Law of sines

Property of all triangles on a Euclidean plane

This article is about the law of sines in trigonometry. For the law of sines in physics, see Snell's law.

Law of Sines

Figure 1, With circumcircle

Figure 2, Without circumcircle

Two triangles labelled with the components of the law of sines. α, β and γ are the angles associated with the vertices at capital A, B, and C, respectively. Lower-case a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite them. (a is opposite α, etc.)

Trigonometry

* Outline
* History
* Usage

* Functions (sin, cos, tan, inverse)
* Generalized trigonometry

Reference

* Identities
* Exact constants
* Tables
* Unit circle

Laws and theorems

* Sines
* Cosines
* Tangents
* Cotangents

* Pythagorean theorem

Calculus

* Trigonometric substitution
* Integrals (inverse functions)
* Derivatives
* Trigonometric series

Mathematicians

* Hipparchus
* Ptolemy
* Brahmagupta
* al-Hasib
* al-Battani
* Regiomontanus
* Viète
* de Moivre
* Euler
* Fourier

* v
* t
* e

In trigonometry, the law of sines, sine law, sine formula, or sine rule is an equation relating the lengths of the sides of any triangle to the sines of its angles. According to the law,  a sin ⁡ α = b sin ⁡ β = c sin ⁡ γ = 2 R , {\displaystyle {\frac {a}{\sin {\alpha }}}\,=\,{\frac {b}{\sin {\beta }}}\,=\,{\frac {c}{\sin {\gamma }}}\,=\,2R,} where a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and α, β, and γ are the opposite angles (see figure 2), while R is the radius of the triangle's circumcircle. When the last part of the equation is not used, the law is sometimes stated using the reciprocals;  sin ⁡ α a = sin ⁡ β b = sin ⁡ γ c . {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin {\alpha }}{a}}\,=\,{\frac {\sin {\beta }}{b}}\,=\,{\frac {\sin {\gamma }}{c}}.} The law of sines can be used to compute the remaining sides of a triangle when two angles and a side are known—a technique known as triangulation. It can also be used when two sides and one of the non-enclosed angles are known. In some such cases, the triangle is not uniquely determined by this data (called the ambiguous case) and the technique gives two possible values for the enclosed angle.

The law of sines is one of two trigonometric equations commonly applied to find lengths and angles in scalene triangles, with the other being the law of cosines.

The law of sines can be generalized to higher dimensions on surfaces with constant curvature.[1]

## History

[edit]

The Persian mathematician Nasir al-Din al-Tusi was the first to state and prove the law of sines, which applies to all plane triangles. He stated:

> In any plane triangle, the ratio of the sides is equal to the ratio of the sines of the angles opposite to those sides. That is, in triangle ABC, we have AB : AC = Sin(∠ACB) : Sin(∠ABC)

By employing the law of sines, al-Tusi could solve triangles where either two angles and a side were known or two sides and an angle opposite one of them were given. For triangles with two sides and the included angle, he divided them into right triangles that he could then solve. When three sides were given, he dropped a perpendicular line and then used Proposition II-13 of Euclid's Elements. Al-Tusi established the important result that if the sum or difference of two arcs is provided along with the ratio of their sines, then the arcs can be calculated.[2]

According to Ubiratàn D'Ambrosio and Helaine Selin, the spherical law of sines was discovered in the 10th century. It is variously attributed to Abu-Mahmud Khojandi, Abu al-Wafa' Buzjani, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Abu Nasr Mansur.[3]

Ibn Muʿādh al-Jayyānī's The book of unknown arcs of a sphere in the 11th century contains the spherical law of sines.[4] The plane law of sines was later stated in the 13th century by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī. In his On the Sector Figure, he stated the law of sines for plane and spherical triangles, and provided proofs for this law.[5]

According to Glen Van Brummelen, "The Law of Sines is really Regiomontanus's foundation for his solutions of right-angled triangles in Book IV, and these solutions are in turn the bases for his solutions of general triangles."[6] Regiomontanus was a 15th-century German mathematician.

## Proof

[edit]

With the side of length a as the base, the triangle's altitude can be computed as b sin γ or as c sin β. Equating these two expressions gives  sin ⁡ β b = sin ⁡ γ c , {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin \beta }{b}}={\frac {\sin \gamma }{c}}\,,} and similar equations arise by choosing the side of length b or the side of length c as the base of the triangle.

## The ambiguous case of triangle solution

[edit]

When using the law of sines to find a side of a triangle, an ambiguous case occurs when two separate triangles can be constructed from the data provided (i.e., there are two different possible solutions to the triangle). In the case shown below they are triangles ABC and ABC′.

Given a general triangle, the following conditions would need to be fulfilled for the case to be ambiguous:

* The only information known about the triangle is the angle α and the sides a and c.
* The angle α is acute (i.e., α < 90°).
* The side a is shorter than the side c (i.e., a < c).
* The side a is longer than the altitude h from angle β, where h = c sin α (i.e., a > h).

If all the above conditions are true, then each of angles β and β′ produces a valid triangle, meaning that both of the following are true:  γ ′ = arcsin ⁡ c sin ⁡ α a or γ = π − arcsin ⁡ c sin ⁡ α a . {\displaystyle {\gamma }'=\arcsin {\frac {c\sin {\alpha }}{a}}\quad {\text{or}}\quad {\gamma }=\pi -\arcsin {\frac {c\sin {\alpha }}{a}}.}

From there we can find the corresponding β and b or β′ and b′ if required, where b is the side bounded by vertices A and C and b′ is bounded by A and C′.

## Examples

[edit]

The following are examples of how to solve a problem using the law of sines.

### Example 1

[edit]

Example 1

Given: side a = 20, side c = 24, and angle γ = 40°. Angle α is desired.

Using the law of sines, we conclude that  sin ⁡ α 20 = sin ⁡ ( 40 ∘ ) 24 . {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin \alpha }{20}}={\frac {\sin(40^{\circ })}{24}}.} α = arcsin ⁡ ( 20 sin ⁡ ( 40 ∘ ) 24 ) ≈ 32.39 ∘ . {\displaystyle \alpha =\arcsin \left({\frac {20\sin(40^{\circ })}{24}}\right)\approx 32.39^{\circ }.}

Note that the potential solution α = 147.61° is excluded because that would necessarily give α \+ β \+ γ > 180°.

### Example 2

[edit]

Example 2

If the lengths of two sides of the triangle a and b are equal to x, the third side has length c, and the angles opposite the sides of lengths a, b, and c are α, β, and γ respectively then  α = β = 180 ∘ − γ 2 = 90 ∘ − γ 2 sin ⁡ α = sin ⁡ β = sin ⁡ ( 90 ∘ − γ 2 ) = cos ⁡ ( γ 2 ) c sin ⁡ γ = a sin ⁡ α = x cos ⁡ ( γ 2 ) c cos ⁡ ( γ 2 ) sin ⁡ γ = x {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\alpha =\beta ={\frac {180^{\circ }-\gamma }{2}}=90^{\circ }-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\\\\[6pt]&\sin \alpha =\sin \beta =\sin \left(90^{\circ }-{\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)=\cos \left({\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)\\\\[6pt]&{\frac {c}{\sin \gamma }}={\frac {a}{\sin \alpha }}={\frac {x}{\cos \left({\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)}}\\\\[6pt]&{\frac {c\cos \left({\frac {\gamma }{2}}\right)}{\sin \gamma }}=x\end{aligned}}}

## Relation to the circumcircle

[edit]

In the identity  a sin ⁡ α = b sin ⁡ β = c sin ⁡ γ , {\displaystyle {\frac {a}{\sin {\alpha }}}={\frac {b}{\sin {\beta }}}={\frac {c}{\sin {\gamma }}},} the common value of the three fractions is actually the diameter of the triangle's circumcircle. This result dates back to Ptolemy.[7][8]

### Proof

[edit]

Deriving the ratio of the sine law equal to the circumscribing diameter. Note that triangle ADB passes through the center of the circumscribing circle with diameter d.

As shown in the figure, let there be a circle with inscribed  △ A B C {\displaystyle \triangle ABC} and another inscribed  △ A D B {\displaystyle \triangle ADB} that passes through the circle's center O. The  ∠ A O D {\displaystyle \angle AOD} has a central angle of  180 ∘ {\displaystyle 180^{\circ }} and thus  ∠ A B D = 90 ∘ {\displaystyle \angle ABD=90^{\circ }} , by Thales's theorem. Since  △ A B D {\displaystyle \triangle ABD} is a right triangle,  sin ⁡ δ = opposite hypotenuse = c 2 R , {\displaystyle \sin {\delta }={\frac {\text{opposite}}{\text{hypotenuse}}}={\frac {c}{2R}},} where  R = d 2 {\textstyle R={\frac {d}{2}}} is the radius of the circumscribing circle of the triangle.[8] Angles  γ {\displaystyle {\gamma }} and  δ {\displaystyle {\delta }} lie on the same circle and subtend the same chord c; thus, by the inscribed angle theorem,  γ = δ {\displaystyle {\gamma }={\delta }} . Therefore,  sin ⁡ δ = sin ⁡ γ = c 2 R . {\displaystyle \sin {\delta }=\sin {\gamma }={\frac {c}{2R}}.}

Rearranging yields  2 R = c sin ⁡ γ . {\displaystyle 2R={\frac {c}{\sin {\gamma }}}.}

Repeating the process of creating  △ A D B {\displaystyle \triangle ADB} with other points gives

a sin ⁡ α = b sin ⁡ β = c sin ⁡ γ = 2 R . {\displaystyle {\frac {a}{\sin {\alpha }}}={\frac {b}{\sin {\beta }}}={\frac {c}{\sin {\gamma }}}=2R.}

### Relationship to the area of the triangle

[edit]

The area of a triangle is given by  T = 1 2 a b sin ⁡ θ {\textstyle T={\frac {1}{2}}ab\sin \theta } , where  θ {\displaystyle \theta } is the angle enclosed by the sides of lengths a and b. Substituting the sine law into this equation gives  T = 1 2 a b ⋅ c 2 R . {\displaystyle T={\frac {1}{2}}ab\cdot {\frac {c}{2R}}.}

Taking  R {\displaystyle R} as the circumscribing radius,[9]

T = a b c 4 R . {\displaystyle T={\frac {abc}{4R}}.}

It can also be shown that this equality implies  a b c 2 T = a b c 2 s ( s − a ) ( s − b ) ( s − c ) = 2 a b c ( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) 2 − 2 ( a 4 + b 4 + c 4 ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {abc}{2T}}&={\frac {abc}{2{\sqrt {s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}}}}\\\\[6pt]&={\frac {2abc}{\sqrt {{(a^{2}+b^{2}+c^{2})}^{2}-2(a^{4}+b^{4}+c^{4})}}},\end{aligned}}} where T is the area of the triangle and s is the semiperimeter s = 1 2 ( a + b + c ) . {\textstyle s={\frac {1}{2}}\left(a+b+c\right).}

The second equality above readily simplifies to Heron's formula for the area.

The sine rule can also be used in deriving the following formula for the triangle's area: denoting the semi-sum of the angles' sines as  S = 1 2 ( sin ⁡ A + sin ⁡ B + sin ⁡ C ) {\textstyle S={\frac {1}{2}}\left(\sin A+\sin B+\sin C\right)} , we have[10]

T = 4 R 2 S ( S − sin ⁡ A ) ( S − sin ⁡ B ) ( S − sin ⁡ C ) {\displaystyle T=4R^{2}{\sqrt {S\left(S-\sin A\right)\left(S-\sin B\right)\left(S-\sin C\right)}}}

where  R {\displaystyle R} is the radius of the circumcircle:  2 R = a sin ⁡ A = b sin ⁡ B = c sin ⁡ C {\displaystyle 2R={\frac {a}{\sin A}}={\frac {b}{\sin B}}={\frac {c}{\sin C}}} .

## The spherical law of sines

[edit]

The spherical law of sines deals with triangles on a sphere, whose sides are arcs of great circles.

Suppose the radius of the sphere is 1\. Let a, b, and c be the lengths of the great-arcs that are the sides of the triangle. Because it is a unit sphere, a, b, and c are the angles at the center of the sphere subtended by those arcs, in radians. Let A, B, and C be the angles opposite those respective sides. These are dihedral angles between the planes of the three great circles.

Then the spherical law of sines says:  sin ⁡ A sin ⁡ a = sin ⁡ B sin ⁡ b = sin ⁡ C sin ⁡ c . {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A}{\sin a}}={\frac {\sin B}{\sin b}}={\frac {\sin C}{\sin c}}.}

### Vector proof

[edit]

Consider a unit sphere with three unit vectors OA, OB and OC drawn from the origin to the vertices of the triangle. Thus the angles α, β, and γ are the angles a, b, and c, respectively. The arc BC subtends an angle of magnitude a at the centre. Introduce a Cartesian basis with OA along the z-axis and OB in the xz-plane making an angle c with the z-axis. The vector OC projects to ON in the xy-plane and the angle between ON and the x-axis is A. Therefore, the three vectors have components:  O A = ( 0 0 1 ) , O B = ( sin ⁡ c 0 cos ⁡ c ) , O C = ( sin ⁡ b cos ⁡ A sin ⁡ b sin ⁡ A cos ⁡ b ) . {\displaystyle \mathbf {OA} ={\begin{pmatrix}0\\\0\\\1\end{pmatrix}},\quad \mathbf {OB} ={\begin{pmatrix}\sin c\\\0\\\\\cos c\end{pmatrix}},\quad \mathbf {OC} ={\begin{pmatrix}\sin b\cos A\\\\\sin b\sin A\\\\\cos b\end{pmatrix}}.}

The scalar triple product, OA ⋅ (OB × OC) is the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the position vectors of the vertices of the spherical triangle OA, OB and OC. This volume is invariant to the specific coordinate system used to represent OA, OB and OC. The value of the scalar triple product OA ⋅ (OB × OC) is the 3 × 3 determinant with OA, OB and OC as its rows. With the z-axis along OA the square of this determinant is  ( O A ⋅ ( O B × O C ) ) 2 = ( det ( O A O B O C ) ) 2 = | 0 0 1 sin ⁡ c 0 cos ⁡ c sin ⁡ b cos ⁡ A sin ⁡ b sin ⁡ A cos ⁡ b | 2 = ( sin ⁡ b sin ⁡ c sin ⁡ A ) 2 . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\bigl (}\mathbf {OA} \cdot (\mathbf {OB} \times \mathbf {OC} ){\bigr )}^{2}&=\left(\det {\begin{pmatrix}\mathbf {OA} &\mathbf {OB} &\mathbf {OC} \end{pmatrix}}\right)^{2}\\\\[4pt]&={\begin{vmatrix}0&0&1\\\\\sin c&0&\cos c\\\\\sin b\cos A&\sin b\sin A&\cos b\end{vmatrix}}^{2}=\left(\sin b\sin c\sin A\right)^{2}.\end{aligned}}} Repeating this calculation with the z-axis along OB gives (sin c sin a sin B)2, while with the z-axis along OC it is (sin a sin b sin C)2. Equating these expressions and dividing throughout by (sin a sin b sin c)2 gives  sin 2 ⁡ A sin 2 ⁡ a = sin 2 ⁡ B sin 2 ⁡ b = sin 2 ⁡ C sin 2 ⁡ c = V 2 sin 2 ⁡ ( a ) sin 2 ⁡ ( b ) sin 2 ⁡ ( c ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin ^{2}A}{\sin ^{2}a}}={\frac {\sin ^{2}B}{\sin ^{2}b}}={\frac {\sin ^{2}C}{\sin ^{2}c}}={\frac {V^{2}}{\sin ^{2}(a)\sin ^{2}(b)\sin ^{2}(c)}},} where V is the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the position vector of the vertices of the spherical triangle. Consequently, the result follows.

It is easy to see how for small spherical triangles, when the radius of the sphere is much greater than the sides of the triangle, this formula becomes the planar formula at the limit, since  lim a -> 0 sin ⁡ a a = 1 {\displaystyle \lim _{a\to 0}{\frac {\sin a}{a}}=1} and the same for sin b and sin c.

### Geometric proof

[edit]

Consider a unit sphere with:  O A = O B = O C = 1 {\displaystyle OA=OB=OC=1}

Construct point  D {\displaystyle D} and point  E {\displaystyle E} such that  ∠ A D O = ∠ A E O = 90 ∘ {\displaystyle \angle ADO=\angle AEO=90^{\circ }}

Construct point  A ′ {\displaystyle A'} such that  ∠ A ′ D O = ∠ A ′ E O = 90 ∘ {\displaystyle \angle A'DO=\angle A'EO=90^{\circ }}

It can therefore be seen that  ∠ A D A ′ = B {\displaystyle \angle ADA'=B} and  ∠ A E A ′ = C {\displaystyle \angle AEA'=C}

Notice that  A ′ {\displaystyle A'} is the projection of  A {\displaystyle A} on plane  O B C {\displaystyle OBC} . Therefore  ∠ A A ′ D = ∠ A A ′ E = 90 ∘ {\displaystyle \angle AA'D=\angle AA'E=90^{\circ }}

By basic trigonometry, we have:  A D = sin ⁡ c A E = sin ⁡ b {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}AD&=\sin c\\\AE&=\sin b\end{aligned}}}

But  A A ′ = A D sin ⁡ B = A E sin ⁡ C {\displaystyle AA'=AD\sin B=AE\sin C}

Combining them we have:  sin ⁡ c sin ⁡ B = sin ⁡ b sin ⁡ C ⇒ sin ⁡ B sin ⁡ b = sin ⁡ C sin ⁡ c {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin c\sin B&=\sin b\sin C\\\\\Rightarrow {\frac {\sin B}{\sin b}}&={\frac {\sin C}{\sin c}}\end{aligned}}}

By applying similar reasoning, we obtain the spherical law of sine:  sin ⁡ A sin ⁡ a = sin ⁡ B sin ⁡ b = sin ⁡ C sin ⁡ c {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A}{\sin a}}={\frac {\sin B}{\sin b}}={\frac {\sin C}{\sin c}}}

See also: Spherical trigonometry, Spherical law of cosines, and Half-side formula

### Other proofs

[edit]

A purely algebraic proof can be constructed from the spherical law of cosines. From the identity  sin 2 ⁡ A = 1 − cos 2 ⁡ A {\displaystyle \sin ^{2}A=1-\cos ^{2}A} and the explicit expression for  cos ⁡ A {\displaystyle \cos A} from the spherical law of cosines  sin 2 A = 1 − ( cos ⁡ a − cos ⁡ b cos ⁡ c sin ⁡ b sin ⁡ c ) 2 = ( 1 − cos 2 b ) ( 1 − cos 2 c ) − ( cos ⁡ a − cos ⁡ b cos ⁡ c ) 2 sin 2 b sin 2 c sin ⁡ A sin ⁡ a = [ 1 − cos 2 a − cos 2 b − cos 2 c + 2 cos ⁡ a cos ⁡ b cos ⁡ c ] 1 / 2 sin ⁡ a sin ⁡ b sin ⁡ c . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin ^{2}\\!A&=1-\left({\frac {\cos a-\cos b\,\cos c}{\sin b\,\sin c}}\right)^{2}\\\&={\frac {\left(1-\cos ^{2}\\!b\right)\left(1-\cos ^{2}\\!c\right)-\left(\cos a-\cos b\,\cos c\right)^{2}}{\sin ^{2}\\!b\,\sin ^{2}\\!c}}\\\\[8pt]{\frac {\sin A}{\sin a}}&={\frac {\left[1-\cos ^{2}\\!a-\cos ^{2}\\!b-\cos ^{2}\\!c+2\cos a\cos b\cos c\right]^{1/2}}{\sin a\sin b\sin c}}.\end{aligned}}} Since the right hand side is invariant under a cyclic permutation of  a , b , c {\displaystyle a,\;b,\;c} the spherical sine rule follows immediately.

The figure used in the Geometric proof above is used by and also provided in Banerjee[11] (see Figure 3 in this paper) to derive the sine law using elementary linear algebra and projection matrices.

## Hyperbolic case

[edit]

In hyperbolic geometry when the curvature is −1, the law of sines becomes  sin ⁡ A sinh ⁡ a = sin ⁡ B sinh ⁡ b = sin ⁡ C sinh ⁡ c . {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A}{\sinh a}}={\frac {\sin B}{\sinh b}}={\frac {\sin C}{\sinh c}}\,.}

In the special case when B is a right angle, one gets  sin ⁡ C = sinh ⁡ c sinh ⁡ b {\displaystyle \sin C={\frac {\sinh c}{\sinh b}}}

which is the analog of the formula in Euclidean geometry expressing the sine of an angle as the opposite side divided by the hypotenuse.

See also: Hyperbolic triangle

## The case of surfaces of constant curvature

[edit]

Define a generalized sine function, depending also on a real parameter  κ {\displaystyle \kappa } :  sin κ ⁡ ( x ) = x − κ 3 ! x 3 + κ 2 5 ! x 5 − κ 3 7 ! x 7 + ⋯ = ∑ n = 0 ∞ ( − 1 ) n κ n ( 2 n + 1 ) ! x 2 n + 1 . {\displaystyle \sin _{\kappa }(x)=x-{\frac {\kappa }{3!}}x^{3}+{\frac {\kappa ^{2}}{5!}}x^{5}-{\frac {\kappa ^{3}}{7!}}x^{7}+\cdots =\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }{\frac {(-1)^{n}\kappa ^{n}}{(2n+1)!}}x^{2n+1}.}

The law of sines in constant curvature  κ {\displaystyle \kappa } reads as[1] sin ⁡ A sin κ ⁡ a = sin ⁡ B sin κ ⁡ b = sin ⁡ C sin κ ⁡ c . {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A}{\sin _{\kappa }a}}={\frac {\sin B}{\sin _{\kappa }b}}={\frac {\sin C}{\sin _{\kappa }c}}\,.}

By substituting  κ = 0 {\displaystyle \kappa =0} ,  κ = 1 {\displaystyle \kappa =1} , and  κ = − 1 {\displaystyle \kappa =-1} , one obtains respectively  sin 0 ⁡ ( x ) = x {\displaystyle \sin _{0}(x)=x} ,  sin 1 ⁡ ( x ) = sin ⁡ x {\displaystyle \sin _{1}(x)=\sin x} , and  sin − 1 ⁡ ( x ) = sinh ⁡ x {\displaystyle \sin _{-1}(x)=\sinh x} , that is, the Euclidean, spherical, and hyperbolic cases of the law of sines described above.[1]

Let  p κ ( r ) {\displaystyle p_{\kappa }(r)} indicate the circumference of a circle of radius  r {\displaystyle r} in a space of constant curvature  κ {\displaystyle \kappa } . Then  p κ ( r ) = 2 π sin κ ⁡ ( r ) {\displaystyle p_{\kappa }(r)=2\pi \sin _{\kappa }(r)} . Therefore, the law of sines can also be expressed as:  sin ⁡ A p κ ( a ) = sin ⁡ B p κ ( b ) = sin ⁡ C p κ ( c ) . {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A}{p_{\kappa }(a)}}={\frac {\sin B}{p_{\kappa }(b)}}={\frac {\sin C}{p_{\kappa }(c)}}\,.}

This formulation was discovered by János Bolyai.[12]

## Higher dimensions

[edit]

A tetrahedron has four triangular facets. The absolute value of the polar sine (psin) of the normal vectors to the three facets that share a vertex of the tetrahedron, divided by the area of the fourth facet will not depend upon the choice of the vertex:[13]

| psin ⁡ ( b , c , d ) | A r e a a = | psin ⁡ ( a , c , d ) | A r e a b = | psin ⁡ ( a , b , d ) | A r e a c = | psin ⁡ ( a , b , c ) | A r e a d = ( 3 V o l u m e t e t r a h e d r o n ) 2 2 A r e a a A r e a b A r e a c A r e a d . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\frac {\left|\operatorname {psin} (\mathbf {b} ,\mathbf {c} ,\mathbf {d} )\right|}{\mathrm {Area} _{a}}}={\frac {\left|\operatorname {psin} (\mathbf {a} ,\mathbf {c} ,\mathbf {d} )\right|}{\mathrm {Area} _{b}}}={\frac {\left|\operatorname {psin} (\mathbf {a} ,\mathbf {b} ,\mathbf {d} )\right|}{\mathrm {Area} _{c}}}={\frac {\left|\operatorname {psin} (\mathbf {a} ,\mathbf {b} ,\mathbf {c} )\right|}{\mathrm {Area} _{d}}}\\\\[4pt]={}&{\frac {(3~\mathrm {Volume} _{\mathrm {tetrahedron} })^{2}}{2~\mathrm {Area} _{a}\mathrm {Area} _{b}\mathrm {Area} _{c}\mathrm {Area} _{d}}}\,.\end{aligned}}}

More generally, for an n-dimensional simplex (i.e., triangle (n = 2), tetrahedron (n = 3), pentatope (n = 4), etc.) in n-dimensional Euclidean space, the absolute value of the polar sine of the normal vectors of the facets that meet at a vertex, divided by the hyperarea of the facet opposite the vertex is independent of the choice of the vertex. Writing V for the hypervolume of the n-dimensional simplex and P for the product of the hyperareas of its (n − 1)-dimensional facets, the common ratio is  | psin ⁡ ( b , … , z ) | A r e a a = ⋯ = | psin ⁡ ( a , … , y ) | A r e a z = ( n V ) n − 1 ( n − 1 ) ! P . {\displaystyle {\frac {\left|\operatorname {psin} (\mathbf {b} ,\ldots ,\mathbf {z} )\right|}{\mathrm {Area} _{a}}}=\cdots ={\frac {\left|\operatorname {psin} (\mathbf {a} ,\ldots ,\mathbf {y} )\right|}{\mathrm {Area} _{z}}}={\frac {(nV)^{n-1}}{(n-1)!P}}.}

## See also

[edit]

* Gersonides – Medieval Jewish philosopher
* Half-side formula - for solving spherical triangles
* Law of cosines
* Law of tangents
* Law of cotangents
* Mollweide's formula - for checking solutions of triangles
* Solution of triangles
* Surveying

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c "Generalized law of sines". mathworld.
2. ^ Katz, Victor J. (2017-03-21). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction. Pearson. p. 315\. ISBN 978-0-13-468952-4.
3. ^ Sesiano just lists al-Wafa as a contributor. Sesiano, Jacques (2000). "Islamic mathematics". In Selin, Helaine; D'Ambrosio, Ubiratan (eds.). Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics. Springer. pp. 137–157. ISBN 1-4020-0260-2.
4. ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Muadh Al-Jayyani", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
5. ^ Berggren, J. Lennart (2007). "Mathematics in Medieval Islam". The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton University Press. p. 518\. ISBN 978-0-691-11485-9.
6. ^ Van Brummelen, Glen (2009). The Mathematics of the Heavens and the Earth: The Early History of Trigonometry. Princeton University Press. p. 259\. ISBN 978-0-691-12973-0.
7. ^ Coxeter, H. S. M. and Greitzer, S. L. Geometry Revisited. Washington, DC: Math. Assoc. Amer., pp. 1–3, 1967
8. ^ a b "Law of Sines". www.pballew.net. Retrieved 2018-09-18.
9. ^ Mr. T's Math Videos (2015-06-10), Area of a Triangle and Radius of its Circumscribed Circle, archived from the original on 2021-12-11, retrieved 2018-09-18
10. ^ Mitchell, Douglas W., "A Heron-type area formula in terms of sines," Mathematical Gazette 93, March 2009, 108–109.
11. ^ Banerjee, Sudipto (2004), "Revisiting Spherical Trigonometry with Orthogonal Projectors" (PDF), The College Mathematics Journal, 35 (5), Mathematical Association of America: 375–381, doi:10.1080/07468342.2004.11922099
12. ^ Katok, Svetlana (1992). Fuchsian groups. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-226-42583-5.
13. ^ Eriksson, Folke (1978). "The law of sines for tetrahedra and n-simplices". Geometriae Dedicata. 7 (1): 71–80. doi:10.1007/bf00181352.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Law of sines.

* "Sine theorem", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
* The Law of Sines at cut-the-knot
* Degree of Curvature
* Finding the Sine of 1 Degree
* Generalized law of sines to higher dimensions

* v
* t
* e

Ancient Greek mathematics

Mathematicians
(timeline)|

* Anaxagoras
* Anthemius
* Archytas
* Aristaeus the Elder
* Aristarchus
* Aristotle
* Apollonius
* Archimedes
* Autolycus
* Bion
* Bryson
* Callippus
* Carpus
* Chrysippus
* Cleomedes
* Conon
* Ctesibius
* Democritus
* Dicaearchus
* Diocles
* Diophantus
* Dinostratus
* Dionysodorus
* Domninus
* Eratosthenes
* Eudemus
* Euclid
* Eudoxus
* Eutocius
* Geminus
* Heliodorus
* Heron
* Hipparchus
* Hippasus
* Hippias
* Hippocrates
* Hypatia
* Hypsicles
* Isidore of Miletus
* Leon
* Marinus
* Menaechmus
* Menelaus
* Metrodorus
* Nicomachus
* Nicomedes
* Nicoteles
* Oenopides
* Pappus
* Perseus
* Philolaus
* Philon
* Philonides
* Plato
* Porphyry
* Posidonius
* Proclus
* Ptolemy
* Pythagoras
* Serenus
* Simplicius
* Sosigenes
* Sporus
* Thales
* Theaetetus
* Theano
* Theodorus
* Theodosius
* Theon of Alexandria
* Theon of Smyrna
* Thymaridas
* Xenocrates
* Zeno of Elea
* Zeno of Sidon
* Zenodorus

Treatises|

* Almagest
* Archimedes Palimpsest
* Arithmetica
* Conics (Apollonius)
* Catoptrics
* Data (Euclid)
* Elements (Euclid)
* Measurement of a Circle
* On Conoids and Spheroids
* On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)
* On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)
* On the Moving Sphere (Autolycus)
* Optics (Euclid)
* On Spirals
* On the Sphere and Cylinder
* Ostomachion
* Planisphaerium
* Spherics (Theodosius)
* Spherics (Menelaus)
* The Quadrature of the Parabola
* The Sand Reckoner

Problems|

* Constructible numbers
* Angle trisection
* Doubling the cube
* Squaring the circle
* Problem of Apollonius

Concepts
and definitions|

* Angle
* Central
* Inscribed
* Axiomatic system
* Axiom
* Chord
* Circles of Apollonius
* Apollonian circles
* Apollonian gasket
* Circumscribed circle
* Commensurability
* Diophantine equation
* Doctrine of proportionality
* Euclidean geometry
* Golden ratio
* Greek numerals
* Incircle and excircles of a triangle
* Method of exhaustion
* Parallel postulate
* Platonic solid
* Lune of Hippocrates
* Quadratrix of Hippias
* Regular polygon
* Straightedge and compass construction
* Triangle center

Results|

| In Elements|

* Angle bisector theorem
* Exterior angle theorem
* Euclidean algorithm
* Euclid's theorem
* Geometric mean theorem
* Greek geometric algebra
* Hinge theorem
* Inscribed angle theorem
* Intercept theorem
* Intersecting chords theorem
* Intersecting secants theorem
* Law of cosines
* Pons asinorum
* Pythagorean theorem
* Tangent-secant theorem
* Thales's theorem
* Theorem of the gnomon

|

Apollonius|

* Apollonius's theorem

Other|

* Aristarchus's inequality
* Crossbar theorem
* Heron's formula
* Irrational numbers
* Law of sines
* Menelaus's theorem
* Pappus's area theorem
* Problem II.8 of Arithmetica
* Ptolemy's inequality
* Ptolemy's table of chords
* Ptolemy's theorem
* Spiral of Theodorus

Centers|

* Cyrene
* Mouseion of Alexandria
* Platonic Academy

Related|

* Ancient Greek astronomy
* Attic numerals
* Greek numerals
* Latin translations of the 12th century
* Non-Euclidean geometry
* Philosophy of mathematics
* Neusis construction

History of|

* A History of Greek Mathematics
* by Thomas Heath
* algebra
* timeline
* arithmetic
* timeline
* calculus
* timeline
* geometry
* timeline
* logic
* timeline
* mathematics
* timeline
* numbers
* prehistoric counting
* numeral systems
* list

Other cultures|

* Arabian/Islamic
* Babylonian
* Chinese
* Egyptian
* Incan
* Indian
* Japanese

Ancient Greece portal • Mathematics portal
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template