Lend-Lease

WWII program to provide U.S. allies with free armaments

This article is about the World War II program. For the Australian company, see Lendlease. For the Act of Congress in 2022, see Ukraine Democracy Defense Lend-Lease Act of 2022.

Lend-Lease Act

Other short titles| An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States
Long title| An Act further to promote the defense of the United States, and for other purposes.
Nicknames| Lend-Lease
Enacted by| the 77th United States Congress
Effective| March 11, 1941
Citations
Public law| Pub. L. 77–11
Statutes at Large| 55 Stat. 31
Legislative history

* Introduced in the House as H.R. 1776 by John W. McCormack (D–MA) on January 10, 1941
* Committee consideration by House Committee on Foreign Affairs
* Passed the House on February 8, 1941 (260–135)
* Passed the Senate on March 8, 1941 (60–31)
* Signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 11, 1941

President Roosevelt signs the Lend-Lease bill to give aid to Britain and China (March 1941). House of Representatives bill # 1776, p.1

Lend-Lease, formally the Lend-Lease Act and introduced as An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States (Pub. L. 77–11, H.R. 1776, 55 Stat. 31, enacted March 11, 1941),[1][2] was a policy under which the United States supplied the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, France, the Republic of China, and other Allied nations of the Second World War with food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and 1945. The aid was given free of charge on the basis that such help was essential for the defense of the United States.[2]

The Lend-Lease Act was signed into law on March 11, 1941, and ended on September 20, 1945. A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $672 billion in 2023 when accounting for inflation) worth of supplies was shipped, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.[3] In all, $31.4 billion went to the United Kingdom, $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion to France, $1.6 billion to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to other Allies. Roosevelt's top foreign policy advisor Harry Hopkins had effective control over Lend-Lease, making sure it was in alignment with Roosevelt's foreign policy goals.[4]

Materiel delivered under the act was supplied at no cost, to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice, most equipment was destroyed, although some hardware (such as ships) was returned after the war. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to the United Kingdom at a large discount for £1.075 billion, using long-term loans from the United States, which were finally repaid in 2006. Similarly, the Soviet Union repaid $722 million in 1971, with the remainder of the debt written off.

Reverse Lend-Lease to the United States totalled $7.8 billion. Of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth. Canada also aided the United Kingdom and other Allies with the Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid totalling $3.4 billion in supplies and services (equivalent to $61 billion in 2020).[5][6]

Lend-Lease ended the United States' neutrality which had been enshrined in the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s. It was a decisive step away from non-interventionist policy and toward open support for the Allies. Lend-Lease's precise significance to Allied victory in World War II is debated. Khrushchev claimed that Stalin told him that Lend-Lease enabled the Soviet Union to defeat Germany.[7]

## History

[edit]

### Non-interventionism and neutrality

[edit]

British pupils wave for the camera as they receive plates of American bacon and eggs from Lend-Lease

The 1930s began with one of the world's greatest economic depressions, and the later recession of 1937–1938 (although minor relative to the Great Depression) was otherwise also one of the worst of the 20th century. In 1934, following the Nye Committee[nb 1] hearings, as well as the publication of influential books such as Merchants of Death, the United States Congress adopted several Neutrality Acts in the 1930s, motivated by non-interventionism—following the aftermath of its costly involvement in World War I (the war debts were still not paid off), and seeking to ensure that the country would not become entangled in foreign conflicts again. The Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937 intended to keep the United States out of war by making it illegal for Americans to sell or transport arms or other war materials to warring nations, be they aggressors or defenders.[8]

### Cash and carry

[edit]

Main article: Cash and carry (World War II)

In 1939, however—as Germany, Japan, and Italy pursued aggressive, militaristic policies—President Roosevelt wanted more flexibility to help contain Axis aggression. He suggested amending the act to allow warring nations to purchase military goods, arms and munitions if they paid cash and bore the risks of transporting the goods on non-American ships, a policy that would favor Britain and France. Initially, this proposal failed, but after Germany and the Soviet Union invaded Poland in September, Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939 ending the munitions embargo on a "cash and carry" basis. The passage of the 1939 amendment to the previous Neutrality Acts marked the beginning of a congressional shift away from isolationism, making a first step toward interventionism.[8]

After the Fall of France during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only forces engaged in war against Germany and Italy, until the Italian invasion of Greece. Britain had been paying for its materiel with gold as part of the "cash and carry" program, as required by the U.S. Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, but by 1941 it had liquidated a large part of its overseas holdings and its gold reserves were becoming depleted in paying for materiel from the United States.[9]

During this same period, the U.S. government began to mobilize for total war, instituting the first-ever peacetime draft and a fivefold increase in the defense budget (from $2 billion to $10 billion).[10] The Two-Ocean Navy Act of July 1940 set in motion a rapid expansion of the United States Navy. In the meantime, Great Britain was running out of liquid currency and asked not to be forced to sell off British assets. Hampered by public opinion and the Neutrality Acts, which forbade arms sales on credit or the lending of money to belligerent nations, Roosevelt eventually came up with the idea of "lend–lease". As one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it: "If there was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, and the overwhelming majority of Americans, led in the late election by their president, wished to help them."[11] As the President himself put it, "There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs."[12]

In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain the British government sent the Tizard Mission to the United States.[13] The aim of the British Technical and Scientific Mission was to obtain the industrial resources to exploit the military potential of the research and development work completed by the UK up to the beginning of World War II, but that Britain itself could not exploit due to the immediate requirements of war-related production. The British shared technology included the cavity magnetron (key technology at the time for highly effective radar; the American historian James Phinney Baxter III later called "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores"),[14][15] the design for the VT fuze, details of Frank Whittle's jet engine and the Frisch–Peierls memorandum describing the feasibility of an atomic bomb.[16] Though these may be considered the most significant, many other items were also transported, including designs for rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection devices, self-sealing fuel tanks and plastic explosives.

On December 7, 1940, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed Roosevelt in a 15-page letter for American help.[nb 2][17] In his December 29, 1940 Fireside Chat radio broadcast, President Roosevelt proclaimed the United States would be the "Arsenal of Democracy" and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada.[12] Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would result in American involvement with what was considered by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to consider the advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying free of the hostilities themselves.[18] Propaganda showing the devastation of British cities during The Blitz, as well as popular depictions of Germans as savage also rallied public opinion to the Allies, especially after Germany conquered France.

### Lend-Lease proposal

[edit]

After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that the change to Allied support must be gradual, given the support for isolationism in the country. Originally, the American policy was to help the British but not join the war. During early February 1941, a Gallup poll revealed that 54% of Americans were in favor of giving aid to the British without qualifications of Lend-Lease. A further 15% were in favor of qualifications such as: "If it doesn't get us into war", or "If the British can give us some security for what we give them". Only 22% were unequivocally against the President's proposal. When poll participants were asked their party affiliation, the poll revealed a political divide: 69% of Democrats were unequivocally in favor of Lend-Lease, whereas only 38% of Republicans favored the bill without qualification. At least one poll spokesperson also noted that "approximately twice as many Republicans" gave "qualified answers as ... Democrats".[19]

Opposition to the Lend-Lease bill was strongest among isolationist Republicans in Congress, who feared the measure would be "the longest single step this nation has yet taken toward direct involvement in the war abroad". When the House of Representatives finally took a roll call vote on February 8, 1941, the 260 to 165 vote was largely along party lines. Democrats voted 236 to 25 in favor and Republicans 24 in favor and 135 against.[20]

The vote in the Senate, which occurred on March 8, revealed a similar partisan difference: 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye" with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) voting "nay". In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "nay" while 10 Senate Republicans (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill.[21]

President Roosevelt signed the Lend-Lease bill into law on March 11, 1941. It permitted him to "sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government [whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States] any defense article." In April, this policy was extended to China,[22] and in October to the Soviet Union, which was attacked by Germany on 22 June 1941. Roosevelt approved $1 billion in Lend-Lease aid to Britain at the end of October 1941.

This followed the 1940 Destroyers for Bases Agreement, whereby 50 US Navy destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also granted the US base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland for free; this act allowed their British garrison to be redeployed to more crucial theatres. In 1944, Britain transferred several of the US-made destroyers to the USSR.[23]

After the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States entering the war in December 1941, foreign policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend-Lease spending. In spring 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend-Lease program by a vote of 334 to 21. The Senate passed it by a vote of 63 to 1.[24]

### Multilateral Allied support

[edit]

In February 1942, the U.S. and Britain signed the Anglo-American Mutual Aid Agreement[25] as part of a greater multilateral system, developed by the Allies during the war, to provide each other with goods, services, and mutual aid in the widest sense, without charging commercial payments.[26]

## Scale, value and economics

[edit]

Further information: Military production during World War II

Ratio of gross domestic product between Allied and Axis powers, 1938–1945 Value of materials supplied by the U.S. to its Allied nations[27] No.  | Country  | Continent  | Millions of
US dollars

|
|
|

1  |  British Empire | Europe  | 31,387.1
2  |  Soviet Union | Europe  | 10,982.1
3  |  Free France | Europe  | 3,223.9
4  |  China | Asia  | 1,627.0
5  |  Brazil | Americas  | 372.0
6  |  Netherlands | Europe  | 251.1
7  |  Belgium | Europe  | 159.5
8  |  Greece | Europe  | 81.5
9  |  Norway | Europe  | 47.0
10  |  Turkey | Asia  | 42.9
11  |  Mexico | Americas  | 39.2
12  |  Kingdom of Yugoslavia | Europe  | 32.2
13  |  Chile | Americas  | 21.6
14  |  Saudi Arabia | Asia  | 19.0
15  |  Peru | Americas  | 18.9
16  |  Poland | Europe  | 12.5
17  |  Liberia | Africa  | 11.6
18  |  Colombia | Americas  | 8.3
19  |  Ecuador | Americas  | 7.8
20  |  Uruguay | Americas  | 7.1
21  |  Cuba | Americas  | 6.6
22  |  Bolivia | Americas  | 5.5
23  |  Iran | Asia  | 5.3
24  |  Ethiopian Empire | Africa  | 5.3
25  |  Venezuela | Americas  | 4.5
26  |  Iceland | Europe  | 4.4
27  |  Guatemala | Americas  | 2.6
28  |  Paraguay | Americas  | 2.0
29  |  Dominican Republic | Americas  | 1.6
30  |  Haiti | Americas  | 1.4
31  |  Kingdom of Iraq | Asia  | 0.9
32  |  Nicaragua | Americas  | 0.9
33  |  El Salvador | Americas  | 0.9
34  |  Czechoslovakia | Europe  | 0.6
35  |  Honduras | Americas  | 0.4
36  |  Costa Rica | Americas  | 0.2
Total  | World | 48,395.4

A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $672 billion in 2023)[28] was involved, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.[3] Most, $31.4 billion ($421 billion), went to Britain and its empire.[29] Other recipients were led by $11.3 billion ($152 billion) to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion ($42.9 billion) to France, $1.6 billion ($21.5 billion) to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to the other Allies. Reverse lend-lease policies comprised services such as rent on bases used by the U.S., and totaled $7.8 billion; of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth, mostly Australia and India.

The terms of the agreement provided that the U.S. materiel was to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice, very little equipment was in usable shape for peacetime uses. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to Britain at a large discount for £1.075 billion, using long-term loans from the United States. Canada was not a direct recipient of Lend-Lease aid. To address balance of payment issues between the US and Canada, and to prevent the US monopolizing British orders, the Hyde Park Declaration of 20 April 1941[30] made weapons and components manufactured in Canada for Britain eligible for Lend-Lease financing as if they had been manufactured in the US.[31] Canada operated a program similar to Lend-Lease called Mutual Aid that sent a loan of C$1 billion (equivalent to C$17.1 billion in 2023)[32] and C$3.4 billion (C$58.1 billion) in supplies and services to Britain and other Allies.[5][6]

### Administration

[edit]

Roosevelt made sure that Lend-Lease policies were supportive of his foreign policy goals by putting his top aide Harry Hopkins in effective control of the program.[4] In terms of administration, the president established the Office of Lend-Lease Administration during 1941, headed by steel executive Edward R. Stettinius.[33] In September 1943, he was promoted to Undersecretary of State, and Leo Crowley became director of the Foreign Economic Administration, which was given responsibility for Lend-Lease.

Lend-Lease aid to the USSR was nominally managed by Stettinius. Roosevelt's Soviet Protocol Committee was dominated by Harry Hopkins and General John York, who were totally sympathetic to the provision of "unconditional aid". Few Americans objected to Soviet aid until 1943.[34]

The program was gradually terminated after V-E Day. In April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and in August 1945, after Japan surrendered, the program was ended.[35]

## Significance of Lend-Lease

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This section needs expansion with: more info on lent arms, resources, and aid to countries other than the USSR. You can help by adding to it. (February 2025)

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Even after the United States forces in Europe and the Pacific began to attain full strength during 1943–1944, Lend-Lease continued. Most remaining Allies were largely self-sufficient in frontline equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) by this time - though arms shipments continued - but Lend-Lease logistical supplies (including motor vehicles and railroad equipment) remained of enormous assistance.[36] WWII was the first major war in which whole formations were routinely motorized; soldiers were supported with large numbers of all kinds of vehicles, not just for direct combat roles, but for transport and logistics as well.[37] In spite of this, belligerent powers massively decreased production of non-lethal materiel to focus on weapons production; this inevitably produced shortages of products required for industrial or logistical uses, particularly unarmored vehicles. Thus, the Allies were almost totally reliant on American industrial production for unarmored vehicles, including ones purpose-built for military use.[37]

For example, the USSR was very dependent on rail transport, and starting during the latter half of the 1920s[38] but accelerating during the 1930s, hundreds of foreign industrial giants such as Ford were commissioned to construct modern dual-purpose factories in the USSR, 16 alone within a week of May 31, 1929.[39] However, with the outbreak of war these plants switched from civilian to military production, and locomotive production dropped dramatically. Just 446 locomotives were produced during the war,[40] with only 92 of those being built between 1942 and 1945.[41] In total, 92.7% of the wartime procurement of railroad equipment by the USSR came from Lend-Lease,[36] including 1,911 locomotives and 11,225 railcars.[42] Trucks were also vital; by 1945, nearly a third of the trucks used by the Red Army were U.S.-built. Trucks such as the Dodge 3⁄4-ton and Studebaker 2+1⁄2-ton were easily the best trucks available in their class on either side on the Eastern Front. American shipments of telephone cable, aluminum, canned rations and clothing were also critical.[43]

Lend-Lease also supplied significant amounts of weapons and ammunition. The Soviet air force received 18,200 aircraft, which amounted to about 30 percent of Soviet wartime fighter and bomber production over the course of the war.[36] Most tank units were Soviet-built models but about 7,000 Lend-Lease tanks (plus more than 5,000 British tanks) were used by the Red Army, eight percent of war-time production.

A critical aspect of Lend-Lease was the supply of food. The invasion had cost the USSR a huge amount of its agricultural base; during the initial Axis offensive of 1941–42,[specify] the total sown area of the USSR fell by 41.9% and the number of collective and state farms by 40%. The Soviets lost a substantial number of draft and farm animals as they were not able to relocate all the animals in an area before it was captured and of those areas in which the Axis forces would occupy, the Soviets had lost 7 million of out of 11.6 million horses, 17 million out of 31 million cows, 20 million of 23.6 million pigs and 27 million out of 43 million sheep and goats. Tens of thousands of agricultural machines, such as tractors and threshers, were destroyed or captured. Agriculture also suffered a loss of labour; between 1941 and 1945, 19.5 million working-age men had to leave their farms to work in the military and industry. Agricultural issues were also compounded when the Soviets were on the offensive, as areas liberated from the Axis had been devastated and contained millions of people who needed to be fed. Lend-Lease thus provided a massive quantity of foodstuffs and agricultural products.[clarification needed][44]

According to the Russian historian Boris Vadimovich Sokolov, Lend-Lease had a crucial role in winning the war:

> On the whole the following conclusion can be drawn: that without these Western shipments under Lend-Lease the Soviet Union not only would not have been able to win the Great Patriotic War, it would not have been able even to oppose the German invaders, since it could not itself produce sufficient quantities of arms and military equipment or adequate supplies of fuel and ammunition. The Soviet authorities were well aware of this dependency on Lend-Lease. Thus, Stalin told Harry Hopkins [FDR's emissary to Moscow in July 1941] that the U.S.S.R. could not match Germany's might as an occupier of Europe and its resources.[36]

Nikita Khrushchev, having served as a military commissar and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, addressed directly the significance of Lend-lease aid in his memoirs:

> I would like to express my candid opinion about Stalin's views on whether the Red Army and the Soviet Union could have coped with Nazi Germany and survived the war without aid from the United States and Britain. First, I would like to tell about some remarks Stalin made and repeated several times when we were "discussing freely" among ourselves. He stated bluntly that if the United States had not helped us, we would not have won the war. If we had had to fight Nazi Germany one on one, we could not have stood up against Germany's pressure, and we would have lost the war. No one ever discussed this subject officially, and I don't think Stalin left any written evidence of his opinion, but I will state here that several times in conversations with me he noted that these were the actual circumstances. He never made a special point of holding a conversation on the subject, but when we were engaged in some kind of relaxed conversation, going over international questions of the past and present, and when we would return to the subject of the path we had traveled during the war, that is what he said. When I listened to his remarks, I was fully in agreement with him, and today I am even more so.[7]

In a confidential interview with the wartime correspondent Konstantin Simonov, the Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov was secretly recorded by the KGB saying:

> Today [1963] some say the Allies didn't really help us ... But listen, one cannot deny that the Americans shipped over to us material without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war.[45]

David Glantz, an American military historian known for his books on the Eastern front, offers a somewhat different view, but still emphasized the significance of Lend-Lease:

> Although Soviet accounts have routinely belittled the significance of Lend-Lease in the sustainment of the Soviet war effort, the overall importance of the assistance cannot be understated. Lend-Lease aid did not arrive in sufficient quantities to make the difference between defeat and victory in 1941–1942; that achievement must be attributed solely to the Soviet people and to the iron nerve of Stalin, Zhukov, Shaposhnikov, Vasilevsky, and their subordinates. As the war continued, however, the United States and Great Britain provided many of the implements of war and strategic raw materials necessary for Soviet victory. Without Lend-Lease food, clothing, and raw materials (especially metals), the Soviet economy would have been even more heavily burdened by the war effort. Perhaps most directly, without Lend-Lease trucks, rail engines, and railroad cars, every Soviet offensive would have stalled at an earlier stage, outrunning its logistical tail in a matter of days. In turn, this would have allowed the German commanders to escape at least some encirclements, while forcing the Red Army to prepare and conduct many more deliberate penetration attacks in order to advance the same distance. Left to their own devices, Stalin and his commanders might have taken twelve to eighteen months longer to finish off the Wehrmacht; the ultimate result would probably have been the same, except that Soviet soldiers could have waded at France's Atlantic beaches.[46]

## Returning goods after the war

[edit]

Roosevelt, eager to ensure public consent for this controversial plan, explained to the public and the press that his plan was comparable to lending a garden hose to a neighbor whose house is on fire. "What do I do in such a crisis?" the president asked at a press conference. "I don't say ... 'Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it' ... I don't want $15—I want my garden hose back after the fire is over."[47] To which Senator Robert Taft (R-Ohio), responded: "Lending war equipment is a good deal like lending chewing gum—you certainly don't want the same gum back."

In practice, very little was returned except for a few unarmed transport ships. Surplus military equipment was of no value in peacetime. The Lend-Lease agreements with 30 countries provided for repayment not in terms of money or returned goods, but in "joint action directed towards the creation of a liberalized international economic order in the postwar world." That is, the U.S. would be "repaid" when the recipient fought the common enemy and joined the world trade and diplomatic agencies, such as the United Nations.[48]

## Deliveries to the Soviet Union

[edit]

### United States

[edit]

Allied shipments to the Soviet Union[49] Year  | Amount
(tons)  | %

|
|

1941  | 360,778  | 2.1
1942  | 2,453,097  | 14
1943  | 4,794,545  | 27.4
1944  | 6,217,622  | 35.5
1945  | 3,673,819  | 21
Total | 17,499,861 | 100
Moscow Mission Patch

If Germany defeated the Soviet Union, the most significant front in Europe would be closed. Roosevelt believed that if the Soviets were defeated the Allies would be far more likely to lose. Roosevelt concluded that the United States needed to help the Soviets fight against the Germans.[50] Because of its utmost importance, Roosevelt directed his subordinates to heavily prioritise shipments of aid to the Soviet Union above most other uses of available shipping.[51] Soviet Ambassador Maxim Litvinov significantly contributed to the Lend-Lease agreement of 1941. In the fall of 1941, the US Army set up the United States Military Mission to Moscow to help the flow of Lend-Lease material into Russia.[52] In 1943, Major General John R. Dean would be named the commander of the Moscow Mission and to brief Joseph Stalin on Operation Overlord. American deliveries to the Soviet Union can be divided into the following phases:

* "Pre Lend-lease" June 22, 1941, to September 30, 1941 (paid for in gold and other minerals)
* First protocol period from October 1, 1941, to June 30, 1942 (signed October 7, 1941),[53] these supplies were to be manufactured and delivered by the UK with US credit financing.
* Second protocol period from July 1, 1942, to June 30, 1943 (signed October 6, 1942)
* Third protocol period from July 1, 1943, to June 30, 1944 (signed October 19, 1943)
* Fourth protocol period from July 1, 1944 (signed April 17, 1945), formally ended May 12, 1945, but deliveries continued for the duration of the war with Japan (which the Soviet Union entered on August 8, 1945) under the "Milepost" agreement until September 2, 1945, when Japan capitulated. On September 20, 1945, all Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union was terminated.

Women at the Kroger grocery and baking company in Cincinnati prepare canned pork for shipment to the USSR, June 1943

Delivery was via the Arctic Convoys, the Persian Corridor, and the Pacific Route. The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route for lend-lease aid to the USSR, though it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing past German-occupied Norway. Some 3,964,000 tons of goods were shipped by the Arctic route; 7% was lost, while 93% arrived safely.[54]

The Persian Corridor was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. Thereafter it saw the passage of 4,160,000 tons of goods, 27% of the total.[54]

The Pacific Route opened in August 1941, but was affected by the start of hostilities between Japan and the U.S.; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the USSR observed a strict neutrality towards each other, only non-military goods could be transported.[55] Nevertheless, some 8,244,000 tons of goods went by this route, 50% of the total.[54]

In total, the U.S. deliveries to the USSR through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 billion in materials (equivalent to $148 billion in 2023):[56] over 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386[57] of which were M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans);[58] 11,400 aircraft (of which 4,719 were Bell P-39 Airacobras, 3,414 were Douglas A-20 Havocs and 2,397 were Bell P-63 Kingcobras)[59] and 1.75 million tons of food.[60]

Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.[61][62]

In the first weeks and months of the German–Soviet war, the USSR lost a huge number of military aircraft. Some of them were lost at airfields in the first days of the fighting, some were abandoned for various reasons, and some were lost in air battles. The losses of Soviet aviation in 1941 is one of the most controversial topics for military historians and publicists. The situation was aggravated by the loss of many aircraft factories that produced aircraft and components for them, which remained in the territory occupied by the Germans. Some of the factories were hastily evacuated to the east of the country, but it took time to resume production and reach its maximum capacity. In December 1941, all aircraft factories of the Soviet Union produced only 600 aircraft of all types. This was the reason that the supply of aircraft, primarily fighters and bombers, became the main topic in the negotiations between the top leadership of the USSR, Great Britain and the United States. The vast majority of the total number of aircraft received by the USSR under the Lend-Lease program was made up of British Spitfire and Hurricane fighters, American P-39 Airacobra, P-40 fighters, known in Russia under the names "Tomahawk" and "Kittyhawk", P-63 Kingcobra, American bombers A-20 Havoc, B-25 Mitchell. A significant amount of C-47 Skytrain transport aircraft and PBY Catalina flying boats were also delivered.[63] For the needs of the Soviet Navy, 2,141 aircraft were delivered to the USSR.[64] Not all of the delivered aircraft could be fully called modern models. But even those that could be called obsolete (the English Hurricane and the American Tomahawk) were more advanced and superior in most characteristics than the I-153 and I-16 aircraft that made up the basis of Soviet fighter aviation in the most difficult first months of the war. The superiority in high-altitude characteristics of American and British aircraft, powerful armament and the provision of communications ensured their use in the air defense forces – out of 10 thousand aircraft received by the USSR during the war, 7 thousand were from received via Lend-Lease.[63]

From October 1, 1941, to May 31, 1945, the United States delivered to the Soviet Union 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (gasoline and oil) or 57.8 percent of the aviation fuel including nearly 90 percent of high-octane fuel used,[36] 4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (canned meats, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tank cars, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) provided amounted to 53 percent of total domestic consumption.[36] One item typical of many was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford Company's River Rouge Plant and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about $11.3 billion.[65][66] Unlike the other allies, the Soviets believed these supplies to be gifts to their war effort and even items that were to be returned to the US after the war, such as ships, were sent back as completely stripped hulls.[52]

* Warsaw 1945: Willys jeep used by the Polish First Army as part of U.S. Lend-Lease program

* The Lend-Lease Memorial in Fairbanks, Alaska, commemorates the shipment of U.S. aircraft to the Soviet Union along the Northwest Staging Route

* BM-13N Katyusha on a Lend-Lease Studebaker US6 truck, at the UMMC Museum Complex, Verkhnyaya Pyshma, Russia

### Great Britain

[edit]

Poster advertising British aid to the Soviet war effort

On 12 July 1941, within weeks of the German invasion of the USSR, the Anglo-Soviet Agreement was signed and the first British aid convoy set off along the dangerous Arctic Sea route to Murmansk, arriving in September. It carried 40 Hawker Hurricanes along with 550 mechanics and pilots of No. 151 Wing in Operation Benedict, to provide air defence of the port and to train Soviet pilots. The convoy was the first of many convoys to Murmansk and Archangelsk in what became known as the Arctic convoys, the returning ships carried the gold that the USSR was using to pay the US.[67]

By the end of 1941, early shipments of Matilda, Valentine and Tetrarch tanks represented only 6.5% of total Soviet tank production but over 25% of medium and heavy tanks produced for the Red Army.[68][69] The British tanks first saw action with the 138 Independent Tank Battalion in the Volga Reservoir on November 20, 1941.[70] Lend-Lease tanks constituted 30 to 40 percent of heavy and medium tank strength before Moscow at the beginning of December 1941.[71][72]

Significant numbers of British Churchill, Matilda and Valentine tanks were shipped to the USSR.[73]

Between June 1941 and May 1945, Britain delivered to the USSR:

* 7,411 aircraft (>3,000 Hurricanes and >4,000 other aircraft)
* 28 naval vessels:
* 1 Battleship. (HMS Royal Sovereign)
* 9 Destroyers.
* 4 Submarines.
* 5 Motor mine-sweepers.
* 9 Mine-sweeping trawlers.
* 5,218 tanks (including 1,388 Valentines from Canada)
* >5,000 anti-tank guns
* 1,000 P.I.A.T's
* 636 2-Pdr's
* 96 6-Pdr's
* 3,200 Boys anti-tank rifles
* 4,020 ambulances and trucks
* 323 machinery trucks (mobile vehicle workshops equipped with generators and all the welding and power tools required to perform heavy servicing)
* 1,212 Universal Carriers and Loyd Carriers (with another 1,348 from Canada)
* 1,721 motorcycles
* £1.15bn ($1.55bn) worth of aircraft engines
* 1,474 radar sets
* 4,338 radio sets
* 600 naval radar and sonar sets
* Hundreds of naval guns
* 15 million pairs of boots

In total 4 million tonnes of war material including food and medical supplies were delivered. The munitions totaled £308m (not including naval munitions supplied), the food and raw materials totaled £120m in 1946 index. In accordance with the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement of June 27, 1942, military aid sent from Britain to the Soviet Union during the war was entirely free of charge.[74][75]

Some of the 3,000 Hurricanes given to Soviets were broken up & buried after the war to avoid paying US back under the Lend-Lease legislation.[76] In 2023 eight broken up planes were found buried together in a forest south of Kyiv and were excavated in an archaeological dig by the State Aviation Museum of Ukraine.[77]

* The Red Army in Bucharest near Boulevard of Carol I. with British-supplied Universal Carrier

* A Valentine tank destined for the Soviet Union leaves a factory in Britain

* British Mk III 'Valentine' destroyed in the Soviet Union, January 1944

## Reverse Lend-Lease

[edit]

USSR exports to USA: Reverse Lend-Lease[78] Chrome ore  | Manganese ore  | Platinum

|
|

429,138 ton  | 204,386 ton  | 301,469 oz

Reverse Lend-Lease was the supply of equipment and services to the United States. Nearly $8 billion (equivalent to $124 billion today) worth of war material was provided to U.S. forces by its allies, 90% of this sum coming from the British Empire.[79] Reciprocal contributions included the Austin K2/Y military ambulance, British aviation spark plugs used in B-17 Flying Fortresses,[79] Canadian-made Fairmile launches used in anti-submarine warfare, Mosquito photo-reconnaissance aircraft, and Indian petroleum products.[80] Australia and New Zealand supplied the bulk of foodstuffs to United States forces in the South Pacific.[79][81]

Though diminutive in comparison, the Soviet Union supplied the United States with chrome and manganese ore, platinum, gold and wood.[78]

In a November 1943 report to Congress, President Roosevelt said of Allied participation in reverse Lend-lease:

> ... the expenditures made by the British Commonwealth of Nations for reverse lend-lease aid furnished to the United States, and of the expansion of this program so as to include exports of materials and foodstuffs for the account of United States agencies from the United Kingdom and the British colonies, emphasizes the contribution which the British Commonwealth has made to the defense of the United States while taking its place on the battle fronts. It is an indication of the extent to which the British have been able to pool their resources with ours so that the needed weapon may be in the hands of that soldier—whatever may be his nationality—who can at the proper moment use it most effectively to defeat our common enemies.[80]

While in April 1944 Congress were briefed by the Foreign Economic Administrator, Leo T Crowley:

> Just as the RAF's operations against Germany and the invasion coasts would not have been possible on their present scale without lend-lease so the United States Eighth and Ninth air forces daylight missions from Britain would not have been possible without reverse lend-lease. Our Fortresses and Liberators take off from huge air bases built, equipped and serviced under reverse lend-lease at a cost to them of hundreds of millions of dollars. Many of our pilots fly Spitfires built in England, many more are flying American fighter planes powered by British Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, turned over to us by the British. And many of the supplies needed by our Air Force are procured for us without cost by reverse lend-lease. In fact our armed forces in Britain, ground as well as air, receive as reverse lend-lease, with no payment by us, one third of all the supplies and equipment they currently require, Britain furnishes 90% of their medical supplies and in spite of her food shortage, 20% of their food.[82]

In 1945–46, the value of Reciprocal Aid from New Zealand exceeded that of Lend-Lease, though in 1942–43, the value of Lend-Lease to New Zealand was much more than that of Reciprocal Aid. Britain also supplied extensive material assistance to American forces stationed in Europe, for example the USAAF was supplied with hundreds of Spitfire Mk V and Mk VIII fighter aircraft.

> The cooperation that was built up with Canada during the war was an amalgam compounded of diverse elements of which the air and land routes to Alaska, the Canol project, and the CRYSTAL and CRIMSON activities were the most costly in point of effort and funds expended.

> ... The total of defense materials and services that Canada received through lend-lease channels amounted in value to approximately $419,500,000.

> ... Some idea of the scope of economic collaboration can be had from the fact that from the beginning of 1942 through 1945 Canada, on her part, furnished the United States with $1,000,000,000 to $1,250,000,000 in defense materials and services.

> ... Although most of the actual construction of joint defense facilities, except the Alaska Highway and the Canol project, had been carried out by Canada, most of the original cost was borne by the United States. The agreement was that all temporary construction for the use of American forces and all permanent construction required by the United States forces beyond Canadian requirements would be paid for by the United States, and that the cost of all other construction of permanent value would be met by Canada. Although it was not entirely reasonable that Canada should pay for any construction that the Canadian Government considered unnecessary or that did not conform to Canadian requirements, nevertheless considerations of self-respect and national sovereignty led the Canadian Government to suggest a new financial agreement.

> ... The total amount that Canada agreed to pay under the new arrangement came to about $76,800,000, which was some $13,870,000 less than the United States had spent on the facilities.[83]

## Repayment

[edit]

Main article: Anglo-American loan

Congress had not authorized the gift of supplies delivered after the cutoff date, so the U.S. charged for them, usually at a 90% discount. Large quantities of undelivered goods were in Britain or in transit when Lend-Lease was ended on September 2, 1945, following the surrender of Japan. Britain wished to retain some of this equipment in the immediate post-war period. In 1946, the post-war Anglo-American loan further indebted Britain to the United States. Lend-Lease items retained were sold to Britain at 10% of nominal value, giving an initial loan value of £1.075 billion for the Lend-Lease portion of the post-war loans. Payment was to be stretched out over 50 annual payments, starting in 1951 and with five years of deferred payments, at 2% interest.[84] During the war, the US lent Britain 88 million ounces (2.5 million kilograms) of silver. In 1946, Britain switched its coinage from silver to cupronickel as the price of silver had risen by 250% during the war due to its market scarcity, while the price of nickel matched the stamped coinage value; this recovered 20m ounces of silver per year for five years as the old coinage was progressively retired, generating a £30m net financial surplus after the US silver loan had been repaid.[85]

The final payment of $83.3 million (£42.5 million), due on December 31, 2006 (repayment having been deferred in the allowed five years and during a sixth year not allowed), was made by Britain on December 29, 2006 (the last working day of the year). After this final payment, Ed Balls, Britain's Economic Secretary to the Treasury, formally issued thanks to the U.S. for its wartime support.[86]

While repayment of the interest-free loans was required after the end of the war under the act, in practice the U.S. did not expect to be repaid by the USSR after the war. The U.S. received $2 million in reverse Lend-Lease from the USSR. This was mostly in the form of landing, servicing, and refueling of transport aircraft; some industrial machinery and rare minerals were sent to the U.S. The U.S. asked for $1.3 billion at the cessation of hostilities to settle the debt, but was only offered $170 million by the USSR. The dispute remained unresolved until 1972, when the U.S. accepted an offer from the USSR to repay $722 million linked to grain shipments from the U.S., representing 25% of the initial debt with inflation taken into account, with the remainder being written off. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless repayment of Lend-Lease. This was agreed upon before the signing of the first protocol on October 1, 1941, and extension of credit. Some of these shipments were intercepted by the Germans. In May 1942, HMS Edinburgh was sunk while carrying 465 ingots (4.5 tonnes) of Soviet gold intended for the U.S. Treasury. Of these ingots, 431 were salvaged in 1981 and a further 29 in 1986, leaving five that are not economically feasible to salvage.[87] In June 1942, SS Port Nicholson was sunk en route from Halifax to New York, allegedly with Soviet platinum, gold, and diamonds aboard; the wreck was discovered in 2008.[88] However, none of this cargo has been salvaged, and no documentation of its treasure has been produced.[89]

## Legacy

[edit]

In 2022—citing the precedent set by the 1941 Lend-Lease program (and its extensions) for U.S. World War II aid to Britain and others in Europe—the U.S. Congress passed, and President Joe Biden signed, the Ukraine Democracy Defense Lend-Lease Act of 2022, to supply military, economic and humanitarian aid to Ukraine in its defense against the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[90][91][92]

## See also

[edit]

* Allied technological cooperation during World War II
* ALSIB
* Arctic convoys of World War II
* Arms Export Control Act
* Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid
* Banff-class sloop
* Battle of the Atlantic
* Cash and carry (World War II)
* Destroyers for Bases Agreement
* Houses for Britain
* Lend-Lease Sherman tanks
* Military production during World War II
* Northwest Staging Route
* Operation Cedar
* Persian Corridor
* Project Hula
* Tizard Mission
* Ukraine Democracy Defense Lend-Lease Act of 2022

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Officially the "Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry".
2. ^ Churchill called the letter "one of the most important I ever wrote."

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

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### Bibliography

[edit]

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* Allen, H.C. (1955), Britain and the United States, New York: St. Martin's Press
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* Crowley, Leo T. "Lend Lease" in Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937–1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, pp. 858–860.
* Dawson, Raymond H. The Decision to Aid Russia, 1941: Foreign Policy and Domestic Politics. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959.
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* online review
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* McNeill, William Hardy. America, Britain, and Russia: their co-operation and conflict, 1941–1946 (1953), pp 772–90
* Milward, Alan S. War, Economy and Society. Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1977. ISBN 0-14-022682-6.
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* Reynolds, David. The Creation of the Anglo-American Alliance 1937–1941: A Study on Competitive Cooperation. London: Europa, 1981. ISBN 0-905118-68-5.
* Romanus, Charles F. and Riley Sunderland. Stilwell's Mission to China. Archived January 4, 2013, at archive.today Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Dept. of the Army, 1953.
* Sayers, R. S. Financial Policy, 1939–45. Archived January 4, 2013, at archive.today London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1956.
* Schama, Simon. A History of Britain, Vol. III. New York: Hyperion, 2002. ISBN 978-0-7868-6899-5.
* Sherwood, Robert E. Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History. Archived January 4, 2013, at archive.today New York: Enigma Books, 2008, First edition 1948 (1949 Pulitzer Prize winner). ISBN 978-1-929631-49-0.
* Stacey, C.P. (1970), Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada 1939–1945, Ottawa: The Queen's Printer for Canada, ISBN 0-8020-6560-0.
* Stettinius, Edward R. Lend-Lease, Weapon for Victory. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1944. OCLC 394271
* Taylor, A. J. P. Beaverbrook. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972. ISBN 0-671-21376-8.
* Thorne, Christopher. Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain and the War Against Japan, 1941–1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-19-520173-6.
* Twenty-first Report to Congress on Lend-Lease Operations, p. 25.
* Weeks, Albert L. (2004), Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II, Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, ISBN 978-0-7391-0736-2.
* Weiss, Stuart L (1996), The President's Man: Leo Crowley and Franklin Roosevelt in Peace and War, Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press, ISBN 0-8093-1996-9, archived from the original on January 5, 2013, retrieved September 2, 2017
* Woods, Randall Bennett. A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941–1946. Archived January 4, 2013, at archive.today Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990. ISBN 0-8078-1877-1.
* Котельников, В.Р. (2015). Авиационный ленд-лиз [Aviation Lend-Lease]. Фонд «Русские Витязи». ISBN 978-5-9906036-3-9.

### Primary sources

[edit]

* Central Statistical Office. Statistical digest of the war (1951) official homefront data, social and economic, as well as war production, 1939–1945. online; can be downloaded; Lend-Lease on pp. 71–72, 198

## External links

[edit]

English Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Lend-Lease

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lend-Lease.

* Lend-Lease Shipments, World War II (Washington: War Department, 1946)
* Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union
* Official New Zealand war history of Lend-lease, from War Economy
* Official New Zealand war history; termination of Mutual Aid from 21 December 1945, from War Economy
* Allies and Lend-Lease Museum, Moscow Archived August 8, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
* "Reverse Lend-Lease" a 1944 Flight article reporting a speech by President Roosevelt
* Lend lease routes – map and summary of quantities of LL to USSR
* "Congress, Neutrality, and Lend-Lease". Treasures of Congress. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration.
* How Much of What Goods Have We Sent to Which Allies ? on the American Historical Association
* United States Army in World War II, Statistics: Lend-Lease – World War II Operational Documents
* U.S. Army in WW II, Statistics: Lend-Lease – Chief of Military History, 15 Dec 1952 — pdf. direct download link

* v
* t
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World War II

* Outline
* Battles
* Operations
* Leaders
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General|

| Topics|

* Air warfare of World War II
* In Europe
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|

Theaters|

* Asia and Pacific
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Aftermath|

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War crimes|

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Participants|

| Allies|

* Algeria
* Australia
* Belgium
* Brazil
* Bulgaria (from September 1944)
* Canada
* China
* Cuba
* Czechoslovakia
* Denmark
* Ethiopia
* Eswatini (formerly Swaziland)
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* France
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* Sierra Leone
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* United States
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* Yugoslavia

|

Axis|

* Albania protectorate
* Bulgaria (until September 1944)
* State of Burma
* Republic of China (Wang Jingwei)
* Independent State of Croatia
* Finland (until September 1944)
* German Reich
* Hungary
* Azad Hind
* Iraq
* Italy (until September 1943)
* Italian Social Republic
* Empire of Japan
* Manchukuo
* Mengjiang
* Philippines
* Romania (until August 1944)
* Slovak Republic
* Thailand
* Vichy France
* Guangzhouwan
* French Indochina
* French Madagascar
* Syria–Lebanon
* French North Africa
* French West Africa
* Collaboration

Neutral|

* Afghanistan
* Andorra
* Bhutan
* Ireland
* Liechtenstein
* Monaco
* Portugal
* San Marino
* Saudi Arabia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Tibet
* Turkey
* Vatican City
* Yemen

Resistance|

* Albania
* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Czech lands
* Denmark
* Dutch East Indies
* Estonia
* Ethiopia
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hong Kong
* Italy
* Japan
* Jews
* Korea
* Korean Liberation Army
* Korean Volunteer Army
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malaya
* Netherlands
* Northeast China
* Norway
* Philippines
* Poland
* Romania
* Thailand
* Soviet Union
* Slovakia
* Western Ukraine
* Vietnam
* Quốc dân Đảng
* Viet Minh
* Yugoslavia

POWs|

* Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union
* German prisoners
* Soviet Union
* Azerbaijan
* United States
* United Kingdom
* Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union
* Japanese prisoners
* Soviet Union
* German atrocities against Polish POWs
* Soviet prisoners
* Finland
* atrocities by Germans
* Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union
* Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union

Timeline|

| Prelude|

* Africa
* Second Italo-Ethiopian War
* Asia
* Second Sino-Japanese War
* Battles of Khalkhin Gol
* Europe
* Remilitarisation of the Rhineland
* Anschluss
* Munich Agreement
* Occupation of Czechoslovakia
* Operation Himmler
* Italian invasion of Albania

|

1939|

* Invasion of Poland
* Battle of the Atlantic
* Phoney War
* First Battle of Changsha
* Battle of South Guangxi
* Winter War
* 1939–1940 Winter Offensive

1940|

* Norwegian campaign
* German invasion of Denmark
* Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang
* German invasion of Luxembourg
* German invasion of the Netherlands
* German invasion of Belgium
* Battle of France
* Dunkirk evacuation
* Battle of Britain
* Battle of the Mediterranean
* North Africa
* West Africa
* British Somaliland
* Hundred Regiments Offensive
* Baltic states
* Eastern Romania
* Japanese invasion of French Indochina
* Italian invasion of Greece
* Compass

1941|

* Battle of South Henan
* Battle of Shanggao
* Invasion of Yugoslavia
* German invasion of Greece
* Battle of Crete
* Anglo-Iraqi War
* Battle of South Shanxi
* Syria–Lebanon campaign
* East African campaign
* Invasion of the Soviet Union
* Summer War
* Finland (Silver Fox)
* Lithuania
* Battle of Kiev
* Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
* Second Battle of Changsha
* Siege of Leningrad
* Battle of Moscow
* Bombing of Gorky
* Siege of Sevastopol
* Attack on Pearl Harbor
* Japanese invasion of Thailand
* Fall of Hong Kong
* Fall of the Philippines
* Battle of Guam
* Battle of Wake Island
* Malayan campaign
* Battle of Borneo
* Japanese invasion of Burma
* Third Battle of Changsha
* Greek famine of 1941–1944

1942|

* Fall of Singapore
* Battle of the Java Sea
* St Nazaire Raid
* Battle of Christmas Island
* Battle of the Coral Sea
* Battle of Madagascar
* Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign
* Battle of Gazala
* Battle of Dutch Harbor
* Battle of Midway
* Aleutian Islands campaign
* Kiska
* Attu
* Blue
* First Battle of El Alamein
* Battle of Stalingrad
* Kokoda Track campaign
* Rzhev
* Jubilee
* Second Battle of El Alamein
* Guadalcanal campaign
* Torch
* Chinese famine of 1942–1943

1943|

* Black May
* Tunisian campaign
* Battle of West Hubei
* Battle of Attu
* Bombing of Gorky
* Battle of Kursk
* Allied invasion of Sicily
* Smolensk
* Solomon Islands campaign
* Cottage
* Battle of the Dnieper
* Allied invasion of Italy
* Armistice of Cassibile
* Burma
* Northern Burma and Western Yunnan
* Changde
* Second Battle of Kiev
* Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign
* Tarawa
* Makin
* Bengal famine of 1943

1944|

* Tempest
* Monte Cassino / Anzio
* Korsun–Cherkassy
* Narva
* U-Go
* Imphal
* Ichi-Go
* Kohima
* Overlord
* Neptune
* Mariana and Palau
* Bagration
* Western Ukraine
* Second Battle of Guam
* Tannenberg Line
* Warsaw Uprising
* Eastern Romania
* Liberation of Paris
* Dragoon
* Gothic Line
* Belgrade offensive
* Battle of San Marino
* Lapland
* Market Garden
* Estonia
* Crossbow
* Pointblank
* Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945
* Philippines (1944–1945)
* Leyte
* Syrmian Front
* Hungary
* Budapest
* Burma (1944–1945)
* Ardennes
* Bodenplatte
* Dutch famine of 1944–1945

1945|

* Vistula–Oder
* Battle of Manila
* Battle of Iwo Jima
* Indochina
* Vienna offensive
* Project Hula
* Western invasion of Germany
* Bratislava–Brno offensive
* Battle of Okinawa
* Second Guangxi campaign
* West Hunan
* Italy (Spring 1945)
* Battle of Berlin
* Prague offensive
* Surrender of Germany
* document
* Borneo
* Taipei
* Naval bombardment of Japan
* Manchuria
* Atomic bombings
* Debate
* South Sakhalin
* Kuril Islands
* Shumshu
* Surrender of Japan
* Potsdam Declaration
* document
* End of World War II in Asia

* World portal
* Bibliography
* Category

* v
* t
* e

United States in World War II

Home front|

* American music during World War II
* United States aircraft production during World War II
* Arizona during World War II
* Nevada during World War II
* New Mexico during World War II
* G.I. Generation
* Schools at War
* Internment of German Americans
* Internment of Italian Americans
* Internment of Japanese Americans

| American women|

* Women Airforce Service Pilots
* Women's Army Corps
* Woman's Land Army of America
* Rosie the Riveter

|

Minorities|

* Hispanic Americans in World War II
* Native Americans and World War II
* Puerto Ricans in World War II

Military participation|

* Army (Uniforms)
* Army Air Force
* Marine Corps
* Navy
* Service medals (Medal of Honor recipients)

| Events|

* List of battles
* Attack on Pearl Harbor
* Normandy landings
* Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

|

Minorities|

* African Americans (Tuskegee Airmen)
* Asian Americans
* Chinese Americans
* Japanese Americans
* Jewish Americans

Diplomatic participation|

* Lend-Lease
* Destroyers-for-bases deal
* Project Hula

* v
* t
* e

Soviet Union–United States relations

Diplomatic posts|

| Embassy|

* Washington D.C.
* Soviet Ambassadors
* Mrs. George Pullman House

* Moscow
* US Ambassadors
* Spaso House
* Kuybyshev

|

Consulates|

* New York
* John Hammond House
* San Francisco

* Saint Petersburg
* Vladivostok

United Nations|

* Headquarters
* Representatives
* Russian Mission Residency

Other|

* Elmcroft Estate
* Killenworth
* Lothrop Mansion
* Pioneer Point

Diplomacy|

| World War II
Summits|

* Declaration of the Four Nations
* Lend-Lease
* Lend-Lease Sherman tanks
* Moscow Conference (1941)
* Moscow Conference (1942)
* Moscow Conference (1943)
* Moscow Conference (1944)
* Moscow Conference (1945)
* Potsdam Conference
* Council of Foreign Ministers
* Tehran Conference
* Yalta Conference

|

Cold War
Summits|

* 1973 United States–Soviet Union wheat deal
* Berlin Conference (1954)
* Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls
* Council for American–Soviet Trade
* Dartmouth Conference
* Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament
* European Advisory Commission
* Geneva Accords (1988)
* Geneva Conference (1973)
* Geneva Summit (1955)
* Geneva Summit (1985)
* Glassboro Summit Conference
* Governors Island Summit
* Helsinki Summit (1990)
* Lacy-Zarubin Agreement
* Madrid Conference
* Letter
* Malta Summit
* Moscow Summit (1972)
* Moscow Summit (1974)
* Moscow Summit (1988)
* Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions
* NATO Double-Track Decision
* Reykjavík Summit
* Stalin Note
* State visit by Nikita Khrushchev to the United States
* United Nations Security Council Resolution 135
* United States restitution to the Soviet Union
* US/USSR Acceptance of Law Governing Innocent Passage
* Vienna summit
* Washington Summit (1987)
* Washington Summit (1973)
* Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control

Policies|

* Containment
* Détente
* Linkage
* Rollback
* Stimson Doctrine
* Welles Declaration
* Triangular diplomacy
* Zero Option

Speeches|

* 1989 visit by Boris Yeltsin to the United States
* American University speech
* And you are lynching Negroes
* Chicken Kiev speech
* Evil Empire speech
* Ich bin ein Berliner
* Kitchen Debate
* Kuzma's mother
* Shoe-banging incident
* Tear down this wall!
* We will bury you

Other|

* Pushinka
* Soviet Military Power publication

Historical
Relations|

* Russia–United States
* Russian Empire–United States

Treaties and
Agreements|

| Arms Control|

* 1990 Chemical Weapons Accord
* Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War
* Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
* INF
* McCloy–Zorin Accords
* Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
* SALT I
* NTM
* SALT II
* START I
* Threshold Test Ban Treaty
* Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe

|

Space|

* Outer Space Treaty
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space
* Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes

Territory|

* Four Power Agreement on Berlin
* Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
* USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement
* Wanfried agreement

World War II|

* Moscow Declarations
* Potsdam Agreement

Other|

* Baruch Plan
* Bush legs
* Moscow–Washington hotline
* U.S.–Soviet Incidents at Sea agreement

Legislation|

* Executive Order 8484
* Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992
* FRIENDSHIP Act of 1993
* Jackson–Vanik amendment
* Russian Famine Relief Act
* Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991

Science|

| Space|

* APAS
* Apollo–Soyuz
* Bion satellites
* Kosmos 782
* Kosmos 936
* Kosmos 1129
* Kosmos 1514
* Kosmos 1667
* Kosmos 1887
* Kosmos 2044
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* Mir
* SAGE
* Space Race
* TOPAZ-I
* U.S.–Soviet Space Bridge
* Yardymly

|

Other|

* International Conference of Laser Applications
* Shvetsov M-25
* Uzel

Culture|

| Chess|

* US vs. USSR radio chess match 1945
* World Chess Championship 1972
* Bobby Fischer

|

Education|

* Anglo-American School of Moscow
* St. Petersburg
* Russian Cultural Center
* Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C.
* Russian Mission School in New York

Literature|

* Amerika (magazine)
* Deep Black
* Eagles East
* International Publishers
* Russian Life
* Sovfoto
* The Admiral's Daughter
* Who's Who in the CIA
* X Article

Radio / Music|

* Ordinary People
* Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
* Red Wave

Sports|

* 1972 Olympic men's basketball final
* 1976 Philadelphia Flyers–Red Army game
* Glasnost Bowl
* Goodwill Games
* Miracle on Ice
* Super Series
* USA–USSR Track and Field Dual Meet Series

TV / Film|

* Free to Be... a Family
* Soviet submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film
* Stalingrad
* The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks

Other|

* American National Exhibition
* Apollo-Soyuz (cigarette)
* In Soviet Georgia
* Soviet Interview Project
* White Coke

Cold War|

| Overview|

* Origins
* Timeline
* 1947–1948
* 1948–1953
* 1953–1962
* 1962–1979
* 1979–1985
* 1985–1991

* Nuclear arms race
* Space Race
* Timeline
* Espionage
* Americans
* Soviets
* Atomic spies
* Cold War in Asia

|

Operations|

* Operation Anadyr
* Operation Breakthrough
* Operation Cedar
* Operation Chrome Dome
* Operation Cyclone
* Operation Denver
* Operation Dropshot
* Operation Giant Lance
* Operation Gold
* Operation Ivy Bells
* Operation Keelhaul
* Operation Lincoln
* Operation Monopoly
* Operation RYAN
* Operation Safe Haven (1957)
* Operation Shocker
* Operation Sunrise

Projects|

* Project Azorian
* Project Coldfeet
* Project Dark Gene
* Project Genetrix
* Project Grab Bag
* Project HOMERUN
* Project Hula
* Project Moby Dick
* Project Mogul
* Venona project

Other|

* 7th Air Escadrille
* Active Measures Working Group
* Bomber gap
* CIA activities in the Soviet Union
* Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine
* GIUK gap
* Missile gap
* Nitrophenyl pentadienal
* NSC 68
* Plan Totality
* Red Scare
* Seven Days to the River Rhine
* Sheldon names
* Smolensk Archive
* SDI
* The Moscow rules
* United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union
* United States war plans (1945–1950)
* U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B

Incidents|

| World War II|

* Gorin v. United States
* Niš incident

|

Cold War|

* 1958 C-130 shootdown incident
* 1960 RB-47 shootdown incident
* 1960 U-2 incident
* 1961 F-84 Thunderstreak incident
* 1964 T-39 shootdown incident
* 1980 Summer Olympics boycott
* 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident
* 1984 Summer Olympics boycott
* 1986 Black Sea incident
* 1988 Black Sea bumping incident
* Able Archer 83
* Autumn Forge 83
* Aeroflot Flight 244
* Air-to-air combat losses between the Soviet Union and the United States
* Arrest of Mark Kaminsky and Harvey Bennett
* Arthur D. Nicholson
* Berlin Blockade
* Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959
* Berlin Crisis of 1961
* Capture of the Tuapse
* Cuban Missile Crisis
* Crateology
* Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
* Feodor Fedorenko
* Gambell incident
* Hollow Nickel Case
* Iran crisis of 1946
* John Anthony Walker
* Karl Linnas
* Kasenkina Case
* Korean Air Lines Flight 007
* Martin and Mitchell defection
* Moscow Signal
* Pan Am Flight 708
* Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253A
* Shostakovich v. Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp.
* Siberian Seven
* Soviet submarine K-129
* Soviet submarine K-219
* Sputnik crisis
* SS Metallurg Anosov
* Transfermium Wars
* Turkish Straits crisis
* United States grain embargo against the Soviet Union
* Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhhorod pipeline
* We begin bombing in five minutes
* Yellow rain
* Yeniseysk-15

Military relations|

| Russian
Revolution|

* American Expeditionary Force, North Russia
* American Expeditionary Force, Siberia
* North Russia intervention
* Siberian intervention
* United States and the Russian Revolution
* White movement

|

World War II|

* Allied Control Council
* Allied Kommandatura
* Allied technological cooperation during World War II
* ALSIB
* Arctic convoys of World War II
* Belorussia-class cargo ship
* Berlin Victory Parade of 1945
* Elbe Day
* Four Policemen
* Line of Contact
* Northwest Staging Route
* Pacific Route
* Persian Corridor
* Persian Gulf Command
* SS Dakotan
* SS Iowan
* Tripartite Naval Commission
* USS West Bridge
* Warsaw airlift

Cold War|

* Eisenhower Doctrine
* Four Power Naval Commission
* Four-Power Authorities
* Military liaison missions
* Reagan Doctrine
* Truman Doctrine

Armaments|

* AG submarines
* Bell P-63 Kingcobra
* Comparison of the AK-47 and M16
* SS Indigirka
* Tupolev Tu-4
* Tupolev Tu-70
* Tupolev Tu-80
* USCGC Southwind

Organizations|

| Soviet Union|

* Amtorg Trading Corporation
* Ansonia Clock Company
* Foundation for Social Inventions
* Gennady Alferenko
* Institute for US and Canadian Studies
* Russian Soviet Government Bureau
* Soviet Government Purchasing Commission in the U.S.

|

United States|

* American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia
* Ark Project
* American Peace Mobilization
* American Relief Administration
* American Russian Institute
* American–Soviet friendship movement
* American-Soviet Peace Walks
* Center for Citizen Initiatives
* Communist Party USA
* Dewey Commission
* Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews
* Friends of Soviet Russia
* Friendship Flight '89
* Friendship Flight (Alaska Airlines)
* Fund for Armenian Relief
* Kennan Institute
* Kersten Committee
* National Committee for a Free Europe
* National Council of American–Soviet Friendship
* Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia
* Russian-American Industrial Corporation
* Russian War Relief
* Society for Technical Aid to Soviet Russia
* Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry
* U.S. Commission on the Ukraine Famine
* U.S. Peace Council

Related|

* Baltic Freedom Day
* Captive Nations
* Captive Nations Week
* GAZ
* Georgi Bolshakov
* Little Joe
* New world order (politics)
* Refusenik
* Roswell Garst
* Samantha Smith
* Self-propelled barge T-36
* Sisson Documents
* Sovereignty of Puerto Rico during the Cold War
* Suzanne Massie

Category:Soviet Union–United States relations

* v
* t
* e

Franklin D. Roosevelt

* 32nd President of the United States (1933–1945)
* 44th Governor of New York (1929–1932)
* Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1920)
* New York State Senator (1911–1913)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* Transition
* Inaugurations (1st
* 2nd
* 3rd
* 4th)
* First and second terms
* Third and fourth terms
* Foreign policy
* New Deal
* overview
* New Deal coalition
* First 100 days
* Second New Deal
* Federal Emergency Relief Administration
* Civilian Conservation Corps
* Agricultural Adjustment Act
* Emergency Banking Act
* Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944
* Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
* Tennessee Valley Authority
* National Labor Relations Act of 1935
* National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933
* Public Works Administration
* National Recovery Administration
* Works Progress Administration
* National Youth Administration
* Social Security Act
* Aid to Families with Dependent Children
* Communications Act of 1934
* Federal Communications Commission
* Securities and Exchange Commission
* Monetary gold ownership
* Gold Reserve Act
* Silver seizure
* Record on civil rights
* Defense industry non-discrimination
* Fair Employment Practice Committee
* Indian Reorganization Act
* Executive Orders 9066, 9102
* War Relocation Authority
* Japanese American internment
* German-American internment
* Italian-American internment
* Brownlow Committee
* Executive Office of the President
* G.I. Bill of Rights
* Cullen–Harrison Act
* Roerich Pact
* Four Freedoms
* Four Freedoms Monument
* Black Cabinet
* Jefferson's Birthday holiday
* Jefferson Memorial
* Judicial Court-Packing Bill
* Cannabis policy
* Federal Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination
* Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination
* Cabinet
* "Brain Trust"
* March of Dimes
* Modern Oval Office
* Official car
* Criticism
* Franksgiving
* Executive Orders
* Presidential Proclamations

Presidential
foreign policy|

* Banana Wars
* U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, 1912–1933
* U.S. occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934
* Good Neighbor Policy (1933–1945)
* Montevideo Convention (1933)
* Second London Naval Treaty (1936)
* ABCD line (1940)
* Export Control Act
* Four Policemen
* Destroyers-for-bases deal
* Lend-Lease
* 1940 Selective Service Act
* Hull note
* Atlantic Charter (1941)
* Military history of the United States during World War II
* Home front during World War II
* Combined Munitions Assignments Board
* War Production Board
* Declaration by United Nations (1942)
* Dumbarton Oaks Conference
* World War II conferences
* Quebec Agreement
* Europe first
* Morgenthau Plan support

Presidential
speeches|

* 1932 Acceptance speech
* Commonwealth Club Address
* Madison Square Garden speech
* "Four Freedoms"
* Day of Infamy speech
* Arsenal of Democracy
* "...is fear itself"
* Fireside chats
* "Look to Norway"
* Quarantine Speech
* "The More Abundant Life"
* State of the Union Address (1934
* 1938
* 1939
* 1940
* 1941 (Four Freedoms)
* 1944 (Second Bill of Rights)
* 1945)

Other events|

* Early life, education, career
* Warm Springs Institute
* Governorship of New York
* Business Plot
* Assassination attempt

Elections|

* 1928 New York state election
* 1930
* Democratic National Convention, 1920
* 1924
* 1932
* 1936
* 1940
* 1944
* 1920 United States presidential election
* 1932
* theme song
* 1936
* 1940
* 1944

Life and homes|

* Early life and education
* Groton School
* Springwood birthplace, home, and gravesite
* Adams House
* FDR Suite
* Campobello home
* Paralytic illness
* New York State Executive Mansion
* Top Cottage
* Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia
* Ferdinand Magellan railcar

Legacy|

* Bibliography
* Statues
* Presidential Library and Museum
* Roosevelt Institute
* Roosevelt Institute Campus Network
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial
* Roosevelt Island
* Four Freedoms Park
* White House Roosevelt Room
* Roosevelt Institute for American Studies
* USS Franklin D. Roosevelt
* USS Roosevelt
* Four Freedoms Award
* Four Freedoms paintings
* Unfinished portrait
* U.S. Postage stamps
* Roosevelt dime
* I'd Rather Be Right 1937 musical
* Films
* The Roosevelt Story 1947
* Sunrise at Campobello 1960
* Eleanor and Franklin 1976, The White House Years 1977
* Backstairs at the White House 1979 miniseries
* World War II: When Lions Roared 1997 miniseries
* Warm Springs 2005
* Hyde Park on Hudson 2012
* The Roosevelts 2014 documentary
* The First Lady 2022 miniseries
* FDR 2023 miniseries
* The Six Triple Eight 2024 film
* Other namesakes

Family
(Roosevelt
• Delano)|

* Eleanor Roosevelt (wife)
* Anna Roosevelt Halsted (daughter)
* James Roosevelt II (son)
* Elliott Roosevelt (son)
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (son)
* John Aspinwall Roosevelt II (son)
* James Roosevelt I (father)
* Sara Ann Delano (mother)
* James Roosevelt Roosevelt (half-brother)
* Isaac Roosevelt (grandfather)
* Warren Delano Jr. (grandfather)
* Fala (family dog)
* Major (family dog)

* ← Herbert Hoover
* Harry S. Truman →

* Category

Authority control databases

National|

* United States
* Israel

Other|

* Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
* Yale LUX

*[Pub. L.]: Public Law
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