Lakon language

Austronesian language spoken in Vanuatu

For other uses, see Lakona (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Lacaune.

Lakon

Lakona, Vure
Pronunciation| [laˈkɔn]
Native to| Vanuatu
Region| Gaua

Native speakers

| 800 (2012)[1]

Language family

Austronesian

* Malayo-Polynesian
* Oceanic
* Southern Oceanic
* North-Central Vanuatu
* North Vanuatu
* Torres-Banks
* Lakon

Language codes
ISO 639-3| `lkn`
Glottolog| `lako1245`
ELP| Lakon

Lakon is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Lakon is an Oceanic language, spoken on the west coast of Gaua island in Vanuatu.

## Names[edit]

The language name Lakon [laˈkɔn] refers originally to the area where it is spoken ‒ namely Lakona Bay, corresponding to the west coast of Gaua. The alternative name Lakona [lakona] is from the Mota language. These names are derived from a Proto-Torres-Banks form *laᵑgona, of unknown meaning.

Lakon had four dialects, named Qatareu (Qätärew [k​͡pʷætæˈrɛw]), Vure (Vurē [βuˈrɪ]), Toglatareu, and Togla.

## Phonology[edit]

### Consonants[edit]

Lakon has 16 phonemic consonants.[2]

Lakon consonants  | Labiovelar | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Dorsal | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|
|

Plosive | k͡pʷ ⟨q⟩ | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩ | tʃ ⟨j⟩ | k ⟨k⟩ |
Nasal | ŋ͡mʷ ⟨m̄⟩ | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩ |  | ŋ ⟨n̄⟩ |
Fricative |  | β ~ ɸ ⟨v⟩ | s ⟨s⟩ |  | ɣ ⟨g⟩ | h ⟨h⟩
Rhotic |  |  | r ⟨r⟩ |  |  |
Lateral |  |  | l ⟨l⟩ |  |  |
Approximant | w ⟨w⟩ |  |  |  |  |

The glottal stop [ʔ] only occurs before vowels in syllable-initial position. While non-phonemic, it is sometimes noted in the orthography, using a ⟨’⟩ mark.

### Vowels[edit]

Lakon has 16 phonemic vowels. These include 8 short /i ɪ ɛ æ a ɔ ʊ u/ and 8 long vowels /iː ɪː ɛː æː aː ɔː ʊː uː/.[2] [3]

Lakon vowels  | Front | Back

|
|

Near-close | i ⟨i⟩ ∙ iː ⟨ii⟩ | u ⟨u⟩ ∙ uː ⟨uu⟩
Close-mid | ɪ ⟨ē⟩ ∙ ɪː ⟨ēē⟩ | ʊ ⟨ō⟩ ∙ ʊː ⟨ōō⟩
Open-mid | ɛ ⟨e⟩ ∙ ɛː ⟨ee⟩ | ɔ ⟨o⟩ ∙ ɔː ⟨oo⟩
Near-open | æ ⟨ä⟩ ∙ æː ⟨ää⟩ |
Open | a ⟨a⟩ ∙ aː ⟨aa⟩

Historically, the phonemicisation of vowel length originates in the compensatory lengthening of short vowels when the alveolar trill /r/ was lost syllable-finally. This is considered to be a very recent change, perhaps within the last century, as Codrington still indicates the trill syllable-finally.[4] However, the 1897 Book of Common Prayer in Lakon shows loss of the trill, as evidenced by tataa [taˈtaː] "prayer" (spelled as tata) for Mota tataro.

## Grammar[edit]

The system of personal pronouns in Lakon contrasts clusivity, and distinguishes four numbers (singular, dual, trial, plural).[5]

Spatial reference in Lakon is based on a system of geocentric (absolute) directionals, which is typical of Oceanic languages.[6]

## References[edit]

1. ^ François (2012:88).
2. ^ a b François (2022).
3. ^ François (2005:445), François (2011:194).
4. ^ François (2005:461).
5. ^ François (2016).
6. ^ François (2015).

## Bibliography[edit]

* François, Alexandre (2005), "Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen northern Vanuatu languages" (PDF), Oceanic Linguistics, 44 (2): 443–504, doi:10.1353/ol.2005.0034, S2CID 131668754
* 
- (2011), "Social ecology and language history in the northern Vanuatu linkage: A tale of divergence and convergence" (PDF), Journal of Historical Linguistics, 1 (2): 175–246, doi:10.1075/jhl.1.2.03fra, hdl:1885/29283, S2CID 42217419.
* 
- (2012), "The dynamics of linguistic diversity: Egalitarian multilingualism and power imbalance among northern Vanuatu languages" (PDF), International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2012 (214): 85–110, doi:10.1515/ijsl-2012-0022, S2CID 145208588
* 
- (2015). "The ins and outs of up and down: Disentangling the nine geocentric space systems of Torres and Banks languages" (PDF). In Alexandre François; Sébastien Lacrampe; Michael Franjieh; Stefan Schnell (eds.). The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics. pp. 137–195. hdl:1885/14819. ISBN 978-1-922185-23-5.
* 
- (2016), "The historical morphology of personal pronouns in northern Vanuatu" (PDF), in Pozdniakov, Konstantin (ed.), Comparatisme et reconstruction : tendances actuelles, Faits de Langues, vol. 47, Bern: Peter Lang, pp. 25–60
* 
- (2022). "Presentation of the Lakon language, and audio archive". Pangloss Collection. Paris: CNRS. Retrieved 18 March 2023.

## External links[edit]

* Portions of the Book of Common Prayer in Lakon from Project Canterbury
* A book of traditional stories, monolingual in Lakon language (site of linguist A. François)
* Detailed list and map of the Banks and Torres languages, showing range of Lakon.
* Audio recordings in the Lakon language, in open access, by A. François (source: Pangloss Collection).
* Paradisec has collections with Lakon language materials including Arthur Capell's fieldnotes (AC2) and Digitised microfilm images from Pacific Manuscripts Bureau (PAMBU).

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Vanuatu

Official languages|

* Bislama
* English
* French

Indigenous
languages
(Southern
Oceanic
and Polynesian)|

| North
Vanuatu|

| Torres–Banks|

* Dorig
* Hiw
* Koro
* Lakon
* Lehali
* Lemerig
* Lo-Toga
* Löyöp
* Mota
* Mwerlap
* Mwesen
* Mwotlap
* Nume
* Olrat
* Vera'a
* Volow
* Vurës

|

Penama|

* Ambae
* East
* West
* North Ambrym
* Apma
* Baetora
* Fanbak
* Raga
* Saa
* Ske
* Sowa
* Sungwadaga
* Sungwadia

Espiritu Santo|

* Akei
* Amblong
* Ande
* Aore
* Araki
* Butmas
* Kiai
* Mavea
* Merei-Tiale
* Mores
* Narango
* Navut
* Nethalp
* Ngen
* Nokuku
* Piamatsina
* Polonombauk
* Sakao
* Tamambo
* Tambotalo
* Tangoa
* Tasmate
* Toksiki
* Tolomako
* Tutuba
* Valpei
* Vunapu
* Wailapa
* Wusi
* Moiso
* Kene
* Daruru
* Retlatur
* Atin
* Bura
* Farnanto
* Fanafo

Central
Vanuatu|

* North Efate
* Nafsan
* Efatese
* Eton
* Lelepa
* Makura
* Daakaka
* Dalkalaen
* Lonwolwol
* Paamese
* Port Vato
* Southeast Ambrym

| Epi|

* Baki
* Bierebo
* Bieria
* Lamen
* Lewo
* Maii

|

Malakula|

* Aulua
* Avava
* Aveteian
* Axamb
* Big Nambas
* Botovro
* Burmbar
* Bwenelang
* Larëvat
* Lendamboi
* Litzlitz
* Malfaxal
* Malua Bay
* Maskelynes
* Nahavaq
* Nasarian
* Nasvang
* Nāti
* Navwien
* Nese
* Neve'ei
* Neverver
* Ninde
* Nisvai
* Nitita
* Port Sandwich
* Rerep
* Sörsörian
* Tape
* Tirax
* Unua
* Northeast Malakula
* Vao
* Vivti
* Rutan
* Alovas
* Najit
* Njav

South Vanuatu|

* Aneityum
* Ifo
* Kwamera
* Lenakel
* North Tanna
* Sie
* Sorung
* Southwest Tanna
* Ura
* Whitesands

Polynesian|

* Emae
* Futuna-Aniwa
* Mele-Fila

* v
* t
* e

Southern Oceanic languages

| North
Vanuatu|

| Torres–Banks|

* Hiw
* Lo-Toga
* Lehali
* Löyöp
* Mwotlap
* Volow
* Lemerig
* Vera’a
* Vurës
* Mwesen
* Mota
* Nume
* Dorig
* Koro
* Olrat
* Lakon
* Mwerlap

|

Maewo–Ambae–
North Pentecost|

* Sun̄wadia
* Sun̄wadaga
* Baetora
* Duidui
* Northeast Ambae
* Raga

South Pentecost|

* Ske
* Apma
* Sa

Espiritu Santo|

* Cape Cumberland
* Nokuku
* Tolomako
* Wusi
* Akei
* Tasiriki
* Tangoa
* Araki
* Tiale
* Merei
* Kiai
* M̈av̈ea
* Tutuba
* Aore
* Tamambo
* Mores
* Shark Bay
* Sakao

Nuclear
Southern
Oceanic|

| Central Vanuatu|

* Northeast Malakula
* Vao
* Vovo
* Mpotovoro
* Dirak
* Malua Bay
* V’ënen Taut
* Tape
* Larevat
* Neve’ei
* Naman
* Navava
* Nevwervwer
* Unua
* Pangkumu
* Banam Bay
* Aulua
* Lendamboi
* Nasarian
* Axamb
* Avok
* Maskelynes
* Port Sandwich
* Sinesip
* Naha’ai
* Ninde
* North Ambrym
* West Ambrym
* South Ambrym
* Lewo
* Lamen
* Bierebo
* Baki
* Mkir
* Bieria
* Nakanamanga
* Nguna
* Namakir
* South Efate

|

South Vanuatu|

| Erromango|

* Sie / Erromangan
* Sorung †
* Ifo (Utaha) †
* Ura

|

Tanna|

* Kwamera (South Tanna)
* Southwest Tanna
* Lenakel (West Tanna)
* Whitesands (East Tanna)
* North Tanna

* Aneityum

Loyalties–
New Caledonia|

| Loyalty Islands|

* Drehu
* Iaai
* Nengone

|

New Caledonian|

| Southern|

* Ndrumbea
* Numèè
* Xârâcùù
* Xârâgurè
* Tîrî
* Zire †
* Ajië
* Arhö
* Arhâ
* Neku
* Orowe

|

Northern|

* Vamale
* Haveke
* Haeke
* Cèmuhî
* Paicî
* Pwaamei
* Pwapwa
* Bwatoo
* Hmwaveke
* Waamwang
* Fwâi
* Jawe
* Nemi
* Pije
* Caac
* Kumak
* Yuanga
* Nyâlayu

* * indicates proposed status
* ? indicates classification dispute
* † indicates extinct status

* v
* t
* e

Austronesian languages

Formosan languages

| Rukaic|

* Rukai

|

Tsouic|

* Tsou
* Kanakanavu
* Saaroa

Northern|

| Atayalic|

* Atayal
* Seediq

|

Northwest
Formosan|

* Saisiyat
* Pazeh †
* Kulon †
* Thao
* Babuza
* Favorlang †
* Papora-Hoanya †

East|

| Kavalanic|

* Basay †
* Kavalan
* Luilang †

|

Ami|

* Amis
* Sakizaya

Siraiyac|

* Siraya †
* Taivoan †

Southern ?|

* Puyuma
* Paiwan
* Bunun

Malayo–Polynesian

Western branches of Malayo–Polynesian

| Philippine
(linkage) ?|

| Batanic (Bashiic)|

* Itbayat
* Ivatan
* Yami

|

Northern Luzon|

* Arta
* Dicamay Agta †
* Ilocano

Cagayan Valley|

* Atta
* Cagayan Agta
* Ga'dang
* Gaddang
* Ibanag
* Isnag
* Itawis
* Yogad

Meso-Cordilleran|

* Northern Alta
* Southern Alta

Central Cordilleran|

* Balangao
* Bontoc
* Ifugao
* Isinai
* Itneg
* Kalinga
* Kankanaey
* Tuwali

Southern Cordilleran|

* Bugkalot
* Ibaloi
* Iwaak
* Kalanguya
* Karao
* Pangasinan

Central Luzon|

* Kapampangan
* Hatang Kayi (Remontado)

Sambalic|

* Abellen
* Ambala
* Mag-antsi
* Bolinao
* Botolan
* Mag-indi
* Mariveleño
* Sambal

Northern Mindoro|

* Alangan
* Iraya
* Tadyawan

Greater Central
Philippine|

| Southern Mindoro|

* Buhid
* Hanunoo
* Tawbuid

|

Central Philippine|

| Tagalogic|

* Filipino
* Kasiguranin
* Tagalog
* Old Tagalog †
* Batangueño

|

Bikol|

* Albay Bikol
* Central Bikol
* Isarog Agta
* Mount Iraya Agta
* Mount Iriga Agta
* Pandan Bikol
* Rinconada

Bisayan|

* Akeanon
* Asi
* Bantayanon
* Baybay
* Butuanon
* Caluyanon
* Capiznon
* Cebuano
* Boholano
* Old Cebuano †
* Cuyonon
* Hiligaynon
* Kabalian
* Karay-a
* Karolanos
* Magahat
* Masbateño
* Northern Sorsogon
* Onhan
* Porohanon
* Ratagnon
* Romblomanon
* Southern Sorsogon
* Sulod
* Surigaonon
* Tausug
* Waray

Mansakan|

* Davawenyo
* Kalagan
* Kamayo
* Mamanwa
* Mandaya
* Mansaka

(unclassified)|

* Ata †

Palawanic|

* Aborlan Tagbanwa
* Batak
* Central Tagbanwa
* Palawano
* Taaw't Bato

Subanen|

* Western Subanon

Danao|

* Iranun
* Maguindanao
* Maranao

Manobo|

* Agusan
* Ata Manobo
* Binukid
* Cotabato Manobo
* Higaonon
* Ilianen
* Kagayanen
* Kamigin
* Matigsalug
* Obo
* Sarangani
* Tagabawa
* Western Bukidnon

Gorontalo–Mongondow|

* Bintauna
* Bolango
* Buol
* Gorontalo
* Kaidipang
* Lolak
* Mongondow
* Ponosakan
* Suwawa

Kalamian|

* Agutaynen
* Calamian Tagbanwa

Bilic|

* Blaan
* Tboli
* Teduray

Sangiric|

* Bantik
* Ratahan
* Sangirese
* Talaud

Minahasan|

* Tombulu
* Tondano
* Tonsawang
* Tonsea
* Tontemboan

Other branches|

* Ati
* Klata
* Umiray Dumaget

Manide–Alabat|

* Inagta Alabat
* Manide

Greater Barito *|

| Barito|

* Malagasy
* Bushi
* Deyah
* Malang
* Witu
* Balangan
* Ma'anyan
* Paku
* Lawangan
* Kohin
* Dohoi
* Siang
* Bakumpai
* Ngaju
* Ampanang
* Tunjung

Sama–Bajaw|

* Abaknon
* Bajaw
* Mapun
* Pangutaran Sama
* Sama
* West Coast Bajaw
* Yakan

Basap *

Greater
North Borneo *|

| North Borneo *|

| Northeast Sabah *|

* Ida'an
* Bonggi
* Molbog ?

|

Southwest Sabah *|

| Greater
Dusunic *|

| Bisaya–Lotud|

* Brunei Bisaya
* Lotud

|

Dusunic|

* Kadazandusun
* Central Dusun
* Coastal Kadazan
* Kuijau
* Eastern Kadazan
* Kota Marudu Talantang
* Rungus / Momogun
* Klias River Kadazan

Paitanic|

* Tombonuwo
* Kinabatangan
* Abai Sungai
* Serudung

Greater
Murutic *|

* Tatana ?
* Papar

Murutic|

* Tagol
* Timugon
* Keningau
* Selungai
* Sembakung
* Baukan
* Okolod
* Paluan
* Ganaʼ
* Kalabakan
* Nonukan Tidong
* Sesayap Tidong

North Sarawak *|

* Kenyah / Bakung
* Sebob
* Tutoh
* Umaʼ Lasan
* Wahau Kenyah
* Penan ?
* Kelabit
* Lengilu
* Lundayeh
* Sa'ban
* Tring
* Berawan
* Belait
* Kiput
* Narom
* Tutong
* Bintulu

Central Sarawak|

* Kajaman
* Lahanan
* Sekapan
* Daro-Matu
* Kanowit–Tanjong
* Melanau
* Bukitan
* Punan Batu
* Sian
* Ukit
* Burusu
* Bah-Biau Punan
* Sajau
* Punan Merap
* Bukat
* Seru †
* Lelak †

Kayanic|

* Kayan
* Bahau
* Modang
* Segai
* Hovongan
* Aoheng
* Aput
* Punan
* Krio Dayak
* Murik

Land Dayak|

* Bakatiʼ
* Sara
* Laraʼ
* Bukar–Sadong
* Biatah
* Tringgus
* Jagoi
* Jangkang
* Kembayan
* Semandang
* Ribun
* Benyaduʼ
* Sanggau

Malayo–Chamic *|

| Aceh–Chamic|

* Acehnese
* Cham dialects
* Chru
* Haroi
* Jarai
* Rade
* Roglai
* Tsat

|

Iban–Malayan|

| Ibanic|

* Iban
* Keninjal ?
* Mualang
* Remun
* Seberuang

|

* Malay
* Malaysian
* Indonesian
* Minangkabau
* Brunei/Kedayan Malay
* Bamayo
* Banjar
* Berau Malay
* Bangka Malay
* Bengkulu
* Col
* Duanoʼ
* Haji
* Jambi Malay
* Jakun
* Kedah Malay
* Kendayan / Selako ?
* Kutai Malay
* Kaur
* Kerinci
* Kelantan-Pattani Malay
* Kubu
* Orang Laut
* Lubu
* Musi
* Negeri Sembilan Malay
* Orang Kanaq
* Orang Seletar
* Pahang Malay
* Pekal
* Perak Malay
* Pontianak Malay
* Reman Malay
* Sarawak Malay
* Temuan
* Terengganu Malay
* Urak Lawoi'

Sundanese|

* Sundanese
* Old Sundanese †
* Baduy
* Bantenese
* Cirebonese

Rejang ?|

* Rejang

Moklenic ?|

* Moken
* Moklen

Sumatran *|

| Northwest Sumatra
–Barrier Islands|

* Enggano ?
* Gayo
* Mentawai
* Nias
* Sikule
* Simeulue

Batak|

* Alas
* Angkola
* Dairi
* Karo
* Simalungun
* Toba
* Mandailing

* Nasal ?

Lampungic|

* Lampung
* Lampung Nyo
* Lampung Api
* Komering

Javanese|

* Javanese
* Kawi / Old Javanese †
* Banyumasan
* Osing
* Tenggerese

Madurese|

* Madurese
* Kangean

Bali–Sasak
–Sumbawa|

* Balinese
* Sasak
* Sumbawa

Celebic|

| Bungku–Tolaki|

* Bahonsuai
* Bungku
* Kodeoha
* Kulisusu
* Moronene
* Mori Bawah
* Mori Atas
* Padoe
* Rahambuu
* Tolaki
* Tomadino
* Waru
* Wawonii

|

Muna–Buton|

* Bonerate
* Busoa
* Cia-Cia
* Kaimbulawa
* Kumbewaha
* Lasalimu
* Liabuku
* Muna
* Pancana
* Tukang Besi

Saluan–Banggai|

* Andio
* Balantak
* Banggai
* Batui
* Bobongko
* Saluan

Tomini–Tolitoli *|

* Balaesang
* Boano ?
* Dampelas
* Dondo
* Lauje
* Pendau
* Taje
* Tajio
* Tomini
* Totoli ?

Kaili–Wolio *|

| Kaili–Pamona|

* Kaili
* Mbelala
* Moma
* Pamona
* Rampi
* Sarudu
* Sedoa
* Topoiyo
* Uma

Wotu–Wolio|

* Kalao
* Kamaru
* Laiyolo
* Ledo Kaili *
* Wolio
* Wotu

South Sulawesi|

| Bugis|

* Buginese
* Campalagian
* Embaloh
* Taman

|

Makassar|

* Makassarese
* Bentong
* Coastal Konjo
* Highland Konjo
* Selayar

Seko–Badaic *|

| Seko|

* Budong-Budong
* Panasuan
* Seko Padang
* Seko Tengah

|

Badaic|

* Bada
* Behoa
* Napu

Northern|

* Mamuju
* Mandar

Massenrempulu|

* Duri
* Enrekang
* Maiwa
* Malimpung

Pitu Ulunna Salu|

* Aralle-Tabulahan
* Bambam
* Dakka
* Pannei
* Ulumandaʼ

Toraja|

* Kalumpang
* Mamasa
* Pattae'
* Lawa
* Talondoʼ ?
* Toraja-Saʼdan

* Lemolang

Isolates|

* Chamorro
* Palauan

Central Malayo-Polynesian languages

| Bima|

* Bima

|

Sumba–Flores|

| Sumba–Hawu|

| Savu|

* Hawu
* Dhao

|

Sumba|

* Kambera
* Mamboru
* Anakalangu
* Wanukaka
* Pondok
* Baliledo
* Wejewa
* Lamboya
* Kodi
* Gaura

Western Flores|

* Komodo
* Manggarai
* Riung
* Rembong
* Rajong
* Kepoʼ
* Wae Rana
* Palu'e
* Ende
* Lio
* Nagé-Kéo
* Ngadha
* Rongga
* Soʼa

Flores–Lembata|

* Sika
* Kedang

Lamaholot|

* Lamaholot
* Alorese
* Lamatuka
* Lewo Eleng
* Levuka
* South Lembata
* Lamalera
* Lewotobi
* Adonara
* Ile Ape
* Mingar

Selaru|

* Selaru
* Seluwasan

Kei–Tanimbar ?|

* Kei
* Fordata
* Yamdena
* Onin
* Sekar
* Uruangnirin

Aru|

* Barakai
* Batuley
* Dobel
* Karey
* Koba
* Kola
* Lola
* Lorang
* Manombai
* Mariri
* Tarangan
* Ujir

Timoric *|

* Helong
* Tetum
* Idalaka

Central Timor *|

* Kemak
* Tukudede
* Mambai
* Bekais

Wetar–Galoli ?|

* Wetar
* Galoli
* Atauran

Kawaimina|

* Kairui
* Waimoa
* Midiki
* Naueti ?
* Habun ?

Luangic–Kisaric ?|

* Romang
* Kisar
* Leti
* Luang
* Makuva

Rote–Meto|

* Bilba
* Dengka
* Lole
* Ringgou
* Dela-Oenale
* Termanu
* Tii
* Uab Meto
* Amarasi

Babar|

* West Damar
* Dawera-Daweloor
* North Babar
* Dai
* Masela
* Serili
* Southeast Babar
* Emplawas
* Imroing
* Telaʼa

Southwest Maluku|

* East Damar
* Teun
* Nila
* Serua

Kowiai ?|

* Kowiai

Central Maluku *|

* Teor-Kur

West|

* Ambelau
* Buru
* Lisela
* Hukumina †
* Moksela †
* Sula
* Mangole
* Taliabo

East|

* Banda
* Bati
* Geser
* Watubela
* Bobot
* Masiwang
* Hoti †
* Benggoi
* Salas
* Liana

Nunusaku|

* Kayeli †
* Nuaulu
* Huaulu
* Manusela
* Wemale
* Yalahatan

Piru Bay ?|

* Asilulu
* Luhu
* Manipa
* Wakasihu
* Boano
* Sepa-Teluti
* Paulohi
* Kaibobo
* Hitu
* Tulehu
* Laha
* Seit-Kaitetu
* Kamarian †
* Haruku
* Amahai
* Nusa Laut
* Saparua
* Latu

Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages

| SHWNG|

* Tandia †
* Mor
* Waropen
* Warembori ?
* Yoke ?

Halmahera Sea|

| Ambel–Biga|

* Ambel
* Biga

|

Maya–Matbat|

* Ma'ya
* Matbat

Maden|

* Maden
* Fiawat

As|

* As

South Halmahera|

* Gane
* Taba
* Buli
* Maba
* Patani
* Sawai
* Gebe

Cenderawasih|

| Biakic|

* Biak
* Dusner †
* Meoswar
* Roon

|

Yapen|

* Ambai
* Ansus
* Marau
* Wamesa
* Wooi
* Munggui
* Papuma
* Pom
* Serui-Laut
* Kurudu
* Wabo

Southwest|

* Yaur
* Yerisiam
* Umar

Oceanic|

| Admiralty|

* Yapese ?

Eastern|

* Manus
* Baluan-Pam
* Lenkau
* Lou
* Nauna
* Penchal

Western|

* Northern Kaniet †
* Southern Kaniet †
* Seimat
* Wuvulu
* Aua

Saint Matthias|

* Mussau-Emira
* Tenis

Temotu|

| Utupua|

* Amba
* Asumboa
* Tanimbili

|

Vanikoro|

* Teanu
* Lovono
* Tanema

Reefs–Santa Cruz|

* Äiwoo
* Engdewu / Nanggu
* Natügu / Santa Cruz
* Nalögo
* Noipx

Southeast
Solomonic|

| Gela–Guadalcanal|

* Bugotu
* Gela
* Lengo
* Birao
* Ghari
* Malango
* Talise

|

Malaita–
San Cristobal|

* Longgu
* Sa'a
* Arosi
* Fagani
* Bauro
* Kahua
* Owa
* Marau Wawa ? †
* Toʼabaita
* Baelelea
* Baeggu
* Fataleka
* Lau
* Kwara'ae
* Wala
* Gula'alaa
* Kwaio
* Dori'o
* ꞋAreꞌare
* Oroha

Western
Oceanic|

| Meso–
Melanesian|

| Willaumez|

* Bola
* Bulu
* Meramera
* Nakanai

|

Bali-Vitu|

* Bali
* Vitu

New Ireland–
Northwest
Solomonic|

| Tungag–Nalik|

* Kara
* Laxudumau
* Nalik
* Tiang
* Tigak
* Tungag

|

Tabar|

* Lihir
* Madara
* Notsi

Madak|

* Barok
* Lavatbura–Lamusong
* Madak

St. George|

* Bilur
* Fanamaket
* Guramalum †
* Kandas
* Konomala
* Label
* Lungalunga
* Niwer Mil
* Patpatar
* Ramoaaina
* Siar
* Sursurunga
* Tangga
* Tolai

Northwest
Solomonic|

* Babatana
* Bannoni
* Blablanga
* Cheke Holo
* Gao
* Ghanongga
* Hahon
* Hakö
* Halia
* Hoava
* Kazukuru †
* Kokota
* Kusaghe
* Laghu †
* Lungga
* Marovo
* Mono-Alu
* Nduke
* Nehan
* Papapana
* Petats
* Piva
* Ririo
* Roviana
* Saposa
* Simbo
* Solos
* Teop
* Tinputz
* Torau
* Ughele
* Uruava †
* Vaghua
* Vangunu
* Varisi
* Zabana
* Zazao

* Tomoip

North
New Guinea|

| Sarmi–
Jayapura ?|

* Anus
* Bonggo
* Kayupulau
* Liki
* Masimasi
* Ormu
* Podena
* Kaptiau
* Sobei
* Tarpia
* Tobati
* Wakde
* Yamna

|

Schouten|

* Arop-Sissano
* Sera
* Sissano
* Ulau-Suain
* Tumleo
* Yakamul
* Kaiep
* Kairiru
* Terebu
* Biem
* Kis
* Manam
* Medebur
* Sepa
* Wogeo

Huon Gulf|

* Bukawa
* Kela
* Yabem
* Aribwatsa †
* Aribwaung
* Adzera
* Dangal
* Duwet
* Labu
* Maralango
* Mari
* Musom
* Nafi
* Silisili
* Wampar
* Wampur
* Hote
* Iwal
* Kapin
* Kumalu
* Mangga Buang
* Mapos Buang
* Mumeng
* Piu
* Vehes
* Yamap
* Numbami

Ngero–Vitiaz|

* Bariai
* Gitua
* Kove
* Lusi
* Malalamai
* Mutu
* Awad Bing
* Bilibil
* Gedaged
* Marik
* Matukar
* Mindiri
* Takia
* Wab
* Lamogai
* Mouk-Aria
* Aigon
* Karore
* Kaulong †
* Miu
* Sengseng
* Aiklep
* Akolet
* Apalik
* Avau
* Bebeli
* Gimi
* Lesing-Gelimi
* Mangseng
* Solong
* Lote
* Mamusi
* Mengen
* Arop-Lukep
* Karnai
* Malasanga
* Mur Pano
* Mato
* Ronji
* Amara
* Maleu
* Mbula
* Sio
* Tami

Papuan Tip|

| Nuclear|

* ʼAuhelawa
* Buhutu
* Bwanabwana
* Oya'oya
* Saliba
* Suau
* Unubahe
* Wagawaga
* Bwaidoka
* Diodio
* Iamalele
* Iduna
* Koluwawa
* Maiadomu
* Bunama
* Boselewa
* Dobu
* Duau
* Galeya
* Molima
* Mwatebu
* Sewa Bay
* Dawawa
* Kakabai
* Are
* Arifama-Miniafia
* Doga
* Gapapaiwa
* Ghayavi
* Kaninuwa
* Ubir
* Gweda
* Haigwai
* Maiwala
* Minaveha
* Taupota
* Tawala
* Yakaikeke
* Anuki
* Gumawana

|

Kilivila–Misima|

* Budibud
* Kilivila
* Misima
* Muyuw

Nimoa–Sudest|

* Nimoa
* Sudest

Southern
Oceanic|

| North
Vanuatu|

| Torres–Banks|

* Dorig
* Hiw
* Koro
* Lakon
* Lehali
* Lemerig
* Lo-Toga
* Löyöp
* Mota
* Mwerlap
* Mwesen
* Mwotlap
* Nume
* Olrat
* Vera’a
* Volow
* Vurës

|

Maewo–Ambae–
North Pentecost|

* Baetora
* Duidui
* Northeast Ambae
* Raga
* Sun̄wadaga
* Sun̄wadia

South Pentecost|

* Apma
* Sa
* Ske
* Sowa †

Espiritu Santo|

* Akei
* Aore †
* Araki
* Cape Cumberland
* Nokuku
* Kiai
* M̈av̈ea
* Merei-Tiale
* Mores
* Sakao
* Shark Bay
* Tamambo
* Tangoa
* Tasiriki
* Tolomako
* Tutuba
* Wusi

Nuclear
Southern
Oceanic|

| Central
Vanuatu|

* North Efate
* Nafsan
* Efatese
* Eton
* Lelepa
* Makura
* Daakaka
* Dalkalaen
* Lonwolwol
* Paamese
* Port Vato
* Southeast Ambrym

| Epi|

* Baki
* Bierebo
* Bieria
* Lamen
* Lewo
* Maii

|

Malakula|

* Aulua
* Avava
* Aveteian
* Axamb
* Big Nambas
* Botovro
* Burmbar
* Bwenelang
* Larëvat
* Lendamboi
* Litzlitz
* Malfaxal
* Malua Bay
* Maskelynes
* Nahavaq
* Nasarian
* Nasvang
* Nāti
* Navwien
* Nese
* Neve'ei
* Neverver
* Ninde
* Nisvai
* Nitita
* Port Sandwich
* Rerep
* Sörsörian
* Tape
* Tirax
* Unua
* Northeast Malakula
* Vao
* Vivti
* Rutan
* Alovas
* Najit
* Njav

South Vanuatu|

| Erromango|

* Erromanga / Sie
* Sorung †
* Ura
* Utaha / Ifo †

|

Tanna|

* Kwamera / South Tanna
* Lenakel / West Tanna
* North Tanna
* Southwest Tanna
* Whitesands / East Tanna

* Aneityum

Loyalties–
New Caledonia|

| Loyalty Islands|

* Drehu
* Iaai
* Nengone

|

New Caledonian|

| Southern|

* Ajië
* Arhâ
* Arhö
* Ndrumbea
* Neku
* Numèè
* Orowe
* Tîrî
* Xârâcùù
* Xârâgurè
* Zire †

|

Northern|

* Bwatoo
* Caac
* Cèmuhî
* Fwâi
* Haeke
* Haveke
* Hmwaveke
* Jawe
* Kumak
* Nemi
* Nyâlayu
* Paicî
* Pije
* Pwaamei
* Pwapwâ
* Vamale
* Waamwang †
* Yuanga

Micronesian|

* Nauruan

Nuclear
Micronesian|

* Gilbertese
* Kosraean
* Marshallese

Chuukic–
Pohnpeic|

| Chuukic|

* Carolinian
* Chuukese
* Mapia †
* Mortlockese
* Namonuito
* Pááfang
* Puluwatese
* Satawalese
* Sonsorol
* Tanapag
* Tobian
* Ulithian
* Woleaian

|

Pohnpeic|

* Mokilese
* Ngatikese
* Pingelapese
* Pohnpeian

Central
Pacific|

| West|

* Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua
* Rotuman
* Western Fijian

|

East|

* Fijian
* Gone Dau
* Lauan
* Lomaiviti

Polynesian|

| Nuclear
Polynesian|

* Kapingamarangi
* Nuguria
* Nukumanu
* Nukuoro
* Ontong Java
* Sikaiana
* Takuu
* Tuvaluan

Samoic|

* Niuatoputapu †
* Samoan
* Tokelauan

Eastern|

* Austral
* Cook Islands Māori
* Hawaiian
* Mangareva
* Māori
* Moriori †
* Marquesan
* Penrhyn
* Rakahanga-Manihiki
* Rapa
* Rapa Nui
* Tahitian
* Tuamotuan

Futunic|

* Anuta
* Emae
* Futuna-Aniwa / West Futunan
* Futunan / East Futunan
* Mele-Fila
* Pukapukan
* Rennellese
* Tikopia
* Wallisian / East Uvean
* West Uvean

Tongic|

* Niuafoʻou ?
* Niuean
* Tongan

* * indicates proposed status
* ? indicates classification dispute
* † indicates extinct status

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