Lak language

Northeast Caucasian language

This article is about the Northeast Caucasian language. For the Kurdish variety, see Laki dialect. For the Kartvelian language, see Laz language. For the Austronesian language, see Siar-Lak language. For the language with former ISO 639-3 code "lak", see Lau Laka language.

This article should specify the language of its non-English content using {{lang}} or {{langx}}, {{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and {{IPA}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate ISO 639 code. Wikipedia's multilingual support templates may also be used \- notably `lbe` for Lak. See why. (January 2025)

|

Lak

лакку маз
lakku maz
لاکّو ماز
Pronunciation| [lakːu maz]
Native to| North Caucasus
Region| Mountain Dagestan
Ethnicity| Laks

Native speakers

| 152,050 (2010 census)[1]

Language family

Northeast Caucasian

* Lak

Writing system

| Cyrillic (Lak alphabet)
Latin (formerly)
Arabic (formerly)
Official status

Official language in

|  Russia

* Dagestan

Language codes
ISO 639-3| `lbe`
Glottolog| `lakk1252`

Lak

Lak is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Lak (лакку маз, [lakːu maz]) is a Northeast Caucasian language forming its own branch within this family. It is the language of the Lak people from the Russian autonomous republic of Dagestan, where it is one of six standardized languages. It is spoken by about 157,000 people.

## History

[edit]

Cover page of the textbook on Lak grammar named "Лакскiй языкъ" or The Lak language compiled by P. K. Uslar in 1890 "Лакская азбука" or The Lak alphabet. Many called the language "Bak Tak" from Peter Uslar's Lak Grammar. Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles in Lak, 2019

In 1864 Russian ethnographer and linguist P. K. Uslar wrote: "Kazikumukh grammar or as I called it for short in the native language, the Lak grammar, Lakku maz, the Lak language, is ready".[2]

In 1890, P. K. Uslar compiled a textbook on Lak grammar titled The Lak Language. It stated under the title "Lak alphabet": "The proposed alphabet is written for people who name themselves collectively Lak, genitive Lakral. From among these people each one is named separately Lakkuchu 'Lakian man', the woman – Lakkusharssa 'Lakian woman'. Their homeland they name Lakral kIanu – 'Lak place'."[2]

Lak has throughout the centuries adopted a number of loanwords from Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and Russian.[3] Ever since Dagestan was part of the Soviet Union and later Russia, the largest portion of loanwords have come from Russian, especially political and technical vocabulary. There is a newspaper and broadcasting station in Lak.[4]

In accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Dagestan of 1994, Lak was named as the state language along with Russian and some other major languages spoken in Dagestan (about 20 local languages are unwritten and have no official status). Lak is used as a teaching tool in elementary school and taught as a subject in secondary schools, vocational schools and universities. There is a Lak newspaper, "Ilchi".

The standard Lak language is based on the dialect of the city of Kumukh. This city should not be confused with the Kumyk ethnic group, a Turkic people also present in the Caucasus. Lak has the following dialects: Kumukh, Vitskhi, Arakul, Balkhar, Shadni, Shalib, Vikhli, Kuli, and Kaya.

Initially Lak by lexicon was found to be close to Dargin and the two were often combined in one Lak–Dargin subgroup of Dagestani languages. However, further research has led linguists to conclude that this association was insufficient.

## Phonology

[edit]

### Consonants

[edit]

Consonants[5][6] | Labial | Dental | Postalveolar | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

plain | lab. | plain | lab. | plain | lab.
Nasal | m | n |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Plosive |  voiced | b | d |  |  | ɡ | ɡʷ |  |  | ʡ |
voiceless lenis | p | t |  |  | k | kʷ | q | qʷ |  | ʔ[a]
voiceless fortis | pː | tː |  |  | kː | kʷː | qː | qʷː |  |
ejective | pʼ | tʼ |  |  | kʼ | kʷʼ | qʼ | qʷʼ |  |
Affricate |  voiceless lenis |  | t͡s | t͡ʃ | t͡ʃʷ |  |  |  |  |  |
voiceless fortis |  | t͡sː | t͡ʃː | t͡ʃʷː |  |  |  |  |  |
ejective |  | t͡sʼ | t͡ʃʼ | t͡ʃʷʼ |  |  |  |  |  |
Fricative |  voiceless lenis |  | s | ʃ | ʃʷ | x | xʷ | χ | χʷ |  | h
voiceless fortis |  | sː | ʃː | ʃʷː | xː | xʷː | χː | χʷː |  |
voiced | v ~ w ~ β | z | ʒ | ʒʷ |  |  | ʁ | ʁʷ |  |
Trill |  | r |  |  |  |  |  |  | ʜ |
Approximant |  | l | j |  |  |  |  |  |  |

1. ^ The sound transcribed here as a glottal stop is named rather ambiguously a "glottalic laryngeal" by both sources.

According to Catford (1977), some dialects have /t͡p, d͡b, t͡pʼ/.[7]

### Vowels

[edit]

Five vowels are presented as /i, e, a, o, u/. Three vowels /i, a, u/ are also pharyngealized as /iˤ, aˤ, uˤ/, and also have allophones of [e, æ, œ].[8]

## Writing systems

[edit]

The Lak language was written using the Arabic script until 1928. Afterwards it was written with a Latin alphabet for ten years, and since 1938 it has been written in Cyrillic.

The Lak alphabet in Cyrillic initially included 48 letters and later 54 letters with double letters as "тт", "пп", "чч", "хьхь", etc.:

А а  | Аь аь  | Б б  | В в  | Г г  | Гъ гъ  | Гь гь  | Д д

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Е е  | Ё ё  | Ж ж  | З з  | И и  | Й й  | К к  | Къ къ
Кь кь  | Кӏ кӏ  | Л л  | М м  | Н н  | О о  | Оь оь  | П п
Пп пп  | Пӏ пӏ  | Р р  | С с  | Т т  | Тӏ тӏ  | У у  | Ф ф
Х х  | Хъ хъ  | Хь хь  | Хӏ хӏ  | Ц ц  | Цӏ цӏ  | Ч ч  | Чӏ чӏ
Ш ш  | Щ щ  | Ъ ъ  | Ы ы  | Ь ь  | Э э  | Ю ю  | Я я
Obsolete Lak alphabets in Latin script

### Writing Comparison Table

[edit]

Compiled according to,[9][10][11]

|  | Cyrillic
alphabet | Latin
(1930s) | Perso-Arabic | IPA[12]

|
|
|

А а | A a | آ | [a], [ə], [ɛ]
Аь аь | Ə ə | أ | [æ]~[ɛ]
Б б | B b | ب | [b]
В в | V v | و | [w]~[β]
Г г | G g | گ | [g]
Гъ гъ | Ƣ ƣ | غ | [ʁ]
Гь гь | H h | ھ | [h]
Д д | D d | د | [d]
Е е | e, Je je | اە | [je], [e]
Ё ё | Jo jo | - | [jo]
Ж ж | Ƶ ƶ | ژ، ج | [ʒ]
З з | Z z | ز | [z]
И и | I i | اى | [i], [y]
Й й | J j | ی | [j]
К к | K k | ک | [k]
Къ къ | Q q | ڠ | [qː]
Кк кк | Kk kk | کّ | [kː]
Кь кь | Ꝗ ꝗ | ق | [qʼ]
КӀ кӀ | Ⱪ ⱪ | ࢰ | [kʼ]
Л л | L l | ل | [l]
М м | M m | م | [m]
Н н | N n | ن | [n]
О о | O o | اؤ | [o]
Оь оь | Ɵ ɵ | اۊ | [oˤ]~[ø]
П п | P p | پ | [p]
Пп пп | Pp pp | پّ | [pː]
ПӀ пӀ | Ҏ ҏ | ڢ | [pʼ]
Р р | R r | ر | [r]
С с | S s | س | [s]
Сс сс | Ss ss | سّ | [sː]
Т т | T t | ت | [t]
Тт тт | Tt tt | تّ | [tː]
ТӀ тӀ | T̨ t̨ | ط | [tʼ]
У у | U u | او | [u], [y]
Ф ф | F f[13] | ف | [f]
Х х | X x | خ | [χ]
Хх хх | Xx xx | خّ | [χː]
Хъ хъ | Ӿ ӿ | څ | [q]
Хь хь | Ҳ ҳ | ؼ | [x]
Хьхь хьхь | Ҳҳ ҳҳ | ؼّ | [xː]
ХӀ хӀ | ħ[13] | ح | [ħ]
Ц ц | Ꞩ ꞩ | ڝ | [ʦ]
Цц цц | Ꞩꞩ ꞩꞩ | ڝّ | [ʦː]
ЦӀ цӀ | Ⱬ ⱬ | ڗ | [ʦʼ]
Ч ч | C c | چ | [ʧ]
Чч чч | Cc cc | چّ | [ʧː]
ЧӀ чӀ | Ç ç[13] | ڃ | [ʧʼ]
Ш ш | Ş ş | ش | [ʃ]
Щ щ | Şc şc | شّ | [ʃʷ]
Ъ ъ | ’ | ئ | [ʔ]
Ы ы | - | - |
Ь ь | - | - |
Э э | E e | اە | [e]
Ю ю | Ju ju, Ɵ ɵ | اۊ | [ju], [y]
Я я | Ja ja, Ə ə | أ | [ja],[æ]
- | ⱨ[13] | ع |
- | Ꞓ ꞓ[13] | ڃ |
| Perso-Arabic  | Cyrillic  | Latin  | IPA

|
|
|

آ / ـا | А а | A a | [a], [ə], [ɛ]
أ | Аь аь | Ə ə | [æ]~[ɛ]
ب | Б б | B b | [b]
ت | Т т | T t | [t]
تّ | Тт тт | Tt tt | [t:]
ث | С с | S s | [s]
پ | П п | P p | [p]
پّ | Пп пп | Pp pp | [p:]
ج | Ж ж | Ƶ ƶ | [ʒ]
ح | ХӀ хӀ | Ħ ħ | [ħ]
خ | Х х | X x | [χ]
خّ | Хх хх | Xx xx | [χ:]
څ | Хъ хъ | Ӿ ӿ | [q]
چ | Ч ч | C c | [ʧ]
چّ | Чч чч | Cc cc | [ʧ:]
ڃ | ЧӀ чӀ | Ç ç | [ʧʼ]
د | Д д | D d | [d]
ذ | З з | Z z | [z]
ر | Р р | R r | [r]
ز | З з | Z z | [z]
ڗ | ЦӀ цӀ | Ⱬ ⱬ | [ʦʼ]
ژ | Ж ж | Ƶ ƶ | [ʒ]
س | С с | S s | [s]
سّ | Сс сс | Ss ss | [s:]
ش | Ш ш | Ş ş | [ʃ]
شّ | Щ щ | Şc şc | [ʃʷ]
ص | С с | S s | [s]
ض | З з | Z z | [z]
ڝ | Ц ц | Ꞩ ꞩ | [ʦ]
ڝّ | Цц цц | Ꞩꞩ ꞩꞩ | [ʦ:]
ط | ТӀ тӀ | T̨ t̨ | [tʼ]
ظ | З з | Z z | [z]
ع | Ъ ъ | ’ | [ʔ]
غ | Гъ гъ | Ƣ ƣ | [ʁ]
ڠ | Къ къ | Q q | [qː]
ف | Ф ф | F f | [f]
ڢ | ПӀ пӀ | Ҏ ҏ | [pʼ]
ق | Кь кь | Ꝗ ꝗ | [qʼ]
ک | К к | K k | [k]
کّ | Кк кк | Kk kk | [k:]
گ | Г г | G g | [g]
ࢰ | КӀ кӀ | Ⱪ ⱪ | [kʼ]
ؼ | Хь хь | Ҳ ҳ | [x]
ؼّ | Хьхь хьхь | Ҳҳ ҳҳ | [x:]
ل | Л л | L l | [l]
م | М м | M m | [m]
ن | Н н | N n | [n]
و | В в | V v | [w]~[β]
اؤ / ؤ | О о | O o | [o]
اۊ / ۊ | Оь оь | Ɵ ɵ | [oˤ]~[ø]
او / و | У у | U u | [u], [y]
ھ | Гь гь | H h | [h]
اە / ە | Е е
Э э | E e | [e]
ی | Й й | J j | [j]
ای / ی | И и | I i | [i], [y]
ئ | Ъ ъ | ’ | [ʔ]

## Grammar

[edit]

Lak is one of the few North East Caucasian languages with verbal agreement for person. It generally only distinguishes between speech-act participants and non-speech-act participants. In other words, the first- and second-person agreement markers are the same.[14]

| Singular | Plural

|
|

1,2 | -ra | -ru
3 | -r / -ri / -∅

The free pronouns of Lak do distinguish first and second person.[6]

| Singular | Plural

|
|

| Absolutive | Oblique |
1 | na | tːu- | žu(-)
2 | ina | wi- | zu(-)

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Lak at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
2. ^ a b P. K. Uslar. Этнография Кавказа [Ethnography of the Caucasus]. Языкознание [Linguistics]. 4. Лакский язык [The Lak language]. Tbilisi, 1890.
3. ^ Словарь арабских и персидских лексических заимствований в лакском языке [Dictionary of Arabic and Persian lexical borrowings in Lak language]. N. B. Kurbaytayeva, I. I. Efyendiyev. Makhachkala, 2002.
4. ^ Илчи – Lak newspaper Archived 2011-08-18 at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ Consonant Systems of the North-East Caucasian Languages on TITUS DIDACTICA
6. ^ a b The Lak Language – A quick reference, by Wolfgang Schulze (2007)
7. ^ Catford, J. C. (1977). "Mountain of Tongues: The Languages of the Caucasus". Annual Review of Anthropology. 6: 283–314\. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.06.100177.001435. JSTOR 2949334.
8. ^ Anderson, Gregory D. S. (1997). Lak phonology. Kaye A (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa (including the Caucasus): University of Chicago.
9. ^ "Новый алфавит для народностей Дагестана". Культура и письменность Востока. Баку. 1928. pp. 176–177\. Archived from the original on 2022-04-02.
10. ^ "Lakh romanization" (PDF). Institute of the Estonian Language. 2003-04-27. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-04-27. Retrieved 2016-02-13.
11. ^ Yevlampiev, Ilya; Pentzlin, Karl; Joomagueldinov, Nurlan. (2011, May 20) Revised Proposal to encode Arabic characters used for Bashkir, Belarusian, Crimean Tatar, and Tatar languages \- Unicodehttps://unicode.org/L2/L2011/11209-n4072-arabic.pdf
12. ^ The Lak Language — Лакку маз. A Quick Reference Author: Wolfgang Schulze (IATS, LMU Munich). 2007
13. ^ a b c d e Removed in 1932
14. ^ Helmbrecht, J. (1996). "The Syntax of Personal Agreement in East Caucasian Languages". Sprachtypol. Univ. Frsch. (STUF) 49:127–48. Cited in Bhat, D.N.S. 2004. Pronouns. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 26.

## External links

[edit]

Lak edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

* Lak Grammar by Wolfgang Schulze
* Transliteration of Lak
* Lak House – Lak culture and society site
* Lak words

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1 In Russia, the Cyrillic alphabet is officially supported. 2 For other, non-Cyrillic alphabets, separate federal laws are required.

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The proposed North Caucasian language family comprises the Northeast and Northwest Caucasian language families.

Northwest
(Pontic)|

* Abazgi
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Northeast
(Caspian)|

| Avar–Andic|

* Andic
* Andi
* Akhvakh
* Bagvalal–Tindi
* Botlix–Godoberi
* Chamalal
* Karata-Tukita [ru]
* Avar

|

Dargic|

* Chirag

North-Central|

* Mehweb
* Gapshima–Butri [lez]
* Muira [ru]
* Tsudaqar–Usisha
* North Dargwa
* Aqusha
* Literary Dargwa
* Murego–Gubden [uk]
* Kadar
* Mugi [ru]
* Upper Mulebki
* Urakhi

Southern|

* Ashti [ru]–Kubachi
* Sanzhi–Itsari
* Amuzgi–Shiri
* Sanakari–Chakhrizhi
* Southwestern Dargwa
* Sirhwa [lez; uk]
* Tanti
* Upper Vurqni [ru]

Kaitag–Shari|

* Kaitag
* Shari

Tsezic|

* Bezhta–Hunzib–Khwarshi
* Inkhoqwari
* Hinukh–Tsez

Lezgic|

* Archi

Samur|

| Eastern|

* Aghul
* Lezgian
* Tabasaran
* Udi
* Caucasian Albanian

|

Southern|

* Budukh
* Kryts

Western|

* Rutul
* Tsakhur

Nakh|

* Bats
* Vainakh
* Chechen
* Aukh
* Ingush

Other|

* Khinalug
* Lak

Italics indicate extinct languages

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Caucasian
(areal)|

| South
(Kartvelian)|

* Karto-Zan
* Georgian
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* Zan
* Laz
* Mingrelian
* Svan

|

Northeast
(Caspian)|

| Avar–Andic|

* Andic
* Andi
* Akhvakh
* Bagvalal–Tindi
* Botlikh–Godoberi
* Chamalal
* Karata
* Avar

|

Dargin|

* Chirag

North-Central|

* Mehweb
* Gapshima
* Muira [ru]
* Tsudaqar–Usisha–Butri
* North Dargwa
* Aqusha
* Literary Dargwa
* Murego–Gubden [uk]
* Kadar
* Mugi [ru]
* Upper Mulebki
* Urakhi

Southern|

* Ashti [ru]–Kubachi
* Sanzhi–Itsari
* Amuzgi–Shiri
* Sanakari–Chakhrizhi
* Southwestern Dargwa
* Sirhwa [lez; uk]
* Tanti
* Upper Vurqni [ru]

Kaitag–Shari|

* Kaitag
* Shari

Lezgic|

* Archi
* Samur
* Eastern
* Aghul
* Lezgin
* Tabasaran
* Southern
* Budukh
* Kryts
* Jek
* Western
* Rutul
* Tsakhur
* Udi
* Caucasian Albanian

Nakh|

* Bats
* Vainakh
* Chechen
* Aukh
* Ingush

Tsezic (Didoic)|

* Bezhta–Hunzib–Khwarshi
* Hinukh–Tsez

Others|

* Khinalug
* Lak

Northwest
(Pontic)|

* Abazgi
* Abaza
* Abkhaz
* Bzyb
* Chakobsa
* Circassian
* Adyghe
* Kabardian
* Ubykh

Indo-
European|

| Iranian|

* Cimmerian
* Kurdish
* Kurmanji
* Ossetian
* Alanic
* Persian
* Talysh
* Kilit
* Tat
* Judeo-Tat

|

Slavic|

* Belarusian
* Russian
* Ukrainian

Others|

* Armenian
* Classical Armenian
* Middle Armenian
* Eastern
* Western
* Zok
* German
* Pontic Greek

Turkic|

| Kipchak|

* Karachay-Balkar
* Kumyk
* Nogai
* Urum

|

Oghuz|

* Azerbaijani
* Turkish
* Turkmen

Others|

* Kalmyk Oirat
* Lomavren
* Northeastern Neo-Aramaic
* Assyrian
* Bohtan
* Armazic
* Shirvani Arabic

* Italics indicate extinct languages
* Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

See also
Languages of Armenia
Languages of Azerbaijan
Languages of Georgia
Languages of Russia

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Arabic alphabets

† indicates the language is no longer written using Arabic

Europe|

* Albanian †
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* Kabardian †
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* Ottoman Turkish †
* Serbo-Croatian †

Asia|

* Aer
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* Yaña imlâ)
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Africa|

* Afrikaans †
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