Languages of the Soviet Union

Language policy in the Soviet Union

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Languages of Soviet Union

Official| Russian
Regional| Armenian, Azerbaijani, Belarusian, Estonian, Georgian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Latvian, Lithuanian, Moldovan (Romanian), Tajik, Turkmen, Ukrainian, Uzbek
Minority| Several minority languages. See distribution and status section for a full list.
Foreign| English, German
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The languages of the Soviet Union consist of hundreds of different languages and dialects from several different language groups.

In 1922, it was decreed that all nationalities in the Soviet Union had the right to education in their own language. The new orthography used the Cyrillic, Latin, or Arabic alphabet, depending on geography and culture. After 1937, all languages that had received new alphabets after 1917 began using the Cyrillic alphabet. This way, it would be easier for linguistic minorities to learn to write both Russian and their native language.[citation needed] Moreover, the Armenian and Georgian, as well as the Baltic Soviet Socialist Republics were the only Soviet republics to maintain their writing systems (Armenian, Georgian and Latin alphabets respectively).

## Language policy

[edit]

### Background

[edit]

Before the Bolshevik Revolution, Russian was the official language for the Russian Empire, with the exception of a few permitted languages in autonomous regions as Poland, Finland, and the Baltic provinces. Regional languages were discouraged or forbidden, as was the case of Ukrainian between 1876 and 1905. There was no explicit plan to enable non-Russians to learn Russian, and there was no possibility for other ethnic groups to develop their own culture and language.

In this period, some individual efforts developed written forms for some of these languages, but they had limited effect and they were focused on missionary activities. In the case of languages with written tradition, as Armenian, Georgian, Turkic languages of Central Asia, and Tajik, their writing system continued being used, but mainly in connection with religious education.

### Soviet language policy

[edit]

In 1914 Vladimir Lenin was opposed to the idea of a compulsory or official state language.[1] Equality of all peoples and of all languages was a commitment made by Lenin and his associates before and after the October Revolution.[2] As a result, no single language was designated for official use in the Soviet Union and the existence of the spoken languages of the national minorities was guaranteed. Everyone had the right to use their own language, both in private and public, as well as in correspondence with officials and while giving testimony in court.[2] The USSR was a multilingual state, with around 130 languages spoken natively.[2] Discrimination on the basis of language was illegal under the Soviet Constitution, though the status of its languages differed.

However, the Soviet Union faced the problem of unifying the country, and for that reason, Russian was selected as the common language to facilitate communication between members of different ethnic groups.[2]

In 1975, Brezhnev said "under developed socialism, when the economies in our country have melted together in a coherent economic complex; when there is a new historical concept—the Soviet people—it is an objective growth in the Russian language's role as the language of international communications when one builds Communism, in the education of the new man! Together with one's own mother tongue one will speak fluent Russian, which the Soviet people have voluntarily accepted as a common historical heritage and contributes to a further stabilization of the political, economic and spiritual unity of the Soviet people."[This quote needs a citation]

### Developing writing systems

[edit]

Few of the languages of the Soviet state had written forms. One of the first priorities of the Soviet state was the creation of writing systems and the development of literacy programs. New or modified writing systems were adopted for over half of the languages spoken in the Union during the early Post-revolutionary years.[2] In some particular cases, preparatory work was required before the creation of an orthography due to the lack of previous linguistic analysis, as in the case of languages of the Far North.

When a language already had a writing system, there were attempts for making it more accessible and easier to learn . As part of this policy, in 1918 Russian orthography was simplified by removing orthographic distinctions without phonetic counterparts.[3] Phonemic or close to phonemic orthographies weren't modified, such as Armenian, Georgian, or Chuvash.[2]

Writing systems based on the Arabic script caused major problems because they were poorly adapted to indicate phonemic differences that are found in Turkic languages or Northeast Caucasian languages. A first attempt tried to create a simplified form of the Arabic script. However, this task was abandoned. Instead, the Latin alphabet was used for all languages of the Soviet Union without a traditional alphabetical writing system, avoiding the impression that the policy was a Russification attempt.[2]

Written forms were developed for several languages with a very small number of speakers, such as the Finno-Ugric languages Karelian, Veps, and the Sámi languages. However, many of these writing systems had a short life. In the case of Itelmen, its writing system never was put into practical use. Other languages that received their writing systems during the 1920s and early 1930s kept using them, such as Nanai, Nivkh, Koryak, Chukchi, Khanty, and Mansi.[2]

## Distribution and status

[edit]

A 1947 (1957 issue) one-ruble bill, with the denomination marked in 15 languages: Один рубль (Russian), Один карбованець (Ukrainian), Адзін рубель (Belarusian), Бир сўм/Bir so‘m (Uzbek), Бiр сом (Kazakh), ერთი მანეთი /Erti maneti/ (Georgian), Бир Манат/Bir Manat (Azeri), Vienas rublis (Lithuanian), О рублэ/O rublă ("Moldovan"/Romanian), Viens rublis (Latvian), Бир Сом (Kyrgyz), Як сўм (Tajik), Մեկ ռուբլի/Mek rrubli/ (Armenian), Бир Манат/Bir Manat (Turkmen), Üks rubla (Estonian)

The main East Slavic languages (Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian) dominated in the European part of the Soviet Union. In the Baltic region Uralic Estonian and the Baltic languages of Lithuanian and Latvian, were used next to Russian, while "Moldovan" (that is, Romanian, the only official Romance language in the union) was used in the southwest region. In the Caucasus alongside Russian there were Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian. In Central Asia there was Kazakh, Uzbek, Turkmen, Kyrgyz, and Tajik. Which are all Turkic with the exception of Tajik, which is an Iranian language.

Although the USSR did not have a de jure official language over most of its history (until 1990),[4] Russian was defined as the language of interethnic communication (Russian: язык межнационального общения). It was however the de facto official language.[5] For its role and influence in the USSR, see Russification.

On a second level were the languages of the other 14 Union Republics. In line with their de jure status in a federal state, they had a small formal role at the Union level (being e.g. present in the Coat of arms of the USSR and its banknotes) and as the main language of its republic. Their effective weight, however, varied with the republic (from strong in places like in Armenia to weak in places like in Byelorussia), or even inside it.[citation needed]

Of these fourteen languages, two are often considered varieties of other languages: Tajik of Persian, and Moldovan of Romanian. Strongly promoted use of Cyrillic in many republics however, combined with lack of contact, led to the separate development of the literary languages. Some of the former Soviet republics, now independent states, continue to use the Cyrillic alphabet at present (such as Kyrgyzstan and the unrecognized Transnistria), while others have opted to use the Latin alphabet instead (such as Turkmenistan and Moldova).

The Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union and other subdivision of the USSR lacked even this de jure autonomy, and their languages had virtually no presence at the national level (and often, not even in the urban areas of the republic itself). They were, however, present in education (although often only at lower grades).[citation needed]

Some smaller languages with very dwindling small communities, like Livonian, were neglected, and weren't present either in education or in publishing.[citation needed]

Several languages of the non-titular nations, like German, Korean or Polish, though having sizeable populations, and in some cases being present in education and publishing, were not considered to be Soviet languages. On the other hand, Finnish, although not generally considered a language of the USSR, was an official language in the Karelian ASSR and its predecessor the Karelo-Finnish SSR.[citation needed] Also Yiddish and Romani were considered Soviet languages.[citation needed]

Languages by family, distribution and status  Language Family  | Language  | Official in  | Distribution  | Status[6]

|
|
|
|

Indo-European > Slavic > East Slavic | Russian |  Soviet Union

Russian SFSR

| Spoken in all republics  | Safe
Indo-European > Slavic > East Slavic > Ruthenian | Ukrainian |  Ukrainian SSR | Ukrainian SSR, Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Estonian SSR, Moldavian SSR, Georgian SSR  | Safe
Belarusian |  Byelorussian SSR | Byelorussian SSR, Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Latvian SSR, Lithuanian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Rusyn |  | Ukrainian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Indo-European > Slavic > West Slavic | Polish |  | Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Estonian SSR  |
Slovak |  | Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Georgian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Indo-European > Slavic > South Slavic > Eastern | Bulgarian |  | Ukrainian SSR, Moldavian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Indo-European > Baltic > Eastern | Latvian |  Latvian SSR | Latvian SSR  | Safe
Latgalian |  | Latvian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Lithuanian |  Lithuanian SSR | Lithuanian SSR  | Safe
Samogitian |  | Lithuanian SSR  |
Indo-European > Germanic > North Germanic | Norwegian (Finnmark Dialect) |  | Russian SSR  |
Swedish

(Estonian Dialect)

|  | Estonian SSR, Ukrainian SSR  | Critically endangered
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic > Rhenish | Volga German | Volga German ASSR | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Kazakh SSR  |
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic > High German | Yiddish |  Jewish AO | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic > North Sea Germanic | Plautdietsch |  | Kazakh SSR  |
Indo-European > Romance > Romanian | Romanian | Moldavian ASSR

Moldavian SSR

| Moldavian SSR, Ukrainian SSR  | Safe
Indo-European > Romance > Italo-Western | Italian |  | Ukrainian SSR  |
Indo-European > Albanian | Albanian |  | Ukrainian SSR  |
Indo-European > Hellenic > Attic-Ionic | Pontic Greek |  | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Armenian SSR, Kazakh SSR  | Definitely endangered
Indo-European > Armenian | Eastern Armenian |  Armenian SSR

Nagorno-Karabakh AO

| Armenian SSR  | Safe
Western Armenian |  | Armenian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Indo-European > Armenian & Indo-Aryan | Lomavren |  | Armenian SSR  | Critically endangered
Indo-European > Indo-Aryan > Romani > Baltic Romani | Estonian Čuxny Romani  |  | Estonian SSR  |
Latvian Lettish Romani  |  | Latvian SSR  |
Lithuanian Romani  |  | Lithuanian SSR  |
North Russian Romani |  | Russian SSR,  |
Belarusian Romani |  | Byelorussian SSR  |
Indo-European > Indo-Aryan > Romani > Vlax Romani | Ukrainian Vlax Romani  |  | Ukrainian SSR  |
Kalderaš Romani |  | Russian SSR  |
ndo-European > Indo-Aryan > Romani > Balkan Romani | Crimean Kyrymitika Romani |  | Ukrainian SSR  |
Ursari Romani  |  | Russian SSR  |
Indo-European > Indo-Aryan > Domari | Garachi |  | Azerbaijan SSR  |
Indo-European > Indo-Aryan | Parya |  | Tajik SSR,

Uzbek SSR

| Definitely endangered
Indo-European > Iranian > West Iranian | Tajik |  Tajik SSR | Tajik SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Bukharian Dialect

(Judeo-Tajik)

|  | Tajik SSR, Uzbek SSR  | Definitely endangered
Kurdish

(Kurmanji Dialect)

|  | Azerbaijan SSR, Russian SSR, Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR,  | Definitely endangered
Tat | Dagestan ASSR | Azerbaijan SSR, Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Juhuri

(Judeo-Tat)

|  | Azerbaijan SSR, Russian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Talysh |  | Azerbaijan SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Scythian | Ossetian | North Ossetian ASSR

South Ossetian AO

| Georgian SSR, Russian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Yaghnobi |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Scythian/Pamiri | Wakhi |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Pamiri | Rushani |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Shughni |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Yazghulami |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Bartangi |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Ishkashimi |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Khufi |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Sanglechi |  | Tajik SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Kartvelian | Svan |  | Georgian SSR,

Russian SSR

| Endangered/unsafe
Kartvelian > Karto-Zan | Georgian |  Georgian SSR | Georgian SSR  | Safe
Kartvelian > Karto-Zan > Georgian | Kivruli/Gruzinic Dialect

(Judeo-Georgian)

|  | Georgian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Kartvelian > Karto-Zan > Zan | Mingrelian |  | Georgian SSR, Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Laz |  | Georgian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Northwest Caucasian | Abkhaz |  Abkhaz ASSR | Georgian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Abaza |  | Russian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Kabardian

(East Circassian)

| Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR

Karachay-Cherkess AO

| Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Adyghe

(West Circassian)

|  | Russian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Ubykh |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Northeast Caucasian > Nakh | Chechen | Checheno-Ingush ASSR

Dagestan ASSR

| Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Kazakh SSR, Georgian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Ingush | Checheno-Ingush ASSR | Russian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR, Turkmen SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Bats |  | Georgian SSR  | Severely endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Avar-Andic | Avar | Dagestan ASSR | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Kazakh SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Andi |  | Russian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Tindi |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Bagvalal |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Akhvakh |  | Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR  | Definitely endangered
Karata-Tukita |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Botlikh |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Godoberi |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Chamalal |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Dargin | Dargwa | Dagestan ASSR | Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Kaitag |  | Russian SSR  |
Kubachi |  | Russian SSR  |
Itsari |  | Russian SSR  |
Chirag |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Khinalug | Khinalug |  | Azerbaijan SSR  | Definitely endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Lak | Lak | Dagestan ASSR | Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Northeast Caucasian > Lezgic | Archi |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Lezgian | Dagestan ASSR | Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Tabasaran | Dagestan ASSR | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Aghul |  | Russian SSR,

Azerbaijan SSR

| Definitely endangered
Rutul |  | Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Tsakhur |  | Russian SSR,

Azerbaijan SSR

| Endangered/unsafe
Udi |  | Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Georgian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Kryts |  | Azerbaijan SSR  |
Jek |  | Azerbaijan SSR  |
Budukh |  | Azerbaijan SSR  | Definitely endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Tsezic | Tsez |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Bezhta |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Hunzib |  | Russian SSR, Georgian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Khwarshi |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Hinuq |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Balto-Finnic > Northern  | Veps |  | Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Balto-Finnic > Northern > Finnish  | Finnish |  Karelo-Finnish SSR | Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR  | Safe
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Balto-Finnic > Northern  | Siberian Ingrian Finnish |  | Russian SSR  |
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Balto-Finnic > Northern > Old Karelian | Karelian |  Karelo-Finnish SSR | Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Ingrian |  | Russian SSR, Karelo-Finnish SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Kazakh SSR  | Severely endangered
Ludic |  | Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR  |
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Balto-Finnic > Southern  | Votic |  | Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Livonian |  | Latvian SSR  | Critically endangered
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Balto-Finnic > Southern > North Estonian | Estonian |  Estonian SSR | Estonian SSR  | Safe
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Balto-Finnic > Southern > South Estonian | Võro |  | Estonian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Seto dialect |  | Estonian SSR  |
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Sámi > Mainland  | Akkala Sámi |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Skolt Sámi |  | Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Sámi > Peninsular  | Kildin Sámi |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Ter Sámi |  | Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Permic | Udmurt | Udmurt ASSR | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Kazakh SSR  | Definitely endangered
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Permic > Komi | Komi-Zyrian | Komi ASSR | Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Komi-Permyak | Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug | Russian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Komi-Yazva |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Uralic > Finno-Permic > Permic > Mari | Mari | Mari ASSR | Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Uralic > Mordvinic | Erzya | Mordovian ASSR | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Moksha | Mordovian ASSR | Russian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Uralic > Samoyedic | Nganasan |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Uralic > Samoyedic > Enets-Nenets  | Tundra Nenets | Nenets AO

Yamalo-Nenets AO

| Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Forest Nenets |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Enets |  | Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Uralic > Samoyedic > Kamassian-Selkup  | Selkup |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Kamassian |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Uralic > Ugric > Khanty | Salekhard (Northern) Khanty |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Surgut (Eastern) Khanty |  | Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Southern Khanty |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Uralic > Ugric > Mansi | Central Mansi |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Northern Mansi |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Southern Mansi |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Uralic > Ugric | Hungarian |  | Ukrainian SSR  | Safe
Turkic > Oghuric | Chuvash | Chuvash ASSR | Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Turkic > Common Turkic > Kipchak > Kipchak-Bulgar  | Tatar |  Tatar ASSR | Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Kirghiz SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Bashkir |  Bashkir ASSR | Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Turkic > Common Turkic > Kipchak > Kipchak-Cuman  | Crimean Tatar |  Crimean ASSR | Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR  | Severely endangered
Karachay-Balkar | Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR

Karachay-Cherkess AO

| Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Kumyk | Dagestan ASSR | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Urum |  | Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Karaim |  | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Lithuanian SSR  | Critically endangered
Krymchak |  | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR  | Critically endangered
Turkic > Common Turkic > Kipchak > Kipchak-Nogai  | Nogai | Dagestan ASSR

Karachay-Cherkess AO

| Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR  | Definitely endangered
Dobrujan Tatar |  | Ukrainian SSR, Moldavian SSR  |
Karakalpak |  Karakalpak ASSR | Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR, Turkmen SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Kazakh |  Kazakh SSR | Kazakh SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Siberian Tatar |  | Russian SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Turkic > Common Turkic > Kipchak > Kipchak-Kyrgyz  | Kyrgyz |  Kirghiz SSR | Kirghiz SSR  |
Fergana |  | Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR  | Extinct
Southern Altai |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Turkic > Common Turkic > Karluk > Old  | Chagatai |  |  | Extinct
Turkic > Common Turkic > Karluk > Western  | Uzbek |  Uzbek SSR | Uzbek SSR  | Safe
Turkic > Common Turkic > Karluk > Eastern  | Uighur |  | Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Ili Turki |  | Kazakh SSR  | Critically endangered
Turkic > Common Turkic > Oghuz > Eastern  | Turkmen |  Turkmen SSR | Turkmen SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Turkic > Common Turkic > Oghuz > Western  | Azerbaijani |  Azerbaijan SSR | Azerbaijan SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Karapapakh |  | Georgian SSR,

Russian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Azerbaijan SSR

Turkish

(Meskhetian Dialect)

|  | Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Kazakh SSR,

Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR

Gagauz |  | Moldavian SSR, Ukrainian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Turkic > Siberian Turkic > North  | Yakut | Yakut ASSR | Russian SSR  |
Dolgan |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Turkic > Siberian Turkic > South  | Chulym |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Turkic > Siberian Turkic > South > Sayan  | Soyot |  | Russian SSR  |
Tuvan |  Tuvan ASSR | Russian SSR  |
Tofa |  | Russian SSR  |
Turkic > Siberian Turkic > South >Yenisei  | Northern Altai |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Khakas | Khakas AO | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Shor |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Afro-Asiatic > Semitic | Central Asian Arabic |  | Uzbek SSR, Tajik SSR  | Definitely endangered
Neo-Aramaic |  | Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR  | Safe
Mongolic > Central Mongolic  | Buryat |  Buryat ASSR | Russian SSR  |
Khamnigan Mongol |  | Russian SSR  |
Mongolian |  | Russian SSR  | Potentially vulnerable
Mongolic > Central Mongolic > Kalmyk-Oirat  | Kalmyk |  Kalmyk ASSR | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Oirat |  | Kirghiz SSR  |
Tungusic > Ewenic | Evenki |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Even |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Kili |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Negidal |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Tungustic > Nanaic | Nanai |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Uilta |  | Russian SSR  |
Ulch |  | Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Tungustic > Udegheic | Oroch |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Udege |  | Russian SSR  |
Chukotko-Kamchatkan > Chukotkan | Chukchi | Chukotka AO | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Koryak |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Alyutor |  | Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Kerek |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Chukotko-Kamchatkan > Kamchatkan | Itelmen |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Eastern Kamchadal |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Language Isolate  | Nivkh |  | Russian SSR  | Severely endangered
Yukaghir | Tundra Yukaghir |  | Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Southern Yukaghir |  | Russian SSR  | Critically endangered
Inuit-Aleut | Aleut |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Inuit-Aleut > Eskimoan  | Sirenik |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Inuit-Aleut > Eskimoan > Yupik | Siberian Yupik |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Naukan |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Yeniseian | Ket |  | Russian SSR  | Definitely endangered
Language isolate  | Ainu |  | Russian SSR  | Extinct in Russia, critically endangered in Japan
Sino-Tibetan | Dungan |  | Russian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR  | Endangered/unsafe
Mandarin

(Taz Dialect)

|  | Russian SSR  | Extinct
Koreanic | Korean

(Koryo-Mar Dialect)

|  | Uzbek SSR, Kazakh SSR, Turkmen SSR, Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR  |
Dravidian | Brahui |  | Turkmen SSR  | Potentially vulnerable

Indo-European Languages

* Slavic
* East Slavic
* Russian
* Ruthenian
* Ukrainian
* Belarusian
* Rusyn
* Mixed
* Surzyk
* Transianka
* West Slavic
* Lechitic
* Polish
* Czech-Slovak
* Slovak
* South Slavic
* Eastern South Slavic
* Bulgarian
* Baltic
* East Baltic
* Latvian
* Latgalian
* Lithuanian
* Samogitian
* Germanic
* North Germanic
* East Scandinavian
* Swedish
* Estonian Swedish
* Gammalsvenska
* West Scandinavian
* Norwegian
* West Germanic
* North Sea Germanic
* Low German
* Plautdietsch
* Elbe Germanic
* High German
* Rhine Franconian
* Volga German
* Yiddish (Mixed)
* Eastern Yiddish
* Romance
* Eastern Romance
* Romanian
* Moldovan
* Italo-Dalmatian
* Italian
* Albanoid
* Albanian
* Hellenic
* Pontic Greek
* Mariupol Greek
* Armenian
* Eastern Armenian
* Zok
* Western Armenian
* Homshetsi
* Lomavren (Mixed)
* Iranian
* West Iranian
* Southwestern
* Persian
* Tajik
* Bukharian (Mixed)
* Tat
* Juhuri (Mixed)
* Persian Kowli (Mixed)
* Northwestern
* Caspian
* Talysh
* Kurdish
* Kurmanji
* East Iranian
* Scythian
* Ossetian
* Iron Ossetian
* Digor Ossetian
* Yaughnobi
* Wakhi
* Sanglechi–Ishkashimi
* Sanglechi
* Ishkashimi
* Shughni–Yazghulami
* Shugni
* Yazghulami
* Rushani
* Bartangi
* Khufi

* Indo-Aryan
* Central Indo-Aryan
* Domari
* Garachi
* Western Hindi
* Parya
* Romani
* Balkan Romani
* Crimean Kyrymitika Romani
* Ursari Romani
* Baltic Romani
* Estonian Čuxny Romani
* Latvian Lettish Romani
* North Russian Romani
* Lithuanian Romani
* Belarusian Romani
* Vlax Romani
* Ukrainian Vlax Romani
* Russian Kalderaš Romani

Northwest Caucasian Language Family

* Abaza-Abkhaz
* Abaza
* Abkhaz
* Ubykh-Circassian
* Ubykh †
* Circassian
* Kabardian
* Adyghe

Kartvelian Languages

* Svan
* Karto-Zan
* Georgian
* Judeo-Georgian
* Zan
* Laz
* Mingrelian

Northeast Caucasian Languages

* Lak
* Khinalug

* Avar-Andic
* Avar
* Andic
* Andi (Qwannab)
* Akhvakh–Tindi
* Akhvakh
* Karata–Tindi
* Karata (Kirdi)
* Botlikh–Tindi
* Botlikh
* Godoberi
* Chamalal
* Bagvalal–Tindi
* Bagvalal
* Tindi
* Tsezic
* Tsez–Hinukh
* Tsez
* Hinukh
* Bezhta–Hunzib–Khwarshi
* Bezhta
* Hunzib
* Khwarshi
* Nakh
* Bats
* Vainakh
* Chechen
* Ingush
* Lezgic
* Archi
* Samur
* West Samur
* Tsakhur
* Rutul
* East Samur
* Udi
* Lezgian
* Aghul
* Tabasaran
* South Samur
* Kryts
* Budukh

* Dargin
* Chirag
* Kubachi
* North-Central Dargwa
* Megeb
* North Dargwa
* Cudaxar
* Gapshin-Butrin
* Kadarskij
* Muirin
* Dejbuk
* Xarbuk
* Nuclear North Dargwa
* Aqusha-Uraxi
* Akusha
* Uraxa
* Mugin
* Murego-Gubden
* Upper Mulebki
* South Dargwa
* Kajtak
* Southwestern Dargwa
* Amuzgu-Shiri
* Sanzhi-Icari
* Icari
* Sanzhi
* Sirhwa-Tanty
* Upper-Vurqri
* Amux
* Khuduts
* Qunqi

Uralic Languages

* Ugric
* Khanty
* Northern Khanty
* Southern Khanty †
* Eastern Khanty
* Mansi
* Southern Mansi †
* Core Mansi
* Northern Mansi
* Eastern Mansi †
* Western Mansi †
* Hungarian

* Samoyedic
* Nganasan
* Core-Samoyedic
* Enets-Nenets
* Enets
* Tundra Enets
* Forest Enets
* Nenets
* Tundra Nenets
* Forest Nenets
* Kamas-Selkup
* Selkup
* Taz (Northern Selkup)
* Tym (Central Selkup)
* Ket (Southern Selkup)
* Kamas †

* Finno-Permic
* Permic
* Udmurt
* Komi-Zyran
* Komi-Yazva
* Komi-Permyak
* Balto-Finnic
* Northern Balto-Finnic
* Veps
* Old Karelian
* Ingrian
* Ludic
* Karelian
* Livvi-Karelian
* Finnish
* Eastern Dialects
* Savo Finnish
* Ingrian Finnish
* Siberian Finnish
* Mixed
* Siberian Ingrian Finnish
* Southern Balto-Finnic
* Votic
* Livonian
* Estonian
* North Estonian
* Standard Estonian
* South Estonian
* Võro
* Seto
* Sámi
* Mainland Sámi
* Akkala Sámi †
* Skolt Sámi
* Peninsular Sámi
* Kildin Sámi
* Ter Sámi
* Mari
* Eastern Mari
* Eastern Proper Mari
* Meadow Mari
* Western Mari
* Northwestern Mari
* Hill Mari
* Mordvinic
* Erzya
* Moksha

Turkic Languages

* Oghuric
* Chuvash
* Common Turkic
* Oghuz
* Eastern Oghuz
* Turkmen
* Western Oghuz
* Turkish
* Meskhetian Turkish
* Azerbaijani
* Gagauz
* Karapapakh †
* Kipchak
* Kipchak-Bulgar
* Bashkir
* Tatar
* Kipchak-Cuman
* Crimean Tatar
* Karachay-Balkar
* Kumyk
* Karaim
* Krymchak
* Urum
* Kipchak-Nogai
* Dobrujan Tatar
* Kazakh
* Karakalpak
* Nogai
* Kipchak-Kyrgyz
* Kyrgyz
* Southern Altai
* Fergana Kipchak †
* Karluk
* Western Karluk
* Uzbek
* Eastern Karluk
* Uyghur
* Ili Turki
* Old Karluk
* Chagatai †
* Siberian Turkic
* Northern Siberian
* Yakut
* Dolgan
* Southern Siberian
* Chulym
* Sayan
* Tuvan
* Tofa
* Soyot
* Dukhan
* Yenisei
* Khakas
* Kumandin
* Northern Altai
* Chelkan
* Tubalar
* Shor

Mongolic Languages

* Central Mongolic
* Mongolian
* Khamnigan Mongol
* Buryat
* Oirat
* Kalmyk

Afro-Asiatic Languages

* Semitic
* West Semitic
* Central Semitic
* Arabic
* Central Asian Arabic
* Bukharian Central Asian Arabic
* Kashkadarian Central Asian Arabic
* Northwest Semitic
* Aramaic
* Neo-Aramaic
* Suret
* Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
* Urmian Judeo-Neo-Aramaic

Tungustic Languages

* Southern Tungustic
* Nanaic
* Nanai
* Uilta
* Ulch
* Northern Tungustic
* Udegheic
* Oroch
* Udege
* Ewenic
* Even
* Evenki
* Negidal
* Kili

Chukotko-Kamchatkan Languages

* Chukotkan
* Chukchi
* Koryak
* Alyutor
* Kerek †
* Kamchatkan
* Itelmen
* Eastern Kamchadal †

Eskaleut Languages

* Aleut
* Eskimoan
* Sirenik †
* Yupik
* Central Siberian Yupik
* Naukan Yupik

Sino-Tibetan Languages

* Sinitic
* Chinese
* Mandarin
* Central Plains Mandarin
* Dungan
* Northeastern Mandarin
* Taz

Dravidian Languages

* Northern
* Brahui

Koreanic Languages

* Korean
* Northern
* Northeast
* Koryo-Mar

Yukaghir Languages

* Tundra Yukaghir
* Forrest Yukaghir

Yeniseian Languages

* Ketic
* Ket

Ainuic Languages

* Kuril Ainu †
* Sakhalin Ainu †

Amuric Languages

* Nivkh Proper
* Nighvng
* East Sakhalin
* South Sakhalin

## Distribution of Russian in 1989

[edit]

The Russian language by ethnic group in the USSR in 1989[7] Ethnic group | Total
(in thousands) | Speakers (in thousands) | Percentage

|
|
|

L1 | L2 | Total | L1 | L2 | Total
Russians | 145,155 | 144,836  | 219 | 145,155 | 99.8 | 0.2 | 100
Non-Russian | 140,587 | 18,743 | 68,791 | 87,533 | 13.3 | 48.9 | 62.3
Ukrainians | 44,186 | 8,309 | 24,820 | 33,128 | 18.8 | 56.2 | 75.0
Uzbeks | 16,698 | 120 | 3,981 | 4,100 | 0.7 | 23.8 | 24.6
Belarusians | 10,036 | 2,862 | 5,487 | 8,349 | 28.5 | 54.7 | 83.2
Kazakhs | 8,136 | 183 | 4,917 | 5,100 | 2.2 | 60.4 | 62.7
Azerbaijanis | 6,770 | 113 | 2,325 | 2,439 | 1.7 | 34.3 | 36.0
Tatars | 6,649 | 1,068 | 4,706 | 5,774 | 16.1 | 70.8 | 86.8
Armenians | 4,623 | 352 | 2,178 | 2,530 | 7.6 | 47.1 | 54.7
Tajiks | 4,215 | 35 | 1,166 | 1,200 | 0.8 | 27.7 | 28.5
Georgians | 3,981 | 66 | 1,316 | 1,382 | 1.7 | 33.1 | 34.7
Moldovans | 3,352 | 249 | 1,805 | 2,054 | 7.4 | 53.8 | 61.3
Lithuanians | 3,067 | 55 | 1,163 | 1,218 | 1.8 | 37.9 | 39.7
Turkmens | 2,729 | 27 | 757 | 783 | 1.0 | 27.7 | 28.7
Kyrgyz | 2,529 | 15 | 890 | 905 | 0.6 | 35.2 | 35.8
Germans | 2,039 | 1,035 | 918 | 1,953 | 50.8 | 45.0 | 95.8
Chuvash | 1,842 | 429 | 1,199 | 1,628 | 23.3 | 65.1 | 88.4
Latvians | 1,459 | 73 | 940 | 1,013 | 5.0 | 64.4 | 69.4
Bashkirs | 1,449 | 162 | 1,041 | 1,203 | 11.2 | 71.8 | 83.0
Jews | 1,378 | 1,194 | 140 | 1,334 | 86.6 | 10.1 | 96.7
Mordvins | 1,154 | 377 | 722 | 1,099 | 32.7 | 62.5 | 95.2
Poles | 1,126 | 323 | 495 | 817 | 28.6 | 43.9 | 72.6
Estonians | 1,027 | 45 | 348 | 393 | 4.4 | 33.9 | 38.2
Others | 12,140 | 1,651 | 7,479 | 9,130 | 13.6 | 61.6 | 75.2
Total | 285,743 | 163,898  | 68,791 | 232,689 | 57.4 | 24.1 | 81.4

## See also

[edit]

* The Languages of the Peoples of the USSR
* Index of Soviet Union-related articles
* Education in the Soviet Union
* Korenizatsiya
* Russification
* Languages of Russia
* Languages of Ukraine
* Languages of Belarus
* Languages of Estonia
* Languages of Moldova
* Languages of Armenia
* Languages of Azerbaijan
* Languages of Kazakhstan
* Languages of Uzbekistan
* Languages of Kyrgyzstan
* Languages of Tajikistan

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Lenin, Vladimir (1972). "Is a Compulsory Official Language Needed?". Lenin Collected Works. Vol. 20\. Moscow: Progress Publishers. pp. 71–73. Retrieved 2020-12-11 - via www.marxists.org.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h Comrie, Bernard (1981). The Languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press.
3. ^ Comrie, B., & Stone, G. (1978). The Russian language since the revolution. Oxford [Eng.]: Clarendon Press.
4. ^ In early 20th century, there had been a discussion over the need to introduce Russian as the official language of Russian Empire. The dominant view among Bolsheviks at that time was that there is no need for state language. See: "Нужен ли обязательный государственный язык?" by Lenin (1914). Staying with the Lenin's view, not state language was declared in the Soviet state.
In 1990 the Russian language was declared as the official language of USSR and the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. See Article 4 of the Law on Languages of Nations of USSR. Archived 2016-05-08 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
5. ^ Bernard Comrie, The Languages of the Soviet Union, page 31, the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1981. ISBN 0-521-23230-9
6. ^ "UNESCO World Atlas of Languages".
7. ^ "All-Soviet Census 1989. Population by ethnic group and language". Demoscope Weekly (in Russian).

## Sources

[edit]

* Bernard Comrie. The Languages of the Soviet Union. CUP 1981\. ISBN 0-521-23230-9 (hb), ISBN 0-521-29877-6 (pb)
* E. Glyn Lewis. Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of Language Policy and Its Implementation. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1971.
* Языки народов СССР. 1967. Москва: Наука 5т.

## Further reading

[edit]

* "Language Policies in Present-Day Central Asia". BIRGIT N. SCHLYTER. Stockholm University. International Journal on Multicultural Societies (IJMS)Vol. 3, No. 2, 2001 "The Human Rights of Linguistic Minorities and Language Policies".
* Glaesser, Gustav. "(The Languages of the peoples of the USSR). Vol. I: Indo-European Languages; Vol. II: Turkic Languages." (1966): 349-352.

## External links

[edit]

* Soviet Language Policy in Central Asia by Mark Dickens

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