federal employees, supporting collective bargaining while addressing the operational needs of government. State and local public sector employees, including teachers, police officers, and municipal workers, are covered by various state-specific laws that vary widely in terms of union rights and bargaining procedures. Some states also have "right-to-work" laws that limit union security agreements under the Taft-Hartley Act. Despite these legal structures, coverage is limited; in 2008, only 13.7% of U.S. workers in both public and private sectors were covered by formal labour relations laws.[3] The Labor and Employment Relations Association is an important professional association supporting the field.

### Labour relations in Canada

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Labour relations in Canada are shaped by a rich history of union activism, collective struggle, and progressive legal reform. Grounded in pivotal events like the 1872 Nine-Hour Movement, the 1919 Winnipeg General Strike, the 1945 Ford Windsor Strike, and the 1983 Solidarity Crisis, Canadian labour movements have played a critical role in securing many of the rights now embedded in the workplace. These include minimum wage standards, overtime pay, maternity and parental leave, and protections against discrimination, harassment, and health and safety hazards. The legacy of these social action movements has transformed Canada's labour landscape by fostering a sustained commitment to worker solidarity and advancing the pursuit of labour justice within an egalitarian and democratic society.[4]

Labour and employment protections in Canada operate under a dual system of federal and provincial legislation depending on the employer’s jurisdiction. Federally regulated sectors such as banking, telecommunications, and interprovincial transportation fall under the Canada Labour Code, which sets standards for collective bargaining, employment conditions, occupational health and safety, and dispute resolution.[5] The Pay Equity Act at the federal level requires federally regulated employers to correct wage gaps in their workplaces.[6] The Canada Industrial Relations Board manages union certifications, unfair labour practices, and workplace disputes, supported by Employment and Social Development Canada. Human rights protections at the federal level are provided by the Canadian Human Rights Act, which prohibits discrimination within federally regulated workplaces, and by the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which safeguards constitutional rights including equality and freedom of association in both federal and provincial public sector workplaces.[7] The Canadian Human Rights Commission receives and investigates complaints under the federal act and refers cases requiring legally binding decisions to the Canadian Human Rights Tribunal. Charter rights apply only in public sector matters and are resolved through the courts. In provincially regulated sectors such as private companies, municipalities, schools, and hospitals, each province applies its own legal framework. In Ontario, for example, the Ontario Labour Relations Act, 1995 governs union-management relations by outlining collective bargaining rights, unfair labour practices, and dispute resolution mechanism, while the Employment Standards Act sets minimum conditions such as wages, working hours, vacation, leave entitlements, and termination rules.[8] The Ontario Labour Relations Board handles union-related disputes,[9] while the Ontario Human Rights Code, which addresses all private sector human rights matters, is enforced by the Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario with legally binding authority. This distinguishes Ontario from other provinces that rely solely on human rights commissions with limited investigatory powers. Workplace health and safety in Ontario is regulated by the Occupational Health and Safety Act,[10] enforced by the Ministry of Labour, Immigration, Training and Skills Development. Compensation for workplace injuries is governed by the Workplace Safety and Insurance Act, 1997, with benefits administered through the Workplace Safety and Insurance Board. Ontario's Pay Equity Act mandates equal pay for work of equal value to address wage discrimination across different job classes.[11]

#### Similarities with the United States

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Labour relations in Canada and the United States share many foundational similarities. Both systems are shaped by comparable economic structures, collective bargaining traditions, and legal frameworks governing employer-employee relationships. Historically, until the 1970s, many Canadian unions were affiliated with U.S.-based unions, reflecting strong cross-border ties, and American influence persists in U.S.-owned plants and subsidiaries in Canada. A 1959 study described the two countries as essentially “a single system” owing to shared practices. Both have experienced frequent and often prolonged strikes, a result of decentralized union structures, employer resistance to unionization, and the absence of dominant labour parties, and both saw mass unionization and rising public-sector union strength from the 1960s to the 1980s. However, Canadian labour law differs sharply on union security and strike replacements: there are no right-to-work laws, many provinces mandate at least an agency shop, most jurisdictions ban permanent replacements, and Quebec and British Columbia prohibit temporary replacements. In contrast, the U.S. permits permanent replacements for workers engaged in economic strikes, based on the 1938 Supreme Court ruling in NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co., which upheld that employers may hire such replacements as long as it is not to punish or discriminate against union activity. Unlike the United States, which follows a business unionism philosophy focused on improving wages, hours, and working conditions through collective bargaining within a limited, job-based framework, Canadian unions follow a social unionism philosophy, playing a more militant and socially engaged role that extends to broader issues of social and economic justice. For example, in 2025, when Amazon sought to avoid its first union contract in Quebec by outsourcing operations, the union that represents the workers in Quebec responded with a successful boycott and legal challenge to protect workers’ rights.[12][13]

## Unions

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Unions are a significant aspect of labor relations. They provide job security to workers and ensure that employees are fairly compensated for their labor.[14] Union negotiators often secure higher pay in exchange for worker tolerance of repetitive job designs or, in some cases, hazardous conditions. Among the core objectives of unions are ensuring job security, advocating for appropriate compensation, influencing job design, supporting retraining and reskilling efforts, and improving health and safety standards.[14] Unions play a vital role in assuring employees that their roles will remain stable and their work will be acknowledged and compensated.

However, no matter how strong a union’s position may be, tensions can arise when critical business decisions conflict with union demands. In such cases, unions and employers each possess powerful tools that can lead to organizational shutdowns if negotiations with the employer fail. Unions may call for a strike, temporarily halting work to pressure employers to concede to their demands. To support this tactic, unions often conduct strike authorization votes as a strategic signal to employers of worker unity and readiness to escalate. Conversely, employers can initiate a lockout, barring employees from working to pressure the union to accept their terms. Both actions are high-stakes maneuvers that carry significant financial and operational consequences for both employers and workers. These forms of industrial pressure highlight the unequal power dynamics that often characterize the employment relationship, where formal authority rests with management, but collective action provides a counterbalance through worker solidarity and organized resistance.[14]

Even with this influence, unions vary in their ability to address broader equity issues, such as gender pay gaps. Pay equity and the gender wage gap are longstanding issues, and although legislations contribute to some progress, ongoing disparities still exist. This is particularly relevant in the context of changing workplace commitments to Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility, where the gender pay gap may be further complicated for individuals of all genders who are affected by multiple dimensions of identity such as race, religion, disability, and family status.[15] In countries like the United Kingdom, which promotes progressive labor activism, a measurable pay gap still exists across many sectors. Similarly, in certain regions of Africa, the structural and cultural recognition of gender-based wage inequality remains limited or inconsistent. In Canada, however, unions historically exerted a demonstrably positive impact on total compensation and fringe benefits compared to non-unionized workplaces. Data from the Canadian General Social Survey (1998) showed that union environments increased total compensation by 12.4 percent and wages by 10.4 percent, reflecting unions’ influence in negotiating not just better base pay but also enhanced benefit packages.[16] Although earlier studies estimated the union–non-union wage differential at 18 percent, more recent findings place it at the same 10.4 percent. The reduction reflects a growing societal commitment to equitable employment standards and the influence of tighter labor market conditions, rather than a decline in union effectiveness.[16] These disparities across jurisdictions and labour systems suggest that while unions can play a key role in improving compensation outcomes, additional institutional and policy efforts may be needed to ensure these improvements are equitably shared across different groups. Nonetheless, the role of unions in shaping more inclusive wage systems and promoting workplace standards continues to be a foundational element of labor relations globally.[17]

## Perspectives on labour relations

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These are interpretive lenses that help explain why different stakeholders behave differently in workplace disputes or negotiations within an employment relationship.[18]

### Unitary perspective

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In a unitary perspective there is an emphasis on employees sharing common objectives and being harmonious with one another. This perspective views strikes as pathological.[19] Labour relations in which trade unions are involved are viewed negatively and labelled unnecessary. Within this perspective there are alternative positions held upon matters such as trade unions. Some view labour relations with unions as an extension to the relationship that exists between managers and employees in regards to communications.[20]

### Pluralism perspective

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In the pluralistic perspective, it is accepted that conflict is constructive and will arise between employees and organizations due to differing opinions. In some situations, conflicts that occur within a labour relationship are resolved by trade unions.[19] Managers may view trade unions as an inconvenience, but they still respect their authority.

### Marxist perspective

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Also called the radical perspective, this view reveals the exploitative nature of capitalist society through the conflict model. It recognizes inequalities in power within the employment relationship and in society as a whole. Consequently, conflict and strikes are seen as natural outcomes, and legislative victories are often viewed as temporary changes that will eventually be rendered ineffective under capitalism.

## Collective bargaining

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Collective Bargaining Press Conference

Collective bargaining is a vital element of labour relations. It ensures workers are represented equally in negotiating working conditions, terms of employment, and work relations.[21] Productivity bargaining may also occur, linking changes in work practices to higher pay or job security.[22]

Collective bargaining approaches generally fall into two categories: integrative bargaining, where both parties work collaboratively to achieve mutual benefits, and distributive bargaining, which involves a competitive stance over a limited set of resources or benefits. A historic example of distributive bargaining is the Pullman Strike of 1894 in the United States. In this case, workers protested wage cuts without corresponding reductions in company-owned housing rents. The employer's refusal to compromise and the union's demand for restitution exemplify a win-lose dynamic that led to a nationwide strike and federal intervention.[23] This illustrates how distributive bargaining, if unresolved, can escalate into industrial action with wide-ranging social and economic consequences.

While collective bargaining can involve confrontation, it is fundamentally more than social dialogue. It is recognized as a basic labour right and provides a mechanism for promoting workplace democracy, legal certainty, and employee participation in shaping fair employment practices.[21]

### Global scope, equity, and institutional support

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Collective bargaining emerged alongside the rise of trade unions during industrialisation in the 18th and 19th centuries.[24] It has since evolved into a central mechanism for promoting fairness in the workplace by reducing wage bias, narrowing income inequality, and supporting the rights of workers to participate in determining their working conditions. Empirical evidence suggests that countries with robust collective bargaining systems, such as Denmark, Finland, France, the Netherlands, and Sweden, exhibit lower levels of wage inequality. In contrast, nations with weaker bargaining frameworks, including Hungary and Poland, tend to show higher wage disparities.[24]

In addition to its economic effects, collective bargaining contributes to gender equity. It has played a role in reducing the gender pay gap, although disparities in bonuses and non-wage benefits persist in both developed and developing countries.[17] The International Labour Organization (ILO) supports these efforts through its international labour standards and policy guidance. It encourages member states to promote voluntary negotiation systems and uphold the effective recognition of collective bargaining rights.[21] Through technical assistance and advisory services, the ILO works with governments and employers to strengthen freedom of association and build the institutional capacity needed to facilitate fair and effective collective bargaining in both developed and developing economies.[21]

## Collective agreement implementation

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Collective agreement obligations begin once the agreement is ratified and become the basis for organizing and managing everyday workplace practices.[25] These agreements typically include detailed sections covering union recognition, union security, wage structures, working hours, leave entitlements, job postings, promotions, seniority rights, layoff and recall procedures, restrictions on contracting out, technological change, and workplace standards such as non-discrimination, health and safety, attendance, and substance use.

Applying these terms is a shared responsibility between human resources staff and union stewards, who work together to ensure that contract provisions are correctly implemented. This includes maintaining accurate seniority lists, processing wages and benefits in line with the agreement, and overseeing daily operations related to scheduling and entitlements. Joint labour–management committees meet regularly to identify workplace issues, propose improvements, and ensure decisions stay aligned with the agreement’s intent. Training sessions, manuals, and policy updates help both parties understand their roles and obligations. Agreed-upon midterm reviews and internal audits provide flexibility and accountability. These practices help ensure the collective agreement functions as a practical framework that supports smooth operations and long-term workplace stability.

## Dispute resolution

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Inlandboatmen's Union Members Protesting While on Strike

Dispute resolution in labour relations refers to the structured processes used to address conflicts between employees and employers, whether those arise from individual grievances or collective disagreements. Core methods include mediation and arbitration, both of which involve third-party intervention to manage or resolve disputes. Mediation is the more informal and commonly used approach, where a neutral facilitator helps both parties communicate, clarify misunderstandings, and explore voluntary solutions. The process typically unfolds in stages: establishing rapport and understanding the dispute, examining underlying interests, and then identifying compromises. Interest-based mediation emphasizes shared goals over fixed positions and often requires pre-engagement training and trust-building between parties. In more complex disputes involving multiple stakeholders or sensitive issues, mediators may employ planning tools, message-carrying techniques, and collaborative drafting to help build consensus. Where voluntary resolution fails, arbitration may be used. This formal process involves a third party issuing a binding decision. Arbitration is often reserved for impasses that could disrupt workplace operations or where procedural agreements call for such resolution. Some systems also use hybrid approaches in which mediators may transition into arbitrators if resolution efforts stall. Increasingly, dispute resolution is not only reactive but also preventative. Employers and unions are adopting proactive measures such as joint training programs, facilitated dialogue sessions, and collaborative planning to reduce the likelihood of future disputes and to support long-term trust and transparency.

The legal and institutional design of labour relations greatly influences how disputes are resolved. In the United States, the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA) established a nationwide legal framework that governs collective bargaining and dispute resolution for most private-sector workers.[26] This federal standard promotes consistency and simplifies administration but also limits flexibility for local adaptation. In contrast, Canada decentralizes labour relations law by granting provinces jurisdiction over their own labour systems. Each province sets its own dispute resolution procedures, though most share common features such as good faith bargaining obligations, grievance arbitration, and labour boards. These structural differences highlight how policy frameworks shape the availability, effectiveness, and formality of dispute resolution mechanisms. Across labour systems worldwide, there is a growing recognition that resolving labour disputes is not only about settling disagreements but also about building ongoing capacity for cooperation through improved workplace design, employee involvement systems, and joint problem-solving initiatives.

## See also

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* International Labour Organization
* Labour laws

## References

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1. ^ Karin Hofmeester et al. (2015) The Global Collaboratory on the History of Labour Relations, 1500–2000: Background, Set-Up, Taxonomy, and Applications (IISH Dataverse).
2. ^ John W. Budd (2010) Labor Relations: Striking a Balance, 3rd ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin).
3. ^ Karabegović, A. "Labour relations laws in Canada and the United States : an empirical comparison". (2009 Ed.). Fraser Institute.: 8–14.
4. ^ "History of Labour in Canada". Canadian Labour Congress. n.d.
5. ^ Canada, Service (2015-10-13). "Overview of the parts of the Canada Labour Code and how they apply to your workplace". www.canada.ca.
6. ^ Canada, Service (2023-11-28). "Overview of the Pay Equity Act". www.canada.ca.
7. ^ King's Printer for Ontario (n.d.). "Appendix B – Human rights in the workplace: which laws?". www3.ohrc.on.ca.
8. ^ Cicchini, Olivia (2022-12-06). "Ontario Employment Standards Act: A Quick Guide for Employers". www.peninsulagrouplimited.com.
9. ^ "Ontario Labour Relations: Introducing Ontario Labour Laws and Labour Relations Act 1995, and the Employment Standards Act 2000". www.canadianlabourrelations.com. n.d.
10. ^ Canada, Service (2024-02-29). "Occupational health and safety in federally regulated workplaces". www.canada.ca.
11. ^ King’s Printer for Ontario (2024). "The Q&A Guide to Ontario's Pay Equity Act". Pay Equity Office.
12. ^ The Associated Press (2025-01-22). "Amazon to close 7 warehouses in the Canadian province of Quebec and eliminate 1,700 jobs". AP News.
13. ^ Stuart, Jamieson (February 7, 2006). "Labour Relations". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 25, 2020.
14. ^ a b c Alan Gladstone, Russell Landsbury, Jack Stieber, Tiziano Treu, & Manfred Weiss. (2019). Current Issues in Labour Relations : An International Perspective: Vol. Reprint 2019. De Gruyter
15. ^ " Canadian women on the gender pay gap, and how we can fix it " on YouTube
16. ^ a b Renaud, Stéphane (1998). "Unions, Wages and Total Compensation in Canada: An Empirical Study". Relations Industrielles / Industrial Relations. 53 (4): 710–729\. doi:10.7202/005297ar. ISSN 0034-379X. JSTOR 23077343.
17. ^ a b Pillinger, Jane (2018). Collective Bargaining and Gender Equality.
18. ^ Heery, Edmund (2016). Framing Work: Unitary, Pluralist, and Critical Perspectives in the Twenty-first Century. Oxford University Press. pp. 2+. ISBN 978-0-19-956946-5.
19. ^ a b Burchill, Frank (2014-05-01). Labour Relations. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 978-1-137-30700-2.
20. ^ Chapman, Richard; Fernandez, E. Ale; Jilberto, Alex; Riethof, Marieke (2002). Labour Relations in Development. Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 9780203522332.
21. ^ a b c d ILO (2015). Collective Bargaining: A Policy Guide.
22. ^ Ken Jones and John Golding, Productivity Bargaining (Fabian research series no. 257, November 1966)
23. ^ "Pullman Strike Causes, Result, Summary, & Significance". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-11-29.
24. ^ a b Hayter, Susan (2011). The Role of Collective Bargaining in the Global Economy: Negotiating for Social Justice.
25. ^ Vainieri, Milena; Smaldone, Pierluigi; Rosa, Antonella; Carroll, Kathleen (2017-08-23). "The role of collective labor contracts and individual characteristics on job satisfaction in Tuscan nursing homes". Health Care Management Review. 44 (3): 224. doi:10.1097/HMR.0000000000000177. ISSN 0361-6274. PMC 6587616. PMID 28837500.
26. ^ Craver, Charles B. (2010). "The National Labor Relations Act at 75: In Need of a Heart Transplant". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1667023.

## External links

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* Media related to Labour relations at Wikimedia Commons