Lightning

Weather phenomenon involving electrostatic discharge

For other uses, see Lightning (disambiguation). Not to be confused with lighting or thunder.

Strokes of cloud-to-ground lightning strike the Mediterranean Sea off of Port-la-Nouvelle in southern France. Part of a series on

Weather

Temperate and polar seasons

* Winter
* Spring
* Summer
* Autumn

Tropical seasons

* Dry season
* Harmattan
* Wet season

Storms

* Cloud
* Cumulonimbus cloud
* Arcus cloud
* Downburst
* Microburst
* Heat burst
* Derecho
* Lightning
* Volcanic lightning
* Thunderstorm
* Air-mass thunderstorm
* Thundersnow
* Dry thunderstorm
* Mesocyclone
* Supercell
* Tornado
* Anticyclonic tornado
* Landspout
* Waterspout
* Dust devil
* Fire whirl
* Anticyclone
* Cyclone
* Polar low
* Extratropical cyclone
* European windstorm
* Nor'easter
* Subtropical cyclone
* Tropical cyclone
* Atlantic hurricane
* Typhoon
* Storm surge
* Dust storm
* Simoom
* Haboob
* Monsoon
* Amihan
* Gale
* Sirocco
* Firestorm
* Winter storm
* Ice storm
* Blizzard
* Ground blizzard
* Snow squall

Precipitation

* Drizzle
* Freezing
* Graupel
* Hail
* Megacryometeor
* Ice pellets
* Diamond dust
* Rain
* Freezing
* Cloudburst
* Snow
* Rain and snow mixed
* Snow grains
* Snow roller
* Slush

Topics

* Air pollution
* Atmosphere

*     * Chemistry
* Convection
* Physics
* River
* Climate
* Cloud
* Physics
* Fog
* Mist
* Season
* Cold wave
* Heat wave
* Jet stream
* Meteorology
* Severe weather
* List
* Extreme
* Severe weather terminology
* Canada
* Japan
* United States
* Weather forecasting
* Weather modification

Glossaries

* Meteorology
* Climate change
* Tornado terms
* Tropical cyclone terms

Weather portal

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series of

Geophysics

* Computational
* Exploration
* History
* Outline

Electricity

* Ionosphere
* Polar wind
* Thunderstorms
* Lightning

Fluid dynamics

* Atmospheric science
* Magnetohydrodynamics
* Oceanography
* Turbulence

Geodynamics

* Climate
* Earth's mantle
* Exoplanetology
* Geochemistry
* Glaciology
* Planetary science
* Plate tectonics
* Tectonics
* Volcanism

Gravity

* Geodesy
* Geoid
* Physical geodesy

Magnetism

* Earth's magnetic field
* Geomagnetic reversal
* Magnetosphere
* Paleomagnetism
* Solar wind

Waves

* Seismology
* Spectroscopy
* Vibration

Geophysicists

* Aki
* Alfven
* Anderson
* Benioff
* Bowie
* Dziewonski
* Forbes
* Eotvos
* Gilbert
* Gutenberg
* Heiskanen
* Hotine
* von Humboldt
* Jeffreys
* Kanamori
* Love
* Matthews
* McKenzie
* Mercalli
* Molodenskii
* Munk
* Press
* Richter
* Turcotte
* Van Allen
* Vanicek
* Vening Meinesz
* Wegener
* Wilson

* v
* t
* e

Lightning is a natural phenomenon consisting of electrostatic discharges occurring through the atmosphere between two electrically charged regions. One or both regions are within the atmosphere, with the second region sometimes occurring on the ground. Following the lightning, the regions become partially or wholly electrically neutralized.

Lightning involves a near-instantaneous release of energy on a scale averaging between 200 megajoules and 7 gigajoules.[1][2][3] The air around the lightning flash rapidly heats to temperatures of about 30,000 °C (54,000 °F).[4] There is an emission of electromagnetic radiation across a wide range of wavelengths, some visible as a bright flash. Lightning also causes thunder, a sound from the shock wave which develops as heated gases in the vicinity of the discharge experience a sudden increase in pressure.

The most common occurrence of a lightning event is known as a thunderstorm, though they can also commonly occur in other types of energetic weather systems, such as volcanic eruptions. Lightning influences the global atmospheric electrical circuit and atmospheric chemistry and is a natural ignition source of wildfires. Lightning is considered an Essential Climate Variable by the World Meteorological Organization,[5] and its scientific study is called fulminology.

## Forms

[edit]

Three primary forms of lightning are distinguished by where they occur:[6][7]

* Intra-cloud (IC) or in-cloud – Within a single thundercloud
* Cloud-to-cloud (CC) or inter-cloud – Between two clouds
* Cloud-to-ground (CG) – Between a cloud and the ground, in which case it is referred to as a lightning strike.

Many other observational variants are recognized, including: volcanic lightning, which can occur during volcanic eruptions; "heat lightning", which can be seen from a great distance but not heard; dry lightning, which can cause forest fires; and ball lightning, which is rarely observed scientifically.

The most direct effects of lightning on humans occur as a result of cloud-to-ground lightning, even though intra-cloud and cloud-to-cloud are more common. Intra-cloud and cloud-to-cloud lightning indirectly affect humans through their influence on atmospheric chemistry.

There are variations of each type, such as "positive" versus "negative" CG flashes, that have different physical characteristics common to each which can be measured.

### Cloud to ground (CG)

[edit]

Cloud to ground seen in slow motion

Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning is a lightning discharge between a thundercloud and the ground. It is initiated by a stepped leader moving down from the cloud, which is met by a streamer moving up from the ground.

CG is the least common, but best understood of all types of lightning. It is easier to study scientifically because it terminates on a physical object, namely the ground, and lends itself to being measured by instruments on the ground. Of the three primary types of lightning, it poses the greatest threat to life and property, since it terminates on the ground or "strikes".

The overall discharge, termed a flash, is composed of a number of processes such as preliminary breakdown, stepped leaders, connecting leaders, return strokes, dart leaders, and subsequent return strokes.[8] The conductivity of the electrical ground, be it soil, fresh water, or salt water, may affect the lightning discharge rate and thus visible characteristics.[9]

#### Positive and negative lightning

[edit]

Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning is either positive or negative, as defined by the direction of the conventional electric current between cloud and ground. Most CG lightning is negative, meaning that a negative charge is transferred (electrons flow) downwards to ground along the lightning channel (the conventional current flows from the ground up to the cloud). The reverse happens in a positive CG flash, where electrons travel upward along the lightning channel, while also a positive charge is transferred downward to the ground (the conventional current travels from cloud to ground).

Positive lightning is less common than negative lightning and on average makes up less than 5% of all lightning strikes.[10]

A bolt from the blue lightning strike which appears to initiate from the clear, but[clarification needed] the turbulent sky above the anvil cloud and drive a bolt of plasma through the cloud directly to the ground. They are commonly referred to as positive flashes, despite the fact that they are usually negative in polarity.

There are a number of mechanisms theorized to result in the formation of positive lightning.[11] These are mainly based on movement or intensification of charge centres in the cloud. Such changes in cloud charging may come about as a result of variations in vertical wind shear or precipitation, or dissipation of the storm. Positive flashes may also result from certain behaviour of in-cloud discharges, e.g. breaking off or branching from existing flashes.

Positive lightning strikes tend to be much more intense than their negative counterparts. An average bolt of negative lightning creates an electric current of 30,000 amperes (30 kA), transferring a total 15 C (coulombs) of electric charge and 1 gigajoule of energy. Large bolts of positive lightning can create up to 120 kA and transfer 350 C.[12] The average positive ground flash has roughly double the peak current of a typical negative flash, and can produce peak currents up to 400 kA and charges of several hundred coulombs.[13][14] Furthermore, positive ground flashes with high peak currents are commonly followed by long continuing currents, a correlation not seen in negative ground flashes.[15]

As a result of their greater power, positive lightning strikes are considerably more dangerous than negative strikes.[citation needed] Positive lightning produces both higher peak currents and longer continuing currents, making them capable of heating surfaces to much higher levels which increases the likelihood of a fire being ignited. The long distances positive lightning can propagate through clear air explains why they are known as "bolts from the blue", giving no warning to observers.

Positive lightning has also been shown to trigger the occurrence of upward lightning flashes from the tops of tall structures and is largely responsible for the initiation of sprites several tens of kilometers above ground level. Positive lightning tends to occur more frequently in winter storms, as with thundersnow, during intense tornadoes[16] and in the dissipation stage of a thunderstorm.[17] Huge quantities of extremely low frequency (ELF) and very low frequency (VLF) radio waves are also generated.[18]

Contrary to popular belief, positive lightning flashes do not necessarily originate from the anvil or the upper positive charge region and strike a rain-free area outside of the thunderstorm. This belief is based on the outdated idea that lightning leaders are unipolar and originate from their respective charge region.[citation needed] Despite the popular misconception that flashes originating from the anvil are positive, because they seem to originate from the positive charge region, observations have shown that these are in fact negative flashes. They begin as IC flashes within the cloud, the negative leader then exits the cloud from the positive charge region before propagating through clear air and striking the ground some distance away.[19][20]

###  Cloud to cloud (CC) and intra-cloud (IC)

[edit]

Lightning discharges may occur between areas of cloud without contacting the ground. When it occurs between two separate clouds, it is known as cloud-to-cloud (CC) or inter-cloud lightning; when it occurs between areas of differing electric potential within a single cloud, it is known as intra-cloud (IC) lightning. IC lightning is the most frequently occurring type.[17]

IC lightning most commonly occurs between the upper anvil portion and lower reaches of a given thunderstorm. This lightning can sometimes be observed at great distances at night as so-called "sheet lightning". In such instances, the observer may see only a flash of light without hearing any thunder.

Another term used for cloud–cloud or cloud–cloud–ground lightning is "Anvil Crawler", due to the habit of charge, typically originating beneath or within the anvil and scrambling through the upper cloud layers of a thunderstorm, often generating dramatic multiple branch strokes. These are usually seen as a thunderstorm passes over the observer or begins to decay. The most vivid crawler behavior occurs in well developed thunderstorms that feature extensive rear anvil shearing.

* Branching of cloud to cloud lightning, New Delhi, India.

* Multiple paths of cloud-to-cloud lightning, Swifts Creek, Australia.

* Intra-clouds lightning over the Baltic Sea.

* Cloud-to-cloud lightning, Albury, Australia

## Formation

[edit]

The processes involved in lightning formation fall into the following categories:

1. Large-scale atmospheric phenomena in which charge separation can occur (e.g. storm)
2. Microscopic and macroscopic processes that result in charge separation
3. Establishment of an electric field
4. Discharge through a lightning channel

### Atmospheric phenomena in which lightning occurs

[edit]

Lightning primarily occurs when warm air is mixed with colder air masses,[21] resulting in atmospheric disturbances necessary for polarizing the atmosphere.[22] The disturbances result in storms, and when those storms also result in lightning and thunder, they are called a thunderstorm.

Lightning can also occur during dust storms, forest fires, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, and even in the cold of winter, where the lightning is known as thundersnow.[23][24] Hurricanes typically generate some lightning, mainly in the rainbands as much as 160 km (99 mi) from the center.[25][26][27]

Intense forest fires, such as those seen in the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, can create their own weather systems that can produce lightning (also called Fire Lightning) and other weather phenomena.[28] Intense heat from a fire causes air to rapidly rise within the smoke plume, causing the formation of pyrocumulonimbus clouds. Cooler air is drawn in by this turbulent, rising air, helping to cool the plume. The rising plume is further cooled by the lower atmospheric pressure at high altitude, allowing the moisture in it to condense into cloud. Pyrocumulonimbus clouds form in an unstable atmosphere. These weather systems can produce dry lightning, fire tornadoes, intense winds, and dirty hail.[28]

As well as the thermodynamic and dynamic conditions of the atmosphere, aerosol (e.g. dust or smoke) composition is thought to influence the frequency of lightning flashes in a storm.[29] A specific example of this is that relatively high lightning frequency is seen along ship tracks.[30]

Airplane contrails have also been observed to influence lightning to a small degree. The water vapor-dense contrails of airplanes may provide a lower resistance pathway through the atmosphere having some influence upon the establishment of an ionic pathway for a lightning flash to follow.[31] Rocket exhaust plumes provided a pathway for lightning when it was witnessed striking the Apollo 12 rocket shortly after takeoff.

Thermonuclear explosions, by providing extra material for electrical conduction and a very turbulent localized atmosphere, have been seen triggering lightning flashes within the mushroom cloud. In addition, intense gamma radiation from large nuclear explosions may develop intensely charged regions in the surrounding air through Compton scattering. The intensely charged space charge regions create multiple clear-air lightning discharges shortly after the device detonates.[32]

Some high energy cosmic rays produced by supernovas as well as solar particles from the solar wind, enter the atmosphere and electrify the air, which may create pathways for lightning channels.[33]

### Charge separation

[edit]

#### Charge separation in thunderstorms

[edit]

(Figure 1) The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where the air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from −15 to −25 °C (5 to −13 °F). (Figure 2) When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged. The upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to the lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.

The details of the charging process are still being studied by scientists, but there is general agreement on some of the basic concepts of thunderstorm charge separation, also known as electrification. Electrification can be by the triboelectric effect leading to electron or ion transfer between colliding bodies.

The main charging area in a thunderstorm occurs in the central part of the storm where air is moving upward rapidly (updraft) and temperatures range from −15 to −25 °C (5 to −13 °F); see Figure 1. In that area, the combination of temperature and rapid upward air movement produces a mixture of super-cooled cloud droplets (small water droplets below freezing), small ice crystals, and graupel (soft hail). The updraft carries the super-cooled cloud droplets and very small ice crystals upward. At the same time, the graupel, which is considerably larger and denser, tends to fall or be suspended in the rising air.[34]

The differences in the movement of the cloud particles cause collisions to occur. When the rising ice crystals collide with graupel, the ice crystals become positively charged and the graupel becomes negatively charged; see Figure 2. The updraft carries the positively charged ice crystals upward toward the top of the storm cloud. The larger and denser graupel is either suspended in the middle of the thunderstorm cloud or falls toward the lower part of the storm.[34] Typically, the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes positively charged while the middle to lower part of the thunderstorm cloud becomes negatively charged.[34][35] The above process of charge separation as a result of cloud particle collisions is normally referred to as the non-inductive charging mechanism.[36]

The upward motions within the storm and winds at higher levels in the atmosphere tend to cause the small ice crystals (and positive charge) in the upper part of the thunderstorm cloud to spread out horizontally some distance from the thunderstorm cloud base. This part of the thunderstorm cloud is called the anvil. While this is the main charging process for the thunderstorm cloud, some of these charges can be redistributed by air movements within the storm (updrafts and downdrafts). In addition, there is a small but important positive charge buildup near the bottom of the thunderstorm cloud due to the precipitation and warmer temperatures.[34] The positive-negative-positive charge regions commonly occur in mature thunderstorms, and referred to as the  tripolar charge structure.[36]

There are also other charging processes that may play a role in thunderstorms, but are generally thought to be less important. An inductive charging mechanism has been studied, and would arise from the polarization of cloud droplets in the presence of the fair-weather electric field.[36] It has also been stated that uncharged, colliding water-drops can become charged because of charge transfer between them (as aqueous ions) in an electric field as would exist in a thunderstorm.[37]

The induced separation of charge in pure liquid water has been known since the 1840s as has the electrification of pure liquid water by the triboelectric effect.[38] William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) demonstrated that charge separation in water occurs in the usual electric fields at the Earth's surface and developed a continuous electric field measuring device using that knowledge.[39] The physical separation of charge into different regions using liquid water was demonstrated by Kelvin with the Kelvin water dropper. The most likely charge-carrying species were considered to be the aqueous hydrogen ion and the aqueous hydroxide ion.[40] An electron is not stable in liquid water concerning a hydroxide ion plus dissolved hydrogen for the time scales involved in thunderstorms.[41] The electrical charging of solid water ice has also been considered. The charged species were again considered to be the hydrogen ion and the hydroxide ion.[42][43]

### Establishing an electric field

[edit]

Main article: Thunderstorm

In order for an electrostatic discharge to occur, two preconditions are necessary: first, a sufficiently high potential difference between two regions of space must exist, and second, a high-resistance medium must obstruct the free, unimpeded equalization of the opposite charges. The atmosphere provides the electrical insulation, or barrier, that prevents free equalization between charged regions of opposite polarity. Meanwhile, a thunderstorm can provide the charge separation and aggregation in certain regions of the cloud.[44]

When the local electric field exceeds the dielectric strength of damp air (about 3 MV/m), electrical discharge results in a strike, often followed by commensurate discharges branching from the same path. Mechanisms that cause the charges to build up to lightning are still a matter of scientific investigation.[45][46] A 2016 study confirmed dielectric breakdown is involved.[47] Lightning may be caused by the circulation of warm moisture-filled air through electric fields.[48] Ice or water particles then accumulate charge as in a Van de Graaff generator.[49]

As a thundercloud moves over the surface of the Earth, an equal electric charge, but of opposite polarity, is induced on the Earth's surface underneath the cloud. The induced positive surface charge, when measured against a fixed point, will be small as the thundercloud approaches, increasing as the center of the storm arrives and dropping as the thundercloud passes. The referential value of the induced surface charge could be roughly represented as a bell curve.

The oppositely charged regions create an electric field within the air between them. This electric field varies in relation to the strength of the surface charge on the base of the thundercloud – the greater the accumulated charge, the higher the electrical field.

### Electrical discharge as flashes and strikes

[edit]

The charge carrier in lightning is mainly electrons in a plasma.[50] The process of going from charge as ions (positive hydrogen ion and negative hydroxide ion) associated with liquid water or solid water to charge as electrons associated with lightning must involve some form of electro-chemistry, that is, the oxidation and/or the reduction of chemical species.[51]

The best-studied and understood form of lightning is cloud to ground (CG) lightning. Although more common, intra-cloud (IC) and cloud-to-cloud (CC) flashes are difficult to study because there are no fixed points to monitor inside the clouds. Also, because of the very low probability of lightning striking the same point repeatedly and consistently, scientific inquiry is difficult even in areas of high CG frequency.

#### Lightning leaders

[edit]

A downward leader travels towards earth, branching as it goes. Lightning strike caused by the connection of two leaders, positive shown in blue and negative in red

In a process not well understood, a bidirectional channel of ionized air, called a "leader", is initiated between oppositely-charged regions in a thundercloud. Leaders are electrically conductive channels of ionized gas that propagate through, or are otherwise attracted to, regions with a charge opposite of that of the leader tip. The negative end of the bidirectional leader fills a positive charge region, also called a well, inside the cloud while the positive end fills a negative charge well. Leaders often split, forming branches in a tree-like pattern.[52] In addition, negative and some positive leaders travel in a discontinuous fashion, in a process called "stepping". The resulting jerky movement of the leaders can be readily observed in slow-motion videos of lightning flashes.

It is possible for one end of the leader to fill the oppositely-charged well entirely while the other end is still active. When this happens, the leader end which filled the well may propagate outside of the thundercloud and result in either a cloud-to-air flash or a cloud-to-ground flash. In a typical cloud-to-ground flash, a bidirectional leader initiates between the main negative and lower positive charge regions in a thundercloud. The weaker positive charge region is filled quickly by the negative leader which then propagates toward the inductively-charged ground.

The positively and negatively charged leaders proceed in opposite directions, positive upwards within the cloud and negative towards the earth. Both ionic channels proceed, in their respective directions, in a number of successive spurts. Each leader "pools" ions at the leading tips, shooting out one or more new leaders, momentarily pooling again to concentrate charged ions, then shooting out another leader. The negative leader continues to propagate and split as it heads downward, often speeding up as it gets closer to the Earth's surface.

About 90% of ionic channel lengths between "pools" are approximately 45 m (148 ft) in length.[53] The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long amount of time (hundreds of milliseconds) in comparison to the resulting discharge, which occurs within a few dozen microseconds. The electric current needed to establish the channel, measured in the tens or hundreds of amperes, is dwarfed by subsequent currents during the actual discharge.

Initiation of the lightning leader is not well understood. The electric field strength within the thundercloud is not typically large enough to initiate this process by itself.[54] Many hypotheses have been proposed. One hypothesis postulates that showers of relativistic electrons are created by cosmic rays and are then accelerated to higher velocities via a process called runaway breakdown. As these relativistic electrons collide and ionize neutral air molecules, they initiate leader formation. Another hypothesis involves locally enhanced electric fields being formed near elongated water droplets or ice crystals.[55] Percolation theory, especially for the case of biased percolation,[56] [clarification needed] describes random connectivity phenomena, which produce an evolution of connected structures similar to that of lightning strikes. A streamer avalanche model[57] has recently been favored by observational data taken by LOFAR during storms.[58][59]

#### Upward streamers

[edit]

Upwards streamer emanating from the top of a pool cover

When a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on the ground enhances the strength of the electric field. The electric field is strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward streamer, can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.[60][61][62]

As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field strength, grounded objects already experiencing corona discharge will exceed a threshold and form upward streamers.

#### Attachment

[edit]

Once a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred to as attachment, a low-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur. Photographs have been taken in which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The unattached downward leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which are connected to the earth, although it may appear they are. High-speed videos can show the attachment process in progress.[63]

#### Discharge – Return stroke

[edit]

"Return stroke" redirects here. For other uses, see Return stroke (disambiguation).

High-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the discharge process as seen in Toulouse, France.

Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire leader network at up to one third of the speed of light.[64] This is the "return stroke" and it is the most luminous and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.

A large electric charge flows along the plasma channel, from the cloud to the ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials,[citation needed] they are responsible for more injuries and deaths in groups of people or of other animals than the strike itself.[65] Electricity takes every path available to it.[66] Such step potentials will often cause current to flow through one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the point where the lightning strikes.

The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical negative CG flash, often referred to as "negative CG" lightning. In some cases, a ground-to-cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s (one-third of the speed of light).[67] A typical cloud-to-ground lightning flash culminates in the formation of an electrically conducting plasma channel through the air in excess of 5 km (3.1 mi) tall, from within the cloud to the ground's surface.[68]

The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined with the rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly superheats the completed leader channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel. The core temperature of the plasma during the return stroke may exceed 27,800 °C (50,000 °F),[69] causing it to radiate with a brilliant, blue-white color. Once the electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and dissipates over tens or hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches of glowing gas. The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to expand explosively, producing a powerful shock wave which is heard as thunder.

#### Discharge – Re-strike

[edit]

High-speed videos (examined frame-by-frame) show that most negative CG lightning flashes are made up of 3 or 4 individual strokes, though there may be as many as 30.[70]

Each re-strike is separated by a relatively large amount of time, typically 40 to 50 milliseconds, as other charged regions in the cloud are discharged in subsequent strokes. Re-strikes often cause a noticeable "strobe light" effect.[71]

To understand why multiple return strokes utilize the same lightning channel, one needs to understand the behavior of positive leaders, which a typical ground flash effectively becomes following the negative leader's connection with the ground. Positive leaders decay more rapidly than negative leaders do. For reasons not well understood, bidirectional leaders tend to initiate on the tips of the decayed positive leaders in which the negative end attempts to re-ionize the leader network. These leaders, also called recoil leaders, usually decay shortly after their formation. When they do manage to make contact with a conductive portion of the main leader network, a return stroke-like process occurs and a dart leader travels across all or a portion of the length of the original leader. The dart leaders making connections with the ground are what cause a majority of subsequent return strokes.[72]

Each successive stroke is preceded by intermediate dart leader strokes that have a faster rise time but lower amplitude than the initial return stroke. Each subsequent stroke usually re-uses the discharge channel taken by the previous one, but the channel may be offset from its previous position as wind displaces the hot channel.[73]

Since recoil and dart leader processes do not occur on negative leaders, subsequent return strokes very seldom utilize the same channel on positive ground flashes which are explained later in the article.[72]

#### Discharge – Transient currents during flash

[edit]

The electric current within a typical negative CG lightning discharge rises very quickly to its peak value in 1–10 microseconds, then decays more slowly over 50–200 microseconds. The transient nature of the current within a lightning flash results in several phenomena that need to be addressed in the effective protection of ground-based structures. Rapidly changing (alternating) currents tend to travel on the surface of a conductor, in what is called the skin effect, unlike direct currents, which "flow-through" the entire conductor like water through a hose. Hence, conductors used in the protection of facilities tend to be multi-stranded, with small wires woven together. This increases the total bundle surface area in inverse proportion to the individual strand radius, for a fixed total cross-sectional area.

The rapidly changing currents also create electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) that radiate outward from the ionic channel. This is a characteristic of all electrical discharges. The radiated pulses rapidly weaken as their distance from the origin increases. However, if they pass over conductive elements such as power lines, communication lines, or metallic pipes, they may induce a current which travels outward to its termination. The surge current is inversely related to the surge impedance: the higher in impedance, the lower the current.[74] This is the surge that, more often than not, results in the destruction of delicate electronics, electrical appliances, or electric motors. Devices known as surge protectors (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS) attached in parallel with these lines can detect the lightning flash's transient irregular current, and, through alteration of its physical properties, route the spike to an attached earthing ground, thereby protecting the equipment from damage.

## Distribution, frequency and properties

[edit]

Main article: Distribution of lightning

Data obtained from April 1995 to February 2003 from NASA's Optical Transient Detector depicting space-based sensors revealing the uneven distribution of worldwide lightning strikes A 768 km (477 mi) megaflash from Texas to Louisiana, in the United States.[75]

Global monitoring indicates that lightning on Earth occurs at an average frequency of approximately 44 (± 5) times per second, equating to nearly 1.4 billion flashes per year.[76] Median duration is 0.52 seconds[77] made up from a number of much shorter flashes (strokes) of around 60 to 70 microseconds.[78] Occurrences are distributed unevenly across the planet with about 70% being over land in the tropics[79] where atmospheric convection is the greatest.

Many factors affect the frequency, distribution, strength and physical properties of a typical lightning flash in a particular region of the world. These factors include ground elevation, latitude, prevailing wind currents, relative humidity, and proximity to warm and cold bodies of water.[citation needed]

Lightning is usually produced by cumulonimbus clouds, which have bases that are typically 1–2 km (0.62–1.24 mi) above the ground and tops up to 15 km (9.3 mi) in height.

A lightning strike captured at 240 FPS during a severe thunderstorm in Mango Hill, Australia.

In general, CG lightning flashes account for only 25% of all total lightning flashes worldwide. The proportions of intra-cloud, cloud-to-cloud, and cloud-to-ground lightning may also vary by season at latitude.[80][81] In the tropics, where the freezing level is generally higher in the atmosphere, only 10% of lightning flashes are CG. At the latitude of Norway (around 60° North latitude), where the freezing elevation is lower, 50% of lightning is CG.[82][83]

Multiple lightning strikes in Poland in August 2020

The place on Earth where lightning occurs most often is over Lake Maracaibo, wherein the Catatumbo lightning phenomenon produces 250 bolts of lightning a day.[84] This activity occurs on average, 297 days a year.[85] The second most lightning density is near the village of Kifuka in the mountains of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo,[86] where the elevation is around 975 m (3,200 ft). On average, this region receives 158 lightning strikes per square kilometre per year (410/sq mi/yr).[87] Other lightning hotspots include Singapore[88] and Lightning Alley in Central Florida.[89][90]

According to the World Meteorological Organization, on April 29, 2020, a bolt 768 km (477.2 mi) long was observed in the southern U.S.—sixty km (37 mi) longer than the previous distance record (southern Brazil, October 31, 2018).[91] A single flash in Uruguay and northern Argentina on June 18, 2020, lasted for 17.1 seconds—0.37 seconds longer than the previous record (March 4, 2019, also in northern Argentina).[91]

Researchers at the University of Florida found that the final one-dimensional speeds of 10 flashes observed were between 1.0×105 and 1.4×106 m/s, with an average of 4.4×105 m/s.[92]

### Extraterrestrial

[edit]

Lightning has been observed within the atmospheres of planets other than Earth, such as Jupiter, Saturn,[93] and probably Uranus and Neptune.[93] Lightning on Jupiter is far more energetic than on Earth, despite seeming to be generated via the same mechanism. Recently, a new type of lightning was detected on Jupiter, thought to originate from "mushballs" including ammonia.[94] On Saturn, lightning, initially referred to as "Saturn Electrostatic Discharge", was discovered by the Voyager 1 mission.[93]

Lightning on Venus has been a controversial subject after decades of study. During the Soviet Venera and U.S. Pioneer missions of the 1970s and 1980s, signals suggesting lightning may be present in the upper atmosphere were detected.[95] The short Cassini–Huygens mission fly-by of Venus in 1999 detected no signs of lightning, but radio pulses recorded by the spacecraft Venus Express (which began orbiting Venus in April 2006) may originate from lightning on Venus.[96]

## Effects

[edit]

A lightning strike can unleash a variety of effects, some temporary, including very brief emission of light, sound and electromagnetic radiation, and some long-lasting, such as death, damage, and atmospheric and environmental changes.

### Injury, damage and destruction

[edit]

Main article: Lightning strike

The immense amount of energy transferred in a lightning strike can have potentially devastating effect in a multitude of areas.

#### To nature

[edit]

Bark blown off of a Birch tree via explosive steam pressure between the trunk and bark from a lightning strike A strike mark on the trunk of a black walnut tree in Oklahoma

Objects struck by lightning experience heat and magnetic forces of great magnitude. Consequently:

* The heat created by lightning currents travelling through a tree may vaporize its sap, causing a steam explosion that rips off bark or even bursts the trunk.
* Similarly water in a fractured rock may be rapidly heated such that it splits further apart.[97][98]
* A struck tree may catch fire, or a forest fire may be started. See also fire lightning below.
* As lightning travels through sandy soil, the soil surrounding the plasma channel may melt, forming tubular structures called fulgurites.

#### To man-made structures and their contents

[edit]

Buildings or tall structures hit by lightning may be damaged as the lightning seeks unimpeded paths to the ground. By safely conducting a lightning strike to the ground, a lightning protection system, usually incorporating at least one lightning rod, can greatly reduce the probability of severe property damage. Surge protection devices (SPDs) can additionally or alternatively be used to help protect electrical installations from lightning induced electrical surges that risk damaging or destroying electrical equipment or starting a fire. Electrical fires obviously threaten not only structures but all assets, personal possessions, and living beings (people, pets and livestock) within. What, if any, protection system a building or structure requires is determined through a risk assessment. Threats to structures come not only from direct strikes to the structure itself, but also from direct or indirect strikes to connected electrically conductive services (electrical power lines; communication lines; water/gas pipes), or even to the surrounding area from which a surge may reach a service connection as it spreads out into the ground.

#### To aircraft

[edit]

Aircraft are highly susceptible to being struck due to their metallic fuselages, but lightning strikes are generally not dangerous to them.[99] Due to the conductive properties of aluminium alloy, the fuselage acts as a Faraday cage. Present day aircraft are built to be safe from a lightning strike and passengers will generally not even know that it has happened. However, there have been suspicions that lightning strikes can ignite fuel vapor and cause explosion,[citation needed] and nearby lightning can momentarily blind the pilot and cause permanent errors in magnetic compasses.[100]

#### To living beings

[edit]

Although 90 percent of people struck by lightning survive,[101] humans and other animals struck by lightning may suffer severe injury due to internal organ and nervous system damage.

### Noise (Thunder)

[edit]

Main article: Thunder

Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, kinetic theory dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a shock wave audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by acoustic echoing from terrain, and by the usually multiple-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.[102] Thunder is heard as a rolling, gradually dissipating rumble because the sound from different portions of a long stroke arrives at slightly different times.[103]

Lightning at a sufficient distance may be seen and not heard; there is data that a lightning storm can be seen at over 160 km (100 miles) whereas the thunder travels about 32 km (20 miles). Anecdotally, there are many examples of people describing a 'storm directly overhead' or 'all-around' and yet 'no thunder'. Since thunderclouds can be up to 20 km (12 miles) high,[104] lightning occurring high up in the cloud may appear close but is actually too far away to produce noticeable thunder.

#### The distance approximation trick

[edit]

Light travels at about 300,000,000 m/s (980,000,000 ft/s), while sound only travels through air at about 343 m/s (1,130 ft/s). An observer can approximate the distance to the strike by timing the interval between the visible lightning and the audible thunder it generates. A lightning flash preceding its thunder by one second would be approximately 343 m (0.213 miles) away; thus a delay of three seconds would indicate a distance of about 1 km (0.62 miles); while a flash preceding thunder by five seconds would indicate a distance of roughly 1 mile (1.6 km). Consequently, a lightning strike observed at a very close distance will be accompanied by a sudden clap of thunder, with almost no perceptible time lapse, possibly accompanied by the smell of ozone (O3).

### Electromagnetic radiation and interference

[edit]

Electromagnetic waves are emitted in a variety of wavelengths, most obviously that of visible light – the big bright flash. This emitted radiation results partly from black-body radiation due to the temperature increase caused by electrical resistance of the air,[105] and partly for other reasons that are still being actively researched.[106]

#### Radio frequency radiation

[edit]

Further information: Radio atmospheric, Whistler, and Schumann resonances

Lightning discharges generate radio-frequency electromagnetic waves which can be received thousands of kilometers from their source. The discharge by itself is relatively simple short-lived dipole source that creates a single electromagnetic pulse with a duration of about 1 ms and a wide spectral density. In the absence in the nearby environment of materials with magnetic or electrical interaction properties, at a large distances in a far field zone, the electromagnetic wave will be proportional to the second derivation of the discharge current.[107] This is what happens with high-altitude discharges or discharges over areas of a dry land.  In other cases, the surrounding environment will change the shape of the source signal by absorbing some of its spectrum and converting it into a heat or re-transmitting it back as modified electromagnetic waves.[109]

#### High-energy radiation

[edit]

Further information: Terrestrial gamma-ray flash

The production of X-rays by a bolt of lightning was predicted as early as 1925 by C.T.R. Wilson,[110] but no evidence was found until 2001/2002,[111][112][113] when researchers at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology detected X-ray emissions from an induced lightning strike along a grounded wire trailed behind a rocket shot into a storm cloud. In the same year, University of Florida and Florida Tech researchers used an array of electric field and X-ray detectors at a lightning research facility in North Florida to confirm that natural lightning makes X-rays in large quantities during the propagation of stepped leaders. The cause of the X-ray emissions is still a matter for research, as the temperature of lightning is too low to account for the X-rays observed.[114][115]

A number of observations by space-based telescopes have revealed even higher energy gamma ray emissions, the so-called terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGFs). These observations pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the recent discovery of the clear signatures of antimatter produced in lightning.[116] Recent research has shown that secondary species, produced by these TGFs, such as electrons, positrons, neutrons or protons, can gain energies of up to several tens of MeV.[117][118]

### Environmental changes

[edit]

More permanent or longer-lasting environmental changes include the following.

#### Atmospheric chemistry

[edit]

The very high temperatures generated by lightning lead to significant local increases in ozone and oxides of nitrogen. Each lightning flash in temperate and sub-tropical areas produces 7 kg of NOx on average.[119] In the troposphere the effect of lightning can increase NOx by 90% and ozone by 30%.[120]

#### Ground fertilisation

[edit]

Lightning serves an important role in the nitrogen cycle by oxidizing diatomic nitrogen in the air into nitrates which are deposited by rain and can fertilize the growth of plants and other organisms.[121][122]

#### Induced permanent magnetism

[edit]

The movement of electrical charges produces a magnetic field (see electromagnetism). The intense currents of a lightning discharge create a fleeting but very strong magnetic field. Where the lightning current path passes through rock, soil, or metal these materials can become permanently magnetized. This effect is known as lightning-induced remanent magnetism, or LIRM. These currents follow the least resistive path, often horizontally near the surface[123][124] but sometimes vertically, where faults, ore bodies, or ground water offers a less resistive path.[125] One theory suggests that lodestones, natural magnets encountered in ancient times, were created in this manner.[126]

Lightning-induced magnetic anomalies can be mapped in the ground,[127][128] and analysis of magnetized materials can confirm lightning was the source of the magnetization[129] and provide an estimate of the peak current of the lightning discharge.[130]

### Magnetic hallucinations

[edit]

Research at the University of Innsbruck has calculated that magnetic fields generated by plasma may induce hallucinations in subjects located within 200 m (660 ft) of a severe lightning storm, like what happened in Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).[131]

## Detection and monitoring

[edit]

Main article: Lightning detection

Lightning strike counter in a museum

The earliest detector invented to warn of the approach of a thunderstorm was the lightning bell. Benjamin Franklin installed one such device in his house.[132][133] The detector was based on an electrostatic device called the 'electric chimes' invented by Andrew Gordon in 1742.

Lightning discharges generate a wide range of electromagnetic radiations, including radio-frequency pulses. The Earth-ionosphere waveguide traps electromagnetic VLF\- and ELF waves. Electromagnetic pulses transmitted by lightning strikes propagate within that waveguide. The waveguide is dispersive, which means that their group velocity depends on frequency. The difference of the group time delay of a lightning pulse at adjacent frequencies is proportional to the distance between transmitter and receiver. Together with direction-finding methods, this allows locating lightning strikes up to distances of 10,000 km from their origin. Moreover, the eigenfrequencies of the Earth-ionospheric waveguide, the Schumann resonances at about 7.5 Hz, are used to determine the global thunderstorm activity.[134]

A number of countries have installed nationwide lightning detector networks. The United States federal government has constructed a nationwide grid of such lightning detectors, allowing lightning discharges to be tracked in real time throughout the continental U.S.[135][136] The EUCLID detection network is a combination of several national networks across Europe.[137] Other examples of nations with lightning detection networks are India and Brazil.[138][139]

There are a range of global detection networks, which vary in their commercial and academic principles. Blitzortung (a private global detection system that consists of over 500 detection stations owned and operated by hobbyists/volunteers) provides near real-time lightning maps.[140] The World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) is an academic led detection system.[141] The Vaisala GLD360 network is a private enterprise.[142]

In addition to ground-based lightning detection, several instruments aboard satellites have been constructed to observe lightning distribution. Some of the first satellite-based observations were made in the late 1970s.[143] The global and tropical long-term climatology of lightning has been observed by the Optical Transient Detector (OTD), aboard the OrbView-1 satellite launched on April 3, 1995, and the subsequent Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) aboard TRMM launched on November 28, 1997.[144][145][146] In addition, the ISS carried a LIS instrument for three years from March 2017.[147]

Starting in 2016, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration launched Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite–R Series (GOES-R) weather satellites outfitted with Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) instruments which are near-infrared optical transient detectors that can detect the momentary changes in an optical scene, indicating the presence of lightning.[148][149] The lightning detection data can be converted into a real-time map of lightning activity across the Western Hemisphere; this mapping technique has been implemented by the United States National Weather Service.[150] At the end of 2022, EUMETSAT launched the Lightning Imager (MTG-LI) on board the Meteosat Third Generation.[151] This complements NOAA's GLM as MTG-LI will observe Europe and Africa.[152]

### Artificial triggering

[edit]

* Rocket-triggered

Lightning can be "triggered" by launching specially designed rockets trailing spools of wire into thunderstorms. The wire unwinds as the rocket ascends, creating an elevated ground that can attract descending leaders. If a leader attaches, the wire provides a low-resistance pathway for a lightning flash to occur. The wire is vaporized by the return current flow, creating a straight lightning plasma channel in its place. This method allows for scientific research of lightning to occur under a more controlled and predictable manner.[153] The International Center for Lightning Research and Testing (ICLRT) at Camp Blanding, Florida typically uses rocket triggered lightning in their research studies.
* Laser-triggered

Since the 1970s,[154] researchers have attempted to trigger lightning strikes by means of infrared or ultraviolet lasers, which create a channel of ionized gas through which the lightning would be conducted to ground. Such triggering of lightning is intended to protect rocket launching pads, electric power facilities, and other sensitive targets.[155][156][157][158][159]
In New Mexico, U.S., scientists tested a new terawatt laser which provoked lightning. Scientists fired ultra-fast pulses from an extremely powerful laser thus sending several terawatts into the clouds to call down electrical discharges in storm clouds over the region. The laser beams sent from the laser make channels of ionized molecules known as filaments. Before the lightning strikes earth, the filaments lead electricity through the clouds, playing the role of lightning rods. Researchers generated filaments that lived a period too short to trigger a real lightning strike. Nevertheless, a boost in electrical activity within the clouds was registered. According to the French and German scientists who ran the experiment, the fast pulses sent from the laser will be able to provoke lightning strikes on demand.[160] Statistical analysis showed that their laser pulses indeed enhanced the electrical activity in the thundercloud where it was aimed—in effect they generated small local discharges located at the position of the plasma channels.[161]

## Impact of climate change and air pollution

[edit]

It is difficult to accurately predict changes in lightning due to climate change because it is challenging to simulate cloud physics variables that predict lightning (such as convection and cloud ice) in climate models.[162]

A large share of the world's lightning occurs over Africa.[163] While there are regional variations in how climate change affects lightning across the continent, one study predicts a small increase in the total amount of lightning across the continent with warming. More specifically, the total number of lightning days per year is predicted to decrease, while more cloud ice and stronger convection leads to more lightning strikes occurring on days when lightning does occur.[164]

Lightning is much less common near the North and South Poles than in other regions.[165][166] However, observations are beginning to show that lightning in the Arctic is increasing.[167][168] and models suggest that climate change will continue to increase the frequency of lightning in the Arctic in future.[169][170] The ratio of Arctic summertime lightning strikes has increased from 2010 to 2020 compared to the total lightning strikes in the world, indicating that the region is becoming more influenced by lightning.[168]

Lightning activity is increased by particulate emissions (a form of air pollution).[171][172][173][174] However, this only occurs up to a point (aerosol optical depth = 0.3). Once this threshold is crossed, lightning is then suppressed by further increases in particulates.[175][176]

When lightning occurs, it generates rapid heating causing nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the atmosphere to break apart. This process leads to the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which can subsequently result in the production of ozone, a greenhouse gas when occurring in the troposphere.[177][178] However, lightning NOx also leads to increased amounts of hydroxyl (OH) and hydroperoxyl (HO2) radicals. These reactive molecules initiate chemical reactions that break down greenhouse gases like methane, effectively cleaning the atmosphere.[179][180]

### Lightning and climate change feedbacks

[edit]

As lightning is influenced by climate change, there is a corresponding change to the lightning's influence on climate. These changes can lead to further climate change, thus creating a climate change feedback.[181]

Lightning leads to the production of tropospheric ozone and destruction of methane, both greenhouse gases and air pollutants. Therefore, the net impact of lightning on climate depends on the balance between this warming and cooling effect of the gases' effects on atmospheric chemistry. Predictions of this feedback can vary, resulting in either no change (net zero feedback), or a warming effect (positive feedback), depending on the method used to predict lightning.[182]

Lightning is the major natural cause of wildfire,[183] estimated to cause 10% of forest fires worldwide.[184] Wildfire can contribute to climate change.[185] Because wildfires emit greenhouse gases, and also affect vegetation cover (which affects how much sunlight is reflected), a lightning-wildfire feedback is possible. Multiple studies suggest there could be an increase in Boreal and Arctic lightning-ignited fires in response to climate change.[169][186] There is evidence that arctic lightning wildfire feedback may also influence vegetation and permafrost cover.[169][170] The impact of lightning on fires in the tropics remains uncertain.[186]

## In culture

[edit]

The first known photograph of lightning is from 1847, by Thomas Martin Easterly.[187] The first surviving photograph is from 1882, by William Nicholson Jennings.[188]

### Religion and mythology

[edit]

Further information: Lightning in religion

Lightning by Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis (1909)

In many cultures, lightning has been viewed as a sign or part of a deity or a deity in and of itself. These include the Greek god Zeus, the Aztec god Tlaloc, the Mayan God K, Slavic mythology's Perun, the Baltic Pērkons/Perkūnas, Thor in Norse mythology, Ukko in Finnish mythology, the Hindu god Indra, the Yoruba god Sango, Illapa in Inca mythology and the Shinto god Raijin.[189] The ancient Etruscans produced guides to divining the future based on the omens supposedly displayed by thunder or lightning.[190][191] Such use of thunder and lightning in divination is also known as ceraunoscopy,[192] a kind of aeromancy. In the traditional religion of the African Bantu tribes, lightning is a sign of the ire of the gods. Scriptures in Judaism, Islam and Christianity also ascribe supernatural importance to lightning.

### In popular culture

[edit]

Although sometimes used figuratively, the idea that lightning never strikes the same place twice is a common myth. In fact, lightning can, and often does, strike the same place more than once. Lightning in a thunderstorm is more likely to strike objects and spots that are more prominent or conductive. For instance, lightning strikes the Empire State Building in New York City on average 23 times per year.[193][194][195]

In French and Italian, the expression for "Love at first sight" is coup de foudre and colpo di fulmine, respectively, which literally translated means "lightning strike".

### Political and military culture

[edit]

Two lightning bolts pictured in the former coat of arms of the Yli-Ii municipality

The bolt of lightning in heraldry is called a thunderbolt. This symbol usually represents power and speed.

Some political parties use lightning flashes as a symbol of power, such as the People's Action Party in Singapore, the British Union of Fascists during the 1930s, and the National States' Rights Party in the United States during the 1950s.[196] The Schutzstaffel, the paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party, used the Sig rune in their logo which symbolizes lightning. The German word Blitzkrieg, which means "lightning war", was a major offensive strategy of the German army during World War II.

The lightning bolt is a common insignia for military communications units. A lightning bolt is also the NATO symbol for a signal asset.

## See also

[edit]

* Environment portal
* Weather portal

* Lightning strike
* Volcanic lightning
* Paleolightning
* Harvesting lightning energy
* Keraunography
* Keraunomedicine – medical study of lightning casualties
* Lichtenberg figure
* Lightning injury
* Lightning-prediction system
* Roy Sullivan – Sullivan is recognized by Guinness World Records as the person struck by lightning more recorded times than any other human
* St. Elmo's fire
* Upper-atmospheric lightning
* Vela satellites – satellites which could record lightning superbolts

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Maggio, Christopher R.; Marshall, Thomas C.; Stolzenburg, Maribeth (2009). "Estimations of charge transferred and energy released by lightning flashes in short bursts". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 114 (D14): D14203. Bibcode:2009JGRD..11414203M. doi:10.1029/2008JD011506. ISSN 0148-0227.
2. ^ "Severe Weather 101: Lightning Basics". National Severe Storms Laboratory. nssl.noaa.gov. NOAA. Retrieved October 23, 2019.
3. ^ "Lightning Facts". factsjustforkids.com. Facts Just for Kids. Retrieved October 23, 2019.
4. ^ "How Hot Is Lightning?". National Weather Service. weather.gov. NOAA. Retrieved February 3, 2025.
5. ^ "Essential Climate Variables". World Meteorological Organization. November 13, 2024. Retrieved February 3, 2025.
6. ^ "Severe Weather Safety Guide" (PDF). National Weather Service. 2022.
7. ^ "Lightning Facts". Fast Facts for Kids. 2022. Archived from the original on September 28, 2022. Retrieved July 27, 2022.
8. ^ Cooray, V., ed. (2014). "Mechanism of the Lightning Flash". The Lightning Flash (2nd ed.). London: Institution of Engineering and Technology. pp. 119–229.
9. ^ Jones, Nicola (January 4, 2021). "Salty Seas Make Lightning Brighter". Smithsonian. Retrieved January 11, 2021.
10. ^ "NWS JetStream – The Positive and Negative Side of Lightning". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on July 5, 2007. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
11. ^ Nag, Amitabh; Rakov, Vladimir A. (2012). "Positive lightning: An overview, new observations, and inferences". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 117 (D8). Bibcode:2012JGRD..117.8109N. doi:10.1029/2012JD017545.
12. ^ Hasbrouck, Richard. Mitigating Lightning Hazards Archived October 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, Science & Technology Review May 1996. Retrieved on April 26, 2009.
13. ^ V. A. Rakov, M. A. Uman, Positive and bipolar lightning discharges to ground, in: Light. Phys. Eff., Cambridge University Press, 2003: pp. 214–240
14. ^ Bakshi, U. A.; Bakshi, M. V. (January 1, 2009). Power System – II. Technical Publications. p. 12\. ISBN 978-81-8431-536-3. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017.
15. ^ Saba, Marcelo M. F.; Schulz, Wolfgang; Warner, Tom A.; Campos, Leandro Z. S.; Schumann, Carina; Krider, E. Philip; Cummins, Kenneth L.; Orville, Richard E. (2010). "High-speed video observations of positive lightning flashes to ground". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 115 (D24): 201. Bibcode:2010JGRD..11524201S. doi:10.1029/2010JD014330. S2CID 129809543.
16. ^ Perez, Antony H.; Wicker, Louis J.; Richard E. Orville (1997). "Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Associated with Violent Tornadoes". Weather Forecast. 12 (3): 428–37\. Bibcode:1997WtFor..12..428P. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1997)012<0428:COCTGL>2.0.CO;2.
17. ^ a b Christian, Hugh J.; McCook, Melanie A. "A Lightning Primer – Characteristics of a Storm". NASA. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
18. ^ Boccippio, DJ; Williams, ER; Heckman, SJ; Lyons, WA; Baker, IT; Boldi, R (August 1995). "Sprites, ELF Transients, and Positive Ground Strokes". Science. 269 (5227): 1088–1091\. Bibcode:1995Sci...269.1088B. doi:10.1126/science.269.5227.1088. PMID 17755531. S2CID 8840716.
19. ^ Lu, Gaopeng; Cummer, Steven A; Blakeslee, Richard J; Weiss, Stephanie; Beasley, William H (2012). "Lightning morphology and impulse charge moment change of high peak current negative strokes". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 117 (D4): n/a. Bibcode:2012JGRD..117.4212L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.308.9842. doi:10.1029/2011JD016890.
20. ^ Krehbiel, Paul R; Riousset, Jeremy A; Pasko, Victor P; Thomas, Ronald J; Rison, William; Stanley, Mark A; Edens, Harald E (2008). "Upward electrical discharges from thunderstorms". Nature Geoscience. 1 (4): 233. Bibcode:2008NatGe...1..233K. doi:10.1038/ngeo162. S2CID 8753629.
21. ^ Füllekrug, Martin; Mareev, Eugene A.; Rycroft, Michael J. (May 1, 2006). Sprites, Elves and Intense Lightning Discharges. Springer Science & Business Media. Bibcode:2006seil.book.....F. ISBN 9781402046285. Archived from the original on November 4, 2017.
22. ^ Rinnert, K. (1995). "9: Lighting Within Planetary Atmospheres". In Hans Volland (ed.). Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics. CRC Press. p. 204\. ISBN 978-0-8493-8647-3. "The requirements for the production of lightning within an atmosphere are the following: (1) a sufficient abundance of appropriate material for electrification, (2) the operation of a microscale electrification process to produce classes of particles with different signs of charge and (3) a mechanism to separate and to accumulate particles according to their charge."
23. ^ New Lightning Type Found Over Volcano? Archived February 9, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. News.nationalgeographic.com (February 2010). Retrieved on June 23, 2012.
24. ^ "Bench collapse sparks lightning, roiling clouds". Volcano Watch. United States Geological Survey. June 11, 1998. Archived from the original on January 14, 2012. Retrieved October 7, 2012.
25. ^ Pardo-Rodriguez, Lumari (Summer 2009) Lightning Activity in Atlantic Tropical Cyclones: Using the Long-Range Lightning Detection Network (LLDN) Archived March 9, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. MA Climate and Society, Columbia University Significant Opportunities in Atmospheric Research and Science Program.
26. ^ Hurricane Lightning Archived August 15, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, NASA, January 9, 2006.
27. ^ The Promise of Long-Range Lightning Detection in Better Understanding, Nowcasting, and Forecasting of Maritime Storms Archived March 9, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Long Range Lightning Detection Network
28. ^ a b Ceranic, Irena (November 28, 2020). "Fire tornadoes and dry lightning are just the start of the nightmare when a bushfire creates its own storm". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
29. ^ Wang, Qianqian; Li, Zhanqing; Guo, Jianping; Zhao, Chuanfeng; Cribb, Maureen (September 6, 2018). "The climate impact of aerosols on the lightning flash rate: is it detectable from long-term measurements?". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 18 (17): 12797–12816\. Bibcode:2018ACP....1812797W. doi:10.5194/acp-18-12797-2018.
30. ^ Thornton, Joel A.; Virts, Katrina S.; Holzworth, Robert H.; Mitchell, Todd P. (September 16, 2017). "Lightning enhancement over major oceanic shipping lanes". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (17): 9102–9111\. Bibcode:2017GeoRL..44.9102T. doi:10.1002/2017GL074982.
31. ^ Uman (1986) Ch. 4, pp. 26–34.
32. ^ Colvin, J. D.; Mitchell, C. K.; Greig, J. R.; Murphy, D. P.; Pechacek, R. E.; Raleigh, M. (1987). "An empirical study of the nuclear explosion-induced lightning seen on IVY-MIKE". Journal of Geophysical Research. 92 (D5): 5696–5712\. Bibcode:1987JGR....92.5696C. doi:10.1029/JD092iD05p05696.
33. ^ "High-speed solar winds increase lightning strikes on Earth". Iop.org. May 15, 2014. Retrieved May 19, 2014.
34. ^ a b c d "NWS Lightning Safety: Understanding Lightning: Thunderstorm Electrification". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on November 30, 2016. Retrieved November 25, 2016. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
35. ^ "Lecture 11 – Thunderstorm electrification". www.atmo.arizona.edu. Retrieved January 31, 2025.
36. ^ a b c Yair, Y. (June 2008). "Charge Generation and Separation Processes". Space Science Reviews. 137 (1–4): 119–131\. Bibcode:2008SSRv..137..119Y. doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9348-x.1–4&rft.pages=119-131&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s11214-008-9348-x&rft_id=info:bibcode/2008SSRv..137..119Y&rft.aulast=Yair&rft.aufirst=Y.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Lightning" class="Z3988">
37. ^ Jennings, S. G.; Latham, J. (1972). "The charging of water drops falling and colliding in an electric field". Archiv für Meteorologie, Geophysik und Bioklimatologie, Serie A. 21 (2–3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 299–306\. Bibcode:1972AMGBA..21..299J. doi:10.1007/bf02247978. S2CID 118661076.2–3&rft.pages=299-306&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118661076#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/bf02247978&rft_id=info:bibcode/1972AMGBA..21..299J&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=S.+G.&rft.au=Latham,+J.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Lightning" class="Z3988">
38. ^ Francis, G. W., "Electrostatic Experiments" Oleg D. Jefimenko, Editor, Electret Scientific Company, Star City, 2005
39. ^ Aplin, K. L.; Harrison, R. G. (September 3, 2013). "Lord Kelvin's atmospheric electricity measurements". History of Geo- and Space Sciences. 4 (2): 83–95\. arXiv:1305.5347. Bibcode:2013HGSS....4...83A. doi:10.5194/hgss-4-83-2013. S2CID 9783512.
40. ^ Desmet, S; Orban, F; Grandjean, F (April 1, 1989). "On the Kelvin electrostatic generator". European Journal of Physics. 10 (2): 118–122\. Bibcode:1989EJPh...10..118D. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/10/2/008. S2CID 121840275.
41. ^ Buxton, G. V., Greenstock, C. L., Helman, W. P. and Ross, A. B. "Critical Review of rate constants for reactions of hydrated electrons, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals (OH/O in aqueous solution." J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 17, 513–886 (1988).
42. ^ Dash, J G; Wettlaufer, J S (January 1, 2003). "The surface physics of ice in thunderstorms". Canadian Journal of Physics. 81 (1–2): 201–207\. Bibcode:2003CaJPh..81..201D. doi:10.1139/P03-011.1–2&rft.pages=201-207&rft.date=2003-01-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.1139/P03-011&rft_id=info:bibcode/2003CaJPh..81..201D&rft.aulast=Dash&rft.aufirst=J+G&rft.au=Wettlaufer,+J+S&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Lightning" class="Z3988">
43. ^ Dash, J. G.; Mason, B. L.; Wettlaufer, J. S. (September 16, 2001). "Theory of charge and mass transfer in ice-ice collisions". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 106 (D17): 20395–20402\. Bibcode:2001JGR...10620395D. doi:10.1029/2001JD900109.
44. ^ Saunders, C. P. R. (1993). "A Review of Thunderstorm Electrification Processes". Journal of Applied Meteorology. 32 (4): 642–55\. Bibcode:1993JApMe..32..642S. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1993)032<0642:AROTEP>2.0.CO;2.
45. ^ Fink, Micah. "How Lightning Forms". PBS.org. Public Broadcasting System. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
46. ^ National Weather Service (2007). "Lightning Safety". National Weather Service. Archived from the original on October 7, 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2007.
47. ^ Rison, William; Krehbiel, Paul R.; Stock, Michael G.; Edens, Harald E.; Shao, Xuan-Min; Thomas, Ronald J.; Stanley, Mark A.; Zhang, Yang (February 15, 2016). "Observations of narrow bipolar events reveal how lightning is initiated in thunderstorms". Nature Communications. 7 (1): 10721. Bibcode:2016NatCo...710721R. doi:10.1038/ncomms10721. PMC 4756383. PMID 26876654.
48. ^ Uman (1986) p. 61.
49. ^ Rakov and Uman, p. 84.
50. ^ Uman, Martin (1986). All About Lightning. New York: Dover. p. 74\. ISBN 978-0-486-25237-7.
51. ^ Witzke, Megan; Rumbach, Paul; Go, David B; Sankaran, R Mohan (November 7, 2012). "Evidence for the electrolysis of water by atmospheric-pressure plasmas formed at the surface of aqueous solutions". Journal of Physics D. 45 (44): 442001. Bibcode:2012JPhD...45R2001W. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/45/44/442001. S2CID 98547405.
52. ^ Ultraslow-motion video of stepped leader propagation: ztresearch.com Archived April 13, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
53. ^ Goulde, R.H. (1977) "The lightning conductor", pp. 545–576 in Lightning Protection, R.H. Golde, Ed., Lightning, Vol. 2, Academic Press.
54. ^ Stolzenburg, Maribeth; Marshall, Thomas C. (2008). "Charge Structure and Dynamics in Thunderstorms". Space Science Reviews. 137 (1–4): 355. Bibcode:2008SSRv..137..355S. doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9338-z. S2CID 119997418.1–4&rft.pages=355&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119997418#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s11214-008-9338-z&rft_id=info:bibcode/2008SSRv..137..355S&rft.aulast=Stolzenburg&rft.aufirst=Maribeth&rft.au=Marshall,+Thomas+C.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Lightning" class="Z3988">
55. ^ Petersen, Danyal; Bailey, Matthew; Beasley, William H.; Hallett, John (2008). "A brief review of the problem of lightning initiation and a hypothesis of initial lightning leader formation". Journal of Geophysical Research. 113 (D17): D17205. Bibcode:2008JGRD..11317205P. doi:10.1029/2007JD009036.
56. ^ Hooyberghs, Hans; Van Schaeybroeck, Bert; Moreira, André A.; Andrade, José S.; Herrmann, Hans J.; Indekeu, Joseph O. (2010). "Biased percolation on scale-free networks". Physical Review E. 81 (1): 011102. arXiv:0908.3786. Bibcode:2010PhRvE..81a1102H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.81.011102. PMID 20365318. S2CID 7872437.
57. ^ Griffiths, R. F.; Phelps, C. T. (1976). "A model for lightning initiation arising from positive corona streamer development". Journal of Geophysical Research. 81 (21): 3671–3676\. Bibcode:1976JGR....81.3671G. doi:10.1029/JC081i021p03671.
58. ^ Sterpka, Christopher; Dwyer, J; Liu, N; Hare, B M; Scholten, O; Buitink, S; Ter Veen, S; Nelles, A (November 24, 2021). "The Spontaneous Nature of Lightning Initiation Revealed". Ess Open Archive ePrints. 105 (23): GL095511. Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4895511S. doi:10.1002/essoar.10508882.1. hdl:2066/242824. S2CID 244646368.
59. ^ Lewton, Thomas (December 20, 2021). "Detailed Footage Finally Reveals What Triggers Lightning". Quanta Magazine. Retrieved December 21, 2021.
60. ^ Kasemir, H. W. (1950) "Qualitative Übersicht über Potential-, Feld- und Ladungsverhaltnisse Bei einer Blitzentladung in der Gewitterwolke" (Qualitative survey of the potential, field and charge conditions during a lightning discharge in the thunderstorm cloud) in Das Gewitter (The Thunderstorm), H. Israel, ed., Leipzig, Germany: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft.
61. ^ Ruhnke, Lothar H. (June 7, 2007) "Death notice: Heinz Wolfram Kasemir". Physics Today.
62. ^ Stephan, Karl (March 3, 2016). "The Man Who Understood Lightning". Scientific American. Retrieved June 26, 2020.
63. ^ Saba, M. M. F.; Paiva, A. R.; Schumann, C.; Ferro, M. A. S.; Naccarato, K. P.; Silva, J. C. O.; Siqueira, F. V. C.; Custódio, D. M. (2017). "Lightning attachment process to common buildings". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (9): 4368–4375\. Bibcode:2017GeoRL..44.4368S. doi:10.1002/2017GL072796.
64. ^ Uman, M. A. (2001). The lightning discharge. Courier Corporation. ISBN 9780486151984. Retrieved September 1, 2020.
65. ^ Deamer, Kacey (August 30, 2016) More Than 300 Reindeer Killed By Lightning: Here's Why. Live Science
66. ^ "The Path of Least Resistance". July 2001. Archived from the original on January 4, 2016. Retrieved January 9, 2016.
67. ^ Idone, V. P.; Orville, R. E.; Mach, D. M.; Rust, W. D. (1987). "The propagation speed of a positive lightning return stroke". Geophysical Research Letters. 14 (11): 1150. Bibcode:1987GeoRL..14.1150I. doi:10.1029/GL014i011p01150.
68. ^ Uman (1986) p. 81.
69. ^ US Department of Commerce, NOAA. "Understanding Lightning: Thunder". www.weather.gov. Retrieved December 15, 2023.
70. ^ Uman (1986) Ch. 5, p. 41.
71. ^ Uman (1986) pp. 103–110.
72. ^ a b Warner, Tom (May 6, 2017). "Ground Flashes". ZT Research. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
73. ^ Uman (1986) Ch. 9, p. 78.
74. ^ "Lightning Protection and Transient Overvoltage" (PDF).
75. ^ Randall Cerveny; et al. (WMO panel) (February 1, 2022), "New WMO Certified Megaflash Lightning Extremes for Flash Distance (768 km) and Duration (17.01 seconds) Recorded from Space", Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-21-0254.1, hdl:2117/369605, S2CID 246358397
76. ^ Oliver, John E. (2005). Encyclopedia of World Climatology. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. ISBN 978-1-4020-3264-6. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
77. ^ Kákona, Jakub (2023). "In situ ground-based mobile measurement of lightning events above central Europe". Atmospheric Measurement Techniques. 16 (2): 547–561\. Bibcode:2023AMT....16..547K. doi:10.5194/amt-16-547-2023. S2CID 253187897.
78. ^ "Lightning". gsu.edu. Archived from the original on January 15, 2016. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
79. ^ Holton, James R.; Curry, Judith A.; Pyle, J. A. (2003). Encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences. Academic Press. ISBN 9780122270901. Archived from the original on November 4, 2017.
80. ^ Price, Colin; Rind, David (1993). "What determines the cloud-to-ground lightning fraction in thunderstorms?". Geophysical Research Letters. 20 (6): 463–466\. Bibcode:1993GeoRL..20..463P. doi:10.1029/93GL00226.
81. ^ Bandholnopparat, K.; Sato, M.; Adachi, T.; Ushio, T.; Takahashi, Y. (2020). "Estimation of the IC to CG Ratio Using JEM-GLIMS and Ground-Based Lightning Network Data". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 125 (23): e2019JD032195. Bibcode:2020JGRD..12532195B. doi:10.1029/2019JD032195.
82. ^ "Where LightningStrikes". NASA Science. Science News. December 5, 2001. Archived from the original on July 16, 2010. Retrieved July 5, 2010.
83. ^ Uman (1986) Ch. 8, p. 68.
84. ^ R. I. Albrecht; S. J. Goodman; W. A. Petersen; D. E. Buechler; E. C. Bruning; R. J. Blakeslee; H. J. Christian. "The 13 years of TRMM Lightning Imaging Sensor: From individual flash characteristics to decadal tendencies" (PDF). NASA Technical Reports Server. Retrieved November 23, 2022.
85. ^ Fischetti, M. (2016) Lightning Hotspots, Scientific American 314: 76 (May 2016)
86. ^ "Kifuka – place where lightning strikes most often". Wondermondo. November 7, 2010. Archived from the original on October 1, 2011. Retrieved November 21, 2010.
87. ^ "Annual Lightning Flash Rate". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on March 30, 2008. Retrieved February 8, 2009.
88. ^ "Lightning Activity in Singapore". National Environmental Agency. 2002. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
89. ^ "Staying Safe in Lightning Alley". NASA. January 3, 2007. Archived from the original on July 13, 2007. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
90. ^ Pierce, Kevin (2000). "Summer Lightning Ahead". Florida Environment.com. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
91. ^ a b Larson, Nina (February 1, 2022). "770-km US megaflash sets new lightning record". Phys.org. Archived from the original on February 1, 2022.
92. ^ Thomson, E. M.; Uman, M. A.; Beasley, W. H. (January 1985). "Speed and current for lightning stepped leaders near ground as determined from electric field records". Journal of Geophysical Research. 90 (D5): 8136. Bibcode:1985JGR....90.8136T. doi:10.1029/JD090iD05p08136.
93. ^ a b c Harrison, R. G.; Aplin, K. L.; Leblanc, F.; Yair, Y. (June 1, 2008). "Planetary Atmospheric Electricity". Space Science Reviews. 137 (1): 5–10\. Bibcode:2008SSRv..137....5H. doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9419-z. ISSN 1572-9672. S2CID 122675522.
94. ^ Becker, Heidi N.; Alexander, James W.; Atreya, Sushil K.; Bolton, Scott J.; Brennan, Martin J.; Brown, Shannon T.; Guillaume, Alexandre; Guillot, Tristan; Ingersoll, Andrew P.; Levin, Steven M.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Aglyamov, Yury S.; Steffes, Paul G. (August 2020). "Small lightning flashes from shallow electrical storms on Jupiter". Nature. 584 (7819): 55–58\. Bibcode:2020Natur.584...55B. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2532-1. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 32760043. S2CID 220980694.
95. ^ Strangeway, Robert J. (1995). "Plasma Wave Evidence for Lightning on Venus". Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics. 57 (5): 537–556\. Bibcode:1995JATP...57..537S. doi:10.1016/0021-9169(94)00080-8. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
96. ^ Lorenz, Ralph D. (June 20, 2018). "Lightning detection on Venus: a critical review". Progress in Earth and Planetary Science. 5 (1): 34. Bibcode:2018PEPS....5...34L. doi:10.1186/s40645-018-0181-x. ISSN 2197-4284. S2CID 49563740.
97. ^ "Foss, Kanina, New evidence on lightning strikes University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Press release, 15 October 2013". Archived from the original on October 5, 2015.
98. ^ Knight, Jasper; Grab, Stefan W. (2014). "Lightning as a geomorphic agent on mountain summits: Evidence from southern Africa". Geomorphology. 204: 61–70\. Bibcode:2014Geomo.204...61K. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.07.029.
99. ^ "What happens when lightning strikes an airplane?". Scientific American. August 14, 2006.
100. ^ "FAA-H-8083-28A, Aviation Weather Handbook". Federal Aviation Administration. pp. 22–7. Retrieved December 24, 2024.
101. ^ Jabr, Ferris (September 22, 2014). "Lightning-Strike Survivors Tell Their Stories". Outside. Archived from the original on September 28, 2014. Retrieved September 28, 2014.
102. ^ "Lightning". National Geographic. October 9, 2009.
103. ^ Uman (1986) pp. 103–110
104. ^ "10 Facts about Cumulonimbus Clouds". May 17, 2016.
105. ^ Kieu, N.; Gordillo-Vázquez, F. J.; Passas, M.; Sánchez, J.; Pérez-Invernón, F. J.; Luque, A.; Montanyá, J.; Christian, H. (August 16, 2020). "Submicrosecond Spectroscopy of Lightning-Like Discharges: Exploring New Time Regimes". Geophysical Research Letters. 47 (15): e2020GL088755. Bibcode:2020GeoRL..4788755K. doi:10.1029/2020GL088755. hdl:10261/218540. PMC 7507749. PMID 32999518.
106. ^ "Explaining high-frequency radio waves generated during lightning strikes". AIP. September 2, 2022. Retrieved February 3, 2025.
107. ^ Landau, Lev D; Lifshitz, Evgeny M (1975). The Classical Theory of Fields. Vol. 2 (4th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-2768-9.
108. ^ Issinski, A. (August 28, 2016). "Electromagnetic field records taken August 2016 near Stewart BC, Canada".
109. ^ Landau, Lev D; Lifshitz, Evgeny M; Pitaevskii, Lev P (1984). Electrodynamics of Continuous Media. Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-2634-7.
110. ^ Wilson, C.T.R. (1925). "The acceleration of beta-particles in strong electric fields such as those of thunderclouds". Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 22 (4): 534–538\. Bibcode:1925PCPS...22..534W. doi:10.1017/S0305004100003236. S2CID 121202128.
111. ^ Moore, C. B.; Eack, K. B.; Aulich, G. D.; Rison, W. (2001). "Energetic radiation associated with lightning stepped-leaders". Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (11): 2141. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.2141M. doi:10.1029/2001GL013140.
112. ^ Dwyer, J. R.; Uman, M. A.; Rassoul, H. K.; Al-Dayeh, M.; Caraway, L.; Jerauld, J.; Rakov, V. A.; Jordan, D. M.; Rambo, K. J.; Corbin, V.; Wright, B. (2003). "Energetic Radiation Produced During Rocket-Triggered Lightning" (PDF). Science. 299 (5607): 694–697\. Bibcode:2003Sci...299..694D. doi:10.1126/science.1078940. PMID 12560549. S2CID 31926167. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2015.
113. ^ Newitz, A. (September 2007) "Educated Destruction 101", Popular Science, p. 61.
114. ^ Scientists close in on source of X-rays in lightning Archived September 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Physorg.com, July 15, 2008. Retrieved July 2008.
115. ^ Prostak, Sergio (April 11, 2013). "Scientists Explain Invisible 'Dark Lightning'". Sci-News.com. Archived from the original on June 20, 2013. Retrieved July 9, 2013.
116. ^ Cowen, Ron (November 6, 2009). "Signature of antimatter detected in lightning". Science News. Archived from the original on July 28, 2023. Retrieved July 28, 2023.
117. ^ Köhn, C.; Ebert, U. (2015). "Calculation of beams of positrons, neutrons and protons associated with terrestrial gamma-ray flashes". J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 23 (4): 1620–1635\. Bibcode:2015JGRD..120.1620K. doi:10.1002/2014JD022229.
118. ^ Köhn, C.; Diniz, G.; Harakeh, Muhsin (2017). "Production mechanisms of leptons, photons, and hadrons and their possible feedback close to lightning leaders". J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 122 (2): 1365–1383\. Bibcode:2017JGRD..122.1365K. doi:10.1002/2016JD025445. PMC 5349290. PMID 28357174.
119. ^ "Lightning's 'NOx-ious' Impact On Pollution, Climate". Science News. Retrieved August 4, 2018.
120. ^ "Surprise! Lightning has big effect on atmospheric chemistry". NASA. Archived from the original on March 9, 2019. Retrieved August 4, 2018.
121. ^ Bond, D.W.; Steiger, S.; Zhang, R.; Tie, X.; Orville, R.E. (2002). "The importance of NOx production by lightning in the tropics". Atmospheric Environment. 36 (9): 1509–1519\. Bibcode:2002AtmEn..36.1509B. doi:10.1016/s1352-2310(01)00553-2.
122. ^ Pickering, K.E., Bucsela, E., Allen, D, Cummings, K., Li, Y., MacGorman, D., Bruning, E. 2014. Estimates of Lightning NOx Production Per Flash from OMI NO2 and Lightning Observations. XV International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity, 15–20, June 2014.
123. ^ Graham, K.W.T. (1961). "The Re-magnetization of a Surface Outcrop by Lightning Currents". Geophysical Journal International. 6 (1): 85. Bibcode:1961GeoJ....6...85G. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1961.tb02963.x.
124. ^ Cox A. (1961). Anomalous Remanent Magnetization of Basalt Archived May 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1038-E, pp. 131–160.
125. ^ Bevan B. (1995). "Magnetic Surveys and Lightning". Near Surface Views (newsletter of the Near Surface Geophysics section of the Society of Exploration Geophysics). October 1995, pp. 7–8.
126. ^ Wasilewski, Peter; Günther Kletetschka (1999). "Lodestone: Nature's only permanent magnet – What it is and how it gets charged" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 26 (15): 2275–78\. Bibcode:1999GeoRL..26.2275W. doi:10.1029/1999GL900496. S2CID 128699936. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 3, 2006. Retrieved July 13, 2009.
127. ^ Sakai, H. S.; Sunada, S.; Sakurano, H. (1998). "Study of Lightning Current by Remanent Magnetization". Electrical Engineering in Japan. 123 (4): 41–47\. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6416(199806)123:4<41::AID-EEJ6>3.0.CO;2-O.
128. ^ Archaeo-Physics, LLC | Lightning-induced magnetic anomalies on archaeological sites Archived October 12, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Archaeophysics.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2012.
129. ^ Maki, David (2005). "Lightning strikes and prehistoric ovens: Determining the source of magnetic anomalies using techniques of environmental magnetism" (PDF). Geoarchaeology. 20 (5): 449–459\. Bibcode:2005Gearc..20..449M. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.536.5980. doi:10.1002/gea.20059. S2CID 52383921. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2013. Retrieved November 1, 2017.
130. ^ Verrier, V.; Rochette, P. (2002). "Estimating Peak Currents at Ground Lightning Impacts Using Remanent Magnetization". Geophysical Research Letters. 29 (18): 1867. Bibcode:2002GeoRL..29.1867V. doi:10.1029/2002GL015207. S2CID 128577288.
131. ^ "Magnetically Induced Hallucinations Explain Ball Lightning, Say Physicists".
132. ^ The Franklin Institute. Ben Franklin's Lightning Bells Archived December 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved December 14, 2008.
133. ^ Rimstar.org Video demonstration of how Franklin's Bell worked Archived August 6, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
134. ^ Volland, H. (ed) (1995) Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, ISBN 0849386470.
135. ^ "Lightning Detection Systems". Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. Retrieved July 27, 2007. NOAA page on how the U.S. national lightning detection system operates
136. ^ "Vaisala Thunderstorm Online Application Portal". Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved July 27, 2007. Real-time map of lightning discharges in U.S.
137. ^ Schulz, Wolfgang; Diendorfer, Gerhard; Pedeboy, Stéphane; Poelman, Dieter Roel (March 2, 2016). "The European lightning location system EUCLID – Part 1: Performance analysis and validation". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 16 (2): 595–605\. Bibcode:2016NHESS..16..595S. doi:10.5194/nhess-16-595-2016.
138. ^ "Indian Lightning Detection Network (ILDN)". ildn.in. Retrieved April 30, 2025.
139. ^ Pinto, Osmar; Naccarato, Kleber P.; Pinto, Iara R. C. A. (October 2011). "The new Brazilian lightning detection network: First results". 2011 International Symposium on Lightning Protection. pp. 152–153\. doi:10.1109/SIPDA.2011.6088441. ISBN 978-1-4577-1897-7.
140. ^ "Lightning & Thunderstorms – World Map". www.blitzortung.org. Retrieved April 30, 2025.
141. ^ Rodger, C. J.; Werner, S.; Brundell, J. B.; Lay, E. H.; Thomson, N. R.; Holzworth, R. H.; Dowden, R. L. (December 21, 2006). "Detection efficiency of the VLF World-Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN): initial case study". Annales Geophysicae. 24 (12): 3197–3214\. Bibcode:2006AnGeo..24.3197R. doi:10.5194/angeo-24-3197-2006.
142. ^ Pohjola, Heikki; Mäkelä, Antti (April 1, 2013). "The comparison of GLD360 and EUCLID lightning location systems in Europe". Atmospheric Research. 123: 117–128\. Bibcode:2013AtmRe.123..117P. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.10.019.
143. ^ Christian, Hugh J.; Blakeslee, Richard J.; Boccippio, Dennis J.; Boeck, William L.; Buechler, Dennis E.; Driscoll, Kevin T.; Goodman, Steven J.; Hall, John M.; Koshak, William J.; Mach, Douglas M.; Stewart, Michael F. (2003). "Global frequency and distribution of lightning as observed from space by the Optical Transient Detector". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 108 (D1): ACL 4–1–ACL 4–15. Bibcode:2003JGRD..108.4005C. doi:10.1029/2002JD002347.
144. ^ "NASA Dataset Information". NASA. 2007. Archived from the original on September 15, 2007. Retrieved September 11, 2007.
145. ^ "NASA LIS Images". NASA. 2007. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved September 11, 2007.
146. ^ "NASA OTD Images". NASA. 2007. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved September 11, 2007.
147. ^ Blakeslee, Richard J.; Lang, Timothy J.; Koshak, William J.; Buechler, Dennis; Gatlin, Patrick; Mach, Douglas M.; Stano, Geoffrey T.; Virts, Katrina S.; Walker, Thomas Daniel; Cecil, Daniel J.; Ellett, Will; Goodman, Steven J.; Harrison, Sherry; Hawkins, Donald L.; Heumesser, Matthias; Lin, Hong; Maskey, Manil; Schultz, Christopher J.; Stewart, Michael; Bateman, Monte; Chanrion, Olivier; Christian, Hugh (2020). "Three Years of the Lightning Imaging Sensor Onboard the International Space Station: Expanded Global Coverage and Enhanced Applications" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 125 (16): e2020JD032918. Bibcode:2020JGRD..12532918B. doi:10.1029/2020JD032918.
148. ^ "GLM │ GOES-R Series". www.goes-r.gov.
149. ^ Sima, Richard (March 13, 2020). "Mapping Lightning Strikes from Space". Eos.
150. ^ Bruning, Eric C.; Tillier, Clemens E.; Edgington, Samantha F.; Rudlosky, Scott D.; Zajic, Joe; Gravelle, Chad; Foster, Matt; Calhoun, Kristin M.; Campbell, P. Adrian; Stano, Geoffrey T.; Schultz, Christopher J.; Meyer, Tiffany C. (2019). "Meteorological Imagery for the Geostationary Lightning Mapper". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 124 (24): 14285–14309\. Bibcode:2019JGRD..12414285B. doi:10.1029/2019JD030874. hdl:2346/95772.
151. ^ "Lightning Imager's data debut in time for storm season | EUMETSAT". www.eumetsat.int. Retrieved April 30, 2025.
152. ^ "Lightning Imager". EUMETSAT. May 21, 2020. Archived from the original on July 14, 2022. Retrieved July 27, 2022.
153. ^ Kridler, Chris (July 25, 2002). "Triggered lightning video". requires QuickTime. Chris Kridler's Sky Diary. Archived from the original (video) on September 15, 2007. Retrieved September 24, 2007.
154. ^
* Koopman, David W. & Wilkerson, T. D. (1971). "Channeling of an Ionizing Electrical Streamer by a Laser Beam". Journal of Applied Physics. 42 (5): 1883–1886\. Bibcode:1971JAP....42.1883K. doi:10.1063/1.1660462.
* Saum, K. A. & Koopman, David W. (November 1972). "Discharges Guided by Laser-Induced Rarefaction Channels". Physics of Fluids. 15 (11): 2077–2079\. Bibcode:1972PhFl...15.2077S. doi:10.1063/1.1693833.
* Schubert, C. W. (1977). "The laser lightning rod: A feasibility study". Technical Report AFFDL-TR-78-60, ADA063847, [U.S.] Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB [Air Force Base] Ohio. Archived from the original on December 24, 2008. Retrieved December 13, 2018.
* Schubert, Charles W. & Lippert, Jack R. (1979). "Investigation into triggering lightning with a pulsed laser". In Guenther, A. H. & Kristiansen, M. (eds.). Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Pulse Power Conference, Lubbock, Texas, 1979 (PDF). Piscataway, New Jersey: IEEE. pp. 132–135.
* Lippert, J. R. (1977). "A laser-induced lightning concept experiment". Final Report. Bibcode:1978affd.rept.....L.
* Rakov and Uman, pp. 296–299.
155. ^ "UNM researchers use lasers to guide lightning". Campus News, The University of New Mexico. January 29, 2001. Archived from the original on July 9, 2012. Retrieved July 28, 2007.
156. ^ Khan, N.; Mariun, N.; Aris, I.; Yeak, J. (2002). "Laser-triggered lightning discharge". New Journal of Physics. 4 (1): 61. Bibcode:2002NJPh....4...61K. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/4/1/361.
157. ^ Rambo, P.; Biegert, J.; Kubecek, V.; Schwarz, J.; Bernstein, A.; Diels, J.-C.; Bernstein, R. & Stahlkopf, K. (1999). "Laboratory tests of laser-induced lightning discharge". Journal of Optical Technology. 66 (3): 194–198\. Bibcode:1999JOptT..66..194R. doi:10.1364/JOT.66.000194.
158. ^ Ackermann, R.; Stelmaszczyk, K.; Rohwetter, P.; MéJean, G.; Salmon, E.; Yu, J.; Kasparian, J.; MéChain, G.; Bergmann, V.; Schaper, S.; Weise, B.; Kumm, T.; Rethmeier, K.; Kalkner, W.; WöSte, L.; Wolf, J. P. (2004). "Triggering and guiding of megavolt discharges by laser-induced filaments under rain conditions". Applied Physics Letters. 85 (23): 5781. Bibcode:2004ApPhL..85.5781A. doi:10.1063/1.1829165.
159. ^ Wang, D.; Ushio, T.; Kawasaki, Z. -I.; Matsuura, K.; Shimada, Y.; Uchida, S.; Yamanaka, C.; Izawa, Y.; Sonoi, Y.; Simokura, N. (1995). "A possible way to trigger lightning using a laser". Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics. 57 (5): 459. Bibcode:1995JATP...57..459W. doi:10.1016/0021-9169(94)00073-W.
160. ^ "Terawatt Laser Beam Shot in the Clouds Provokes Lightning Strike". Archived from the original on April 20, 2008. Retrieved April 17, 2008. News report based on: Kasparian, J.; Ackermann, R.; André, Y. B.; Méchain, G. G.; Méjean, G.; Prade, B.; Rohwetter, P.; Salmon, E.; Stelmaszczyk, K.; Yu, J.; Mysyrowicz, A.; Sauerbrey, R.; Woeste, L.; Wolf, J. P. (2008). "Electric events synchronized with laser filaments in thunderclouds". Optics Express. 16 (8): 5757–63\. Bibcode:2008OExpr..16.5757K. doi:10.1364/OE.16.005757. PMID 18542684.
161. ^ "Laser Triggers Electrical Activity in Thunderstorm for the First Time". Newswise. Archived from the original on December 20, 2008. Retrieved August 6, 2008. News report based on Kasparian et al. 2008, pp. 5757–5763
162. ^ Charn, Alexander B.; Parishani, Hossein (2021). "Predictive Proxies of Present and Future Lightning in a Superparameterized Model". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 126 (17): e2021JD035461. Bibcode:2021JGRD..12635461C. doi:10.1029/2021JD035461. ISSN 2169-8996.
163. ^ Albrecht, Rachel I.; Goodman, Steven J.; Buechler, Dennis E.; Blakeslee, Richard J.; Christian, Hugh J. (November 1, 2016). "Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth?". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 97 (11): 2051–2068\. Bibcode:2016BAMS...97.2051A. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00193.1. ISSN 0003-0007.
164. ^ Finney, D. L.; Marsham, J. H.; Wilkinson, J. M.; Field, P. R.; Blyth, A. M.; Jackson, L. S.; Kendon, E. J.; Tucker, S. O.; Stratton, R. A. (2020). "African Lightning and its Relation to Rainfall and Climate Change in a Convection-Permitting Model". Geophysical Research Letters. 47 (23): e2020GL088163. Bibcode:2020GeoRL..4788163F. doi:10.1029/2020GL088163. ISSN 1944-8007.
165. ^ Kaplan, Jed O.; Lau, Katie Hong-Kiu (July 6, 2021). "The WGLC global gridded lightning climatology and time series". Earth System Science Data. 13 (7): 3219–3237\. Bibcode:2021ESSD...13.3219K. doi:10.5194/essd-13-3219-2021. ISSN 1866-3508.
166. ^ Virts, Katrina S.; Wallace, John M.; Hutchins, Michael L.; Holzworth, Robert H. (September 1, 2013). "Highlights of a New Ground-Based, Hourly Global Lightning Climatology". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 94 (9): 1381–1391\. Bibcode:2013BAMS...94.1381V. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00082.1.
167. ^ Ramirez, Rachel (January 5, 2022). "Another sign things are getting weird: Lightning around the North Pole increased dramatically in 2021". CNN. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
168. ^ a b Holzworth, Robert H.; Brundell, James B.; McCarthy, Michael P.; Jacobson, Abram R.; Rodger, Craig J.; Anderson, Todd S. (2021). "Lightning in the Arctic". Geophysical Research Letters. 48 (7): e2020GL091366. Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4891366H. doi:10.1029/2020GL091366. ISSN 1944-8007.
169. ^ a b c Chen, Yang; Romps, David M.; Seeley, Jacob T.; Veraverbeke, Sander; Riley, William J.; Mekonnen, Zelalem A.; Randerson, James T. (April 5, 2021). "Future increases in Arctic lightning and fire risk for permafrost carbon". Nature Climate Change. 11 (5): 404–410\. Bibcode:2021NatCC..11..404C. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01011-y. hdl:1871.1/5d9d7857-98f5-4339-bb11-a05d9d321fac. ISSN 1758-6798.
170. ^ a b Finney, Declan L. (April 5, 2021). "Lightning threatens permafrost". Nature Climate Change. 11 (5): 379–380\. Bibcode:2021NatCC..11..379F. doi:10.1038/s41558-021-01016-7. ISSN 1758-6798.
171. ^ Bentley, Mace; Gerken, Tobias; Duan, Zhuojun; Bonsal, Dudley; Way, Henry; Szakal, Endre; Pham, Mia; Donaldson, Hunter; Griffith, Lucie (July 1, 2024). "Toward untangling thunderstorm-aerosol relationships: An observational study of regions centered on Washington, DC and Kansas City, MO". Atmospheric Research. 304: 107402. Bibcode:2024AtmRe.30407402B. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2024.107402. ISSN 0169-8095.
172. ^ Ogasa, Nik (May 25, 2021). "Air pollution helps wildfires create their own lightning". Science.
173. ^ Cartwright, Jon (February 13, 2018). "Pollution boosts risk of lightning". Physics World. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
174. ^ Baranuik, Chris (November 15, 2017). "A Bolt from the Brown: Why Pollution May Increase Lightning Strikes". Scientific American.
175. ^ Altaratz, Orit; Koren, Ilan; Yair, Yoav; Price, Colin (2010). "Lightning response to smoke from Amazonian fires". Geophysical Research Letters. 37 (7). Bibcode:2010GeoRL..37.7801A. doi:10.1029/2010GL042679. ISSN 1944-8007.
176. ^ Sun, Mengyu; Qie, Xiushu; Mansell, Edward R.; Liu, Dongxia; Yair, Yoav; Fierro, Alexandre O.; Yuan, Shanfeng; Lu, Jingyu (2023). "Aerosol Impacts on Storm Electrification and Lightning Discharges Under Different Thermodynamic Environments". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 128 (8): e2022JD037450. Bibcode:2023JGRD..12837450S. doi:10.1029/2022JD037450. ISSN 2169-8996.
177. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Archived from the original on February 22, 2025. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
178. ^ Schumann, U.; Huntrieser, H. (July 24, 2007). "The global lightning-induced nitrogen oxides source". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 7 (14): 3823–3907\. doi:10.5194/acp-7-3823-2007.
179. ^ Brune, W. H.; McFarland, P. J.; Bruning, E.; Waugh, S.; MacGorman, D.; Miller, D. O.; Jenkins, J. M.; Ren, X.; Mao, J.; Peischl, J. (May 14, 2021). "Extreme oxidant amounts produced by lightning in storm clouds". Science. 372 (6543): 711–715\. Bibcode:2021Sci...372..711B. doi:10.1126/science.abg0492. PMID 33927054.
180. ^ Jenkins, Jena M.; Brune, William H.; Miller, David O. (2021). "Electrical Discharges Produce Prodigious Amounts of Hydroxyl and Hydroperoxyl Radicals". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 126 (9): e2021JD034557. Bibcode:2021JGRD..12634557J. doi:10.1029/2021JD034557. ISSN 2169-8996.
181. ^ Harris, Nancy; Munroe, Thailynn; Levin, Kelly (September 16, 2020). "6 Graphics Explain the Climate Feedback Loop Fueling US Fires". World Resources Institute.
182. ^ Finney, Declan L.; Doherty, Ruth M.; Wild, Oliver; Stevenson, David S.; MacKenzie, Ian A.; Blyth, Alan M. (February 12, 2018). "A projected decrease in lightning under climate change". Nature Climate Change. 8 (3): 210–213\. Bibcode:2018NatCC...8..210F. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0072-6. ISSN 1758-6798.
183. ^ Song, Yang; Xu, Cangsu; Li, Xiaolu; Oppong, Francis (March 2, 2024). "Lightning-Induced Wildfires: An Overview". Fire. 7 (3): 79. Bibcode:2024Fire....7...79S. doi:10.3390/fire7030079. ISSN 2571-6255.
184. ^ Malamud, Bruce D.; Millington, James D. A.; Perry, George L. W. (March 21, 2005). "Characterizing wildfire regimes in the United States". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (13): 4694–4699\. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.4694M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0500880102. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 555719. PMID 15781868.
185. ^ "Climate Change Indicators: Wildfires, US EPA". July 2016. Retrieved July 6, 2023.
186. ^ a b Janssen, Thomas A. J.; Jones, Matthew W.; Finney, Declan; van der Werf, Guido R.; van Wees, Dave; Xu, Wenxuan; Veraverbeke, Sander (November 9, 2023). "Extratropical forests increasingly at risk due to lightning fires". Nature Geoscience. 16 (12): 1136–1144\. Bibcode:2023NatGe..16.1136J. doi:10.1038/s41561-023-01322-z. ISSN 1752-0908.
187. ^ "The First Photographs of Lightning Crackle with Electric Chaos". Hyperallergic. May 25, 2016. Retrieved May 12, 2019.
188. ^ "These are the World's First Photos of Lightning". PetaPixel. August 5, 2020.
189. ^ Gomes, Chandima; Gomes, Ashen (2014). "Lightning; Gods and sciences". 2014 International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP). pp. 1909–1918\. doi:10.1109/ICLP.2014.6973441. ISBN 978-1-4799-3544-4. S2CID 21598095.
190. ^ Turfa, Jean MacIntosh (2012), Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
191. ^ Pallottino, Massimo (1975), The Etruscans, translated by Cremina, J., Bloomington: Indiana University Press, p. 154, ISBN 0-253-32080-1.
192. ^ "cerauno-, kerauno- + (Greek: thunderbolt, thunder, lightning)". WordInfo.com. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
193. ^ "Lightning Myths". National Weather Service. Retrieved August 9, 2023.
194. ^ "Lightning Often Strikes Twice". Spinoff. Office of the Chief Technologist, NASA. March 25, 2010. Archived from the original on March 25, 2012. Retrieved June 23, 2010.
195. ^ Simpson, Tristan (April 29, 2022). "Can lightning strike the same place twice?". The Weather Network. Retrieved August 9, 2023.
196. ^ Picture of John Kaspar of the National States Rights Party speaking in front of the party's lightning bolt flag (the flag was red, white, and blue) Archived February 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. Mauryk2.com (November 6, 2010). Retrieved on April 9, 2013.

### Sources

[edit]

* Rakov, Vladimir A.; Uman, Martin A. (2003). Lightning: Physics and effects. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521583275.
* Uman, Martin A. (1986). All About Lightning. Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 103–110. ISBN 978-0-486-25237-7.
*  This article incorporates public domain material from Understanding Lightning: Thunderstorm Electrification. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Anders, André (2003). "Tracking Down the Origin of Arc Plasma Science I. Early Pulsed and Oscillating Discharges". IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. 31 (4): 1052–1059\. Bibcode:2003ITPS...31.1052A. doi:10.1109/TPS.2003.815476. S2CID 46204216. This is also available at Anders, A. (2003). "Energy Citations Database (ECD)" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. 31 (5): 1052–1059\. Bibcode:2003ITPS...31.1052A. doi:10.1109/TPS.2003.815476. S2CID 46204216. Retrieved September 5, 2008.
* Cooray, Vernon (2014). An Introduction to Lightning. Springer Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8938-7. ISBN 978-94-017-8937-0. S2CID 127691542.
* Field, P. R.; W. H. Hand; G. Cappelluti; et al. (November 2010). "Hail Threat Standardisation" (PDF). European Aviation Safety Agency. Research Project EASA.2008/5. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 7, 2013.
* Gosline, Anna (May 2005). "Thunderbolts from space". New Scientist. 186 (2498): 30–34. Sample, in .PDF form, consisting of the book through page 20.
* "Effects of Lightning". The Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction. Vol. 12, no. 323\. Columbia College, New York. July 19, 1828 – via Project Gutenberg. Early lightning research.

## External links

[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related to Lightning.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Lightning (category)

Look up lightning in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

* "Lightning" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 673.
* World Wide Lightning Location Network
* Feynman's lecture on lightning

* v
* t
* e

Meteorological data and variables

General|

* Adiabatic processes
* Advection
* Buoyancy
* Lapse rate
* Lightning
* Surface solar radiation
* Surface weather analysis
* Visibility
* Vorticity
* Wind
* Wind shear

Condensation|

* Cloud
* Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
* Fog
* Convective condensation level (CCL)
* Lifting condensation level (LCL)
* Precipitable water
* Precipitation
* Water vapor

Convection|

* Convective available potential energy (CAPE)
* Convective inhibition (CIN)
* Convective instability
* Convective momentum transport
* Conditional symmetric instability
* Convective temperature (Tc)
* Equilibrium level (EL)
* Free convective layer (FCL)
* Helicity
* K Index
* Level of free convection (LFC)
* Lifted index (LI)
* Maximum parcel level (MPL)
* Bulk Richardson number (BRN)

Temperature|

* Dew point (Td)
* Dew point depression
* Dry-bulb temperature
* Equivalent temperature (Te)
* Forest fire weather index
* Haines Index
* Heat index
* Humidex
* Humidity
* Relative humidity (RH)
* Mixing ratio
* Potential temperature (θ)
* Equivalent potential temperature (θe)
* Sea surface temperature (SST)
* Temperature anomaly
* Thermodynamic temperature
* Vapor pressure
* Virtual temperature
* Wet-bulb temperature
* Wet-bulb globe temperature
* Wet-bulb potential temperature
* Wind chill

Pressure|

* Atmospheric pressure
* Baroclinity
* Barotropicity
* Pressure gradient
* Pressure-gradient force (PGF)

Velocity|

* Maximum potential intensity

* v
* t
* e

Atmospheric electricity

General|

* Geophysics
* Atmospheric science
* Atmospheric physics
* Atmospheric dynamics
* Atmospheric dynamo
* Atmospheric chemistry
* Earth's magnetic field

Electromagnetism|

| ELF/VLF emissions|

* Radio atmospherics
* Whistlers
* Chorus
* Hiss

|

Optical emissions|

* Upper-atmospheric lightning
* Sprites
* St. Elmo's fire
* Ball lightning

Sources|

* Solar irradiance
* Lightning
* Equatorial electrojet

Applications|

* Electrodynamic tethers
* Magnetotellurics

People|

* Georg Wilhelm Richmann
* Egon Schweidler
* Nikola Tesla
* George Simpson
* Charles Thomson Rees Wilson

* Category
* Commons

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template