List of cults of personality

A cult of personality is a system of worshipful behavior through uncritical flattery and praise directed at national leaders. Cults of personality use various techniques, including the mass media, propaganda, the arts, patriotism, and government-organized demonstrations and rallies to create a heroic image of a leader and maintain power.[1]

## Afghanistan

[edit]

Nur Muhammad Taraki of the ruling People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan served as President of Afghanistan from 1978 to 1979, when he told people to refer to him with titles such as the "Great Leader" and hung his portrait all across the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.[2] In the 1990s, Uzbek warlord general Abdul Rashid Dostum, who controlled most of northern Afghanistan, created a similar cult of personality in the region.[3] A similar personality cult has risen around former Taliban leader, Mullah Omar, after the 2021 Taliban offensive.[4]

## Albania

[edit]

1988 post stamp featuring Enver Hoxha

The long-time ruler of Communist Albania, Enver Hoxha, had what the OECD called "an overwhelming cult of personality and an ultra-centralized, authoritarian form of decision-making".[5] Hoxha was widely portrayed as a genius who commented on virtually all facets of life from culture to economics to military matters. Statues of him were erected in cities. Textbooks were required to include quotations of his about their particular subjects. The ruling party of the time, the Party of Labour of Albania, granted him honorific titles such as Supreme Comrade, Sole Force and Great Teacher.[6] When Hoxha died in 1985, Ramiz Alia took power. Robert D. McFadden of The New York Times wrote that Alia's policies of liberalization were "too little, too late", and the country descended into civil war. Alia served one year in prison for corruption, but the anarchy prevented further charges from being filed against the former Communist regime.[7]

## Argentina

[edit]

See also: Peronism

Propaganda poster depicting Juan Domingo Perón.

Juan Perón, elected three times as President of Argentina, and his second wife, Eva "Evita" Perón, were immensely popular among many of the Argentine people, and to this day they are still considered icons by the leading Justicialist Party. Followers of Perón praised his effort in creating a monolithic labour movement, while their detractors considered him a demagogue and a dictator that ferociously persecuted dissents and swiftly eroded the republican principles of the country as a way to stay in power. Following his election a personality cult developed around both Perón and Evita.[8]

## Azerbaijan

[edit]

Main article: Heydar Aliyev's cult of personality

Heydar Aliyev's cult of personality became a significant part of Azerbaijani politics and society after Heydar Aliyev came to power in 1993 and it continued after his death in 2003, when his son Ilham Aliyev succeeded him.[9][10] Aliyev, a former Soviet politburo member and the leader of Soviet Azerbaijan from 1969 to 1987, became the President of Azerbaijan in 1993. He then began to carefully design an autocratic system, with heavy reliance on family and clan members, oil revenues and patronage.[11]

In Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev is presented as the "Father of the Azeri nation",[12] often compared to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[13]

## Bolivia

[edit]

Evo Morales, president of Bolivia from 2006 to 2019, was criticized for having a cult of personality. During his reign over Bolivia, there were more then 100 works named after him, including sports venues and schools, as well as 24 named after his parents. During the interim government lead by Jeanine Áñez, statues of Morales were removed, and locations named after him were renamed.[14][15]

In 2025, Morales created a new party called EVO Pueblo, which was criticized for sharing his name.[16] Former president Jorge Quiroga called it an "egoistical project" and said "When someone starts building museums, naming streets and creating districts after himself, he's already lost his mind. That man is lost". [17]

## Brazil

[edit]

During the Vargas Era, the Brazilian Department of Information and Propaganda (DIP) promoted a Messiah-style image of Brazilian dictator Getúlio Vargas by broadcasting propaganda every day and by showing him as "saviour of the Brazilian people".

In recent years there has been a growing cult of personality in modern Brazil around the Brazilian presidents Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, promoted by the leftist Workers' Party, and Jair Bolsonaro, promoted by right-wing militants.[18]

## Bangladesh

[edit]

Main article: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's cult of personality

Mujib on a 2021 postage stamp of India

Bangladeshi political party, Awami League has been accused of promoting a personality cult around Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.[a] Mujib continues to be a revered, popular, divisive, and controversial figure in Bangladesh. During his daughter Sheikh Hasina's rule from 2009 to 2024, the Awami League had ruled Bangladesh based on a cult of personality around his legacy.[24]

## Burkina Faso

[edit]

Thomas Sankara during his regime from 1983 to 1987 tried to prevent cults of personality, including hanging posters of him, claiming that there all already "seven million Sankaras".[25] Nevertheless, after his assassination, a posthumous cult of him arose in Burkina Faso arose after the 2022 Burkinabe military coup; a street in the capital Ouagadougou originally named after Charles De Gaulle for example was renamed after Sankara, and his body was exhumed into a mausoleum in 2025[26][27]

Ibrahim Traoré, the president of Burkina Faso since 2022, is the subject of a personality cult, especially online. His followers celebrate his commitment to Pan-Africanism and anti-imperialism, as well as continuing the legacy of previous Burkinabe leader Sankara. However, Russian and Russian-backed media outlets are involved in promoting this cult, including through the use of AI-generated videos and fake news.[28][29][30]

## Cambodia

[edit]

During its first three years in power, the Khmer Rouge concealed Pol Pot's name and refused to instill a cult of personality around him. Worsening relations with Vietnam prompted the Khmer Rouge to portray Pol Pot as a wartime leader whom the people could rally around. Plaster images and portraits of him were prepared for public distribution, similar to those of Kim Il Sung and Mao Zedong. Though the Vietnamese invasion cut these plans short, a less extreme version of Pol Pot's cult of personality continued to exist in the areas which were under the control of Khmer Rouge remnants.[31]His grave has been the subject of cultic activities, with people paying respects to his grave during the Cambodian New Year and the Cambodian Festival of the Dead.[32]

Hun Sen, who led Cambodia from 1985 to 2023, also built a cult of personality around him along with his Cambodian People's Party organization that won all 125 seats in the National Assembly after the CPP won the 2018 Cambodian general election.

## Central African Republic

[edit]

The Central African Republic (CAR) has a history marked by leaders who have fostered personalistic regimes, with prominent figures developing cults of personality to consolidate their power. Jean-Bédel Bokassa, who ruled from 1966 to 1979, was notorious for his elaborate self-styling as "Emperor" and his authoritarian rule, including his coronation ceremony inspired by Napoleon.[33] His regime's excesses and alleged human rights abuses left a profound impact on CAR's political culture. Another influential leader, Ange-Félix Patassé, who served from 1993 to 2003, maintained a strong personal following, often utilizing patronage networks and favoring his own ethnic group to cement loyalty.[34]

François Bozizé, who took power through a coup in 2003 and ruled until 2013, also cultivated a significant following, partially by integrating family members into high governmental roles and leveraging security forces.[35] His successor, Faustin-Archange Touadéra, who became president in 2016, has continued this trend, partly relying on support from the Russian paramilitary Wagner Group, which has bolstered his authority amid ongoing instability.[36] Touadéra's moves to extend his tenure, such as pushing for a referendum to abolish term limits, highlight the persistence of personality-driven politics in CAR's governance, echoing the legacy of his predecessors.

## Chile

[edit]

See also: Pinochetism

General Augusto Pinochet, who took power in a military coup in 1973 to 1990, has been affectionally called 'Tata' or grandfather by his supporters[37] and in 1981 was bestowed the honorary military rank of "captain general", a title originally used by the Spanish colonial governors of Chile.[38] In 1989, indigenous Mapuche groups representing the "Consejos Regionales" bestowed Pinochet the title Ulmen Füta Lonko or Great Authority.[39][40] In addition, multiple songs have been made to commemorate his existence.

## China

[edit]

Personality cult of Wang Jingwei Portrait of Chiang Kai-shek on Tiananmen before the Communist takeover

### Republic of China

[edit]

See also: Chiangism

A personality cult in the Republic of China was centered on the Kuomintang party founder Sun Yat-sen, with his successor, President Wang Jingwei and Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek.[citation needed] The personality cult of Chiang Kai-shek went further after the republican government fled to Taiwan. He was usually referred to as "Lord Chiang" (蔣公) in public and a space between the characters of his name and title was required in printed materials. Articles in textbooks and songs glorifying him were commonly seen in Taiwan before 1987 – for example, students were required to memorise the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song before Lee Teng-hui ascended to the presidency.

### People's Republic of China

[edit]

Main articles: Mao Zedong's cult of personality, Hua Guofeng's cult of personality, and Xi Jinping's cult of personality

Statue of Mao Zedong in modern China

The People's Republic of China under Chairman Mao Zedong also developed a cult of personality, the most obvious symbol of which is his massive portrait situated on the north end of Tiananmen Square. The culture of the People's Republic of China before 1978 was highly influenced by the personality cult of Mao Zedong[citation needed] which reached its peak during the Cultural Revolution. Mao was referred to as "the great leader Chairman Mao" (伟大领袖毛主席) in public and he was entitled "the great leader, the great supreme commander, the great teacher and the great helmsman" (伟大的领袖、伟大的统帅、伟大的导师、伟大的舵手) in Cultural Revolution.[41] Badges and "little red books" of his quotations were mass-produced. Most people were required to recite the Quotations of Chairman Mao and printed material at that time usually quoted Mao's words in bold as well as in the preface. The Loyalty dance (忠字舞) was also introduced during the Cultural Revolution which lasted from 1966 to 1976.

The cult of personality continued for a time after Mao's death. His successor Chairman Hua Guofeng also practiced a cult of personality and he was referred to as "the brilliant leader Chairman Hua" (英明领袖华主席). Reforms in 1978 led to a deconstruction of Mao's cult status and the Chinese Communist Party under Deng Xiaoping and his successors such as Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao were averse to a Mao cult of personality style of rule lest it recreate the chaos of the Cultural Revolution.

The rise and consolidation of power under General Secretary Xi Jinping has given way to a return to Mao-style personality cult centered around General Secretary Xi in state media and propaganda messages,[42] with a political theory bearing his name being enshrined into the Communist Party's constitution in the 19th National Congress in October 2017.[43]

## Colombia

[edit]

Former president Álvaro Uribe became the center of a Cult of Personality in Colombia in the later years of the country's armed conflict. Supporters refer to him as "The Great Colombian" in spite of his family's ties to the Medellín Cartel and the numerous human rights scandals that marred his presidency. In 2013, after Uribe failed to amend the constitution that would allow him to stay in power for a third term in 2010, he founded a political party – the Democratic Center, that uses the former president's silhouette as logo. The party's attempts to be named after its "only leader" were thwarted in 2012.[44]

## Cuba

[edit]

Although one of Fidel Castro's alleged dying wishes was, in order to avoid a cult of personality, that buildings or streets would not be named after him or statues of him erected, such a cult had already developed by the time of his death.[45][46][47]

A posthumous cult for Che Guevara is also observed both in Cuba and abroad; statues and murals depicting him are as ubiquitous as Fidel's.[citation needed]

## Dominican Republic

[edit]

A 1955 sign intended to be displayed in a private home.

Dominican President Rafael Trujillo enjoyed a large cult of personality during his tenure and even after his death. In 1936, the Dominican Congress voted to rename the capital of Santo Domingo to Ciudad Trujillo. The same thing was done with the San Cristóbal Province and Pico Duarte (the country's highest peak), with the latter being rebaptized as "Pico Trujillo". National personalities and politicians alike had praise for Trujillo with license plates that included slogans such as "¡Viva Trujillo!" being massed produced on all levels and put on the rears of cars. Commemorative coins and stamps were created after his presidency with his image on the front.

## Egypt

[edit]

The Egyptian state practiced a cult of personality around Gamal Abdel Nasser during his rule. It has been alleged that the Egyptian media has created a personality cult around the current President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.[48][49][50]

Pro-Sisi billboard in Cairo, Billboard reads : Egypt is and always is first, Together we continue the development path to make Egypt prosperous with its people.

## El Salvador

[edit]

See also: Nayib Bukele and Nuevas Ideas

The self proclaimed “world's coolest dictator”, Nayib Bukele has allegedly cultivated a cult of personality in El Salvador.[51][52]

## Equatorial Guinea

[edit]

Nguema's depiction in the 1969-issued 1000 pesetas banknote

The first president of Equatorial Guinea, Francisco Macías Nguema, was the centre of an extreme personality cult, perhaps fueled by his consumption of copious amounts of bhang[53] and iboga,[54] and he assigned himself titles such as the "Unique Miracle" and "Grand Master of Education, Science, and Culture". The island of Fernando Pó had its name Africanized after him to Masie Ngueme Biyogo Island; upon his overthrow in 1979, its name was again changed to Bioko. The capital, Santa Isabel, had its name changed to Malabo. In 1978, he changed the national motto of the coat of arms of Equatorial Guinea to "There is no other God than Macias Nguema".[55]

This tradition has been continued by Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo who has been accused of building his own personality cult. As evidence of this, in July 2003, the state-operated radio declared that Obiang was "the country's god" and that he had "all power over men and things." It added that the president was "in permanent contact with the Almighty" and that he "can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell." He personally made similar comments in 1993. Macías had also proclaimed himself a god.[56]

Obiang has encouraged his cult of personality by ensuring that public speeches end with well-wishing for himself rather than end with well-wishing for the republic. Many important buildings have a presidential lodge, many towns and cities have streets commemorating Obiang's coup against Macías, and many people wear clothes with his face printed on them.[57][58]

Like his predecessor and other African dictators such as Idi Amin and Mobutu Sese Seko, Obiang has assigned to himself several creative titles. Among them are "gentleman of the great island of Bioko, Annobón and Río Muni."[59] He also refers to himself as El Jefe (the boss).[60]

## France

[edit]

See also: Révolution nationale

A Révolution nationale propaganda poster

During World War II, after the defeat of France by Nazi Germany in 1940, the Nazis directly occupied about two-thirds of the country, while the remainder was allowed self-government. With its capital in Vichy, this new rump country, whose government was conservative and strongly traditionalist with fascistic aspects, became known as Vichy France. Its president was Marshal Philippe Petain, a hero of the First World War, around whom a cult of personality was built up.[61] A song dedicated to him, "Maréchal, nous voilà !" (lit. "Marshal, Here We Are!") was mandatory for all school children to learn.

In French Indochina, Cambodian schoolchildren in the early 1940s began their school-day with prayers to Marshal Philippe Pétain of Vichy France, opening with the words, "Our father, which art our Leader, glorious be thy name... deliver us from evil",[62] echoing the Lord's Prayer.

## Germany

[edit]

### Third Reich

[edit]

Further information: Adolf Hitler's cult of personality

A portrait of Hitler by Albert Reich (1881–1942)

Adolf Hitler, Führer ("leader") of Nazi Germany, was referenced by Nazi propaganda in a number of honorary titles (Supreme Judge of the German People, First Soldier of the German Reich, First Worker of the New Germany, Greatest Military Commander of All Time, Military Leader of Europe, High Protector of the Holy Mountain, etc.). Numerous works in popular music and literature featured Adolf Hitler prominently. Hitler was usually depicted as a heroic, idolatrous figure, loved, feared and respected by the German people.

### Post-war Germany

[edit]

East Germany's first leader, Walter Ulbricht, was also subjected to a personality cult. People were arrested for mocking Ulbricht's goatee, which was seen by the East German government as a shorthand for him.[63]

The first leader of the West Germany, Konrad Adenauer, has also been described as having a personality cult. In the first four years of his rule, he revived the traditional German personality cultism and became depicted as an "iron man" figure. While he maintained the essential trappings of liberal democracy, within the government and his rigidly disciplined party CDU his will was not challenged.[64][65][66]

## Haiti

[edit]

Dictator François Duvalier fostered a personality cult around himself[67]: 320  and he claimed that he was the physical embodiment of the nation. He revived the traditions of vodou, later on exploiting them in order to consolidate his power by claiming that he himself was a houngan, or vodou priest. In an effort to make himself even more imposing, Duvalier deliberately modeled his image on that of Baron Samedi. The most celebrated image from the time shows a standing Jesus Christ with a hand on a seated Papa Doc's shoulder with the caption "I have chosen him".[67]: 330–332  In 1986, the Haitian constitution outlawed Duvalier-type personality cults.[67]: 361

## Hungary

[edit]

### Horthyist period

[edit]

Nazi official with a portrait of Miklós Horthy, 1940

The cult of Miklós Horthy, who became the head of state of the Kingdom of Hungary after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary and a wave of counter-revolutionary terror after World War I, was one of the first personality cults to be established in interwar Europe. Horthy was presented as the only person capable of achieving the national goals and restoring the lost national glory. Horthy built the Hungarian national identity around Christianity, and in order to maintain his own cult, Horthy actively manipulated Christian symbols and concepts, namely resurrection, rebirth, salvation, the Passion of the Christ, selectness, the promised land, and references to the will of divine providence for justifying the Horthy's rule.[68]

### Stalinist period

[edit]

Mátyás Rákosi, the leader of the Hungarian People's Republic, was surrounded by a cult of personality similar to that of Stalin.[69] This peaked on his 60th birthday in 1952, which was commemorated with a series of nationwide celebrations.[70][71] Many things were named after him, including:

* the Manfréd Weiss Steel and Metal Works
* the University of Miskolc
* a village founded in 1952 (Mátyásdomb, i.e. Mátyás-Hill)
* Rákosi scholarship for college and university students
* National Rákosi Competition (for high school students, today: Országos Középiskolai Tanulmányi Verseny)
* Rákosi Medal for winners of the above-mentioned competition

After de-Stalinization, his name was dropped from all institutions in 1956.

## India

[edit]

1940s print from North India showing Mahatma Gandhi as the son of Bharat Mata.

During the days of the freedom struggle, Mahatma Gandhi had a cult-like following amongst the people of India. Congress leaders like Chittaranjan Das and Subhash Chandra Bose who opposed Gandhi's methods, found themselves sidelined within the party. The assassination of Gandhi in 1948 led to widespread violence against Marathi Brahmins by his followers. After Gandhi's death, his cult was eclipsed by another personality cult that had developed around India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru.[72] It has been alleged that a personality cult had developed around India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Many leaders opposed Nehru's style of functioning, his economic policies and his socialist agenda. C. Rajagopalachari criticized the personality cult surrounding Nehru, saying that there should be an opposition group within the Congress because it was running with "accelerators and no brakes" without a true opposition. Rajagopalachari later formed the liberal Swatantra Party because of his opposition to Nehru's style of functioning.[73] The expression 'Nehruvian consensus' reflects the dominance of Nehruvian ideals, a product of Nehru's personality cult and the associated statism, i.e. the overarching faith in the state and the leadership.[74] However, it is also held by some that Nehru himself did not actively encourage the creation of a cult of personality around him. In fact, he actively discouraged it.[75] Nehru also wrote an essay titled 'Rashtrapati' in 1937 under the pseudonym 'Chanakya'. Published in the Modern Review, it warned people about Nehru's potential to become a dictator and emphasised the value of questioning leaders.[76] The Indian National Congress has been accused of propagating a personality cult centred around Nehru, his daughter Indira Gandhi and the Nehru–Gandhi family.[77]

Current Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi is often criticised for creating a personality cult around him.[78][79] Many of the leaders and supporters of Modi's political party Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) often praised him and tried to build a god-like persona over him. Shivraj Singh Chouhan, the chief minister of Madhya Pradesh, said in 2022, "He is superhuman and has traces of god in him."[80] It is observed by media critics that despite flawed governance and several political setbacks,[81][82][83] Modi's charisma and popularity was a key factor that helped the BJP return to power in the 2019 Parliament elections.[84] Opposition and critics often accused Modi for spreading propaganda using popular media such as movies, television and web series.[85][86][87][88] Modi is often accused of having narcissist traits.[89][90] In 2015, Modi wore a suit which has his name embroidered all over it in fine letters while greeting US president Barack Obama during his bilateral visit to India.[91] This suit was auctioned that year, selling at a record amount of 43.1 million Indian rupees, thereby earning the Guinness World Records for the most expensive suit.[92] In 2021, the BJP-ruled government of Gujarat named the world's largest cricket stadium after him. During the 2024 general elections, Modi stated that he viewed himself to be sent directly by God to serve a special purpose on Earth.[93] BJP spokesperson Sambit Patra while campaigning in the Hindu holy city of Puri stated that even Jagannath (the form of the Hindu god Vishnu which is worshipped there) himself is a devotee of Modi.[94]

One study argues that India's political culture since the decline of the Congress' single-handed dominance over national politics from the 1990s has paved way for personality cults centered around leaders of the small regional parties,[95] derived from hero-worship of sportspersons & film industry celebrities and the concept of bhakti,[96] which in turn has fostered nepotism. Among these leaders, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister J. Jayalalithaa had one of the most extensive ones. She was widely referred by leaders and members of her party as Amma ('mother' in Tamil, also used to refer to Hindu goddesses) & would prostrate themselves before her. Her government provided various kinds of subsidised goods under the brand name of Amma. Widespread violence broke out throughout the state when she was arrested on charges of corruption. A huge wave of public grief swept all over the state, with some even committing suicide, following her death in 2016.[97][98]

## Indonesia

[edit]

See also: Guided Democracy in Indonesia and New Order (Indonesia)

There were extensive cults of personality surrounding Indonesia's founding leaders, Sukarno (1945-1966) and Suharto (1966-1998).

### Sukarno (Guided Democracy)

[edit]

During the Guided Democracy era, Sukarno developed a cult of personality. He was made "president for life" by the MPRS in 1963. His ideological writings on the 1959 Political Manifesto (Manipol-USDEK) and NASAKOM ("Nationalism, Religion and Communism") became mandatory subjects in Indonesian schools and universities, while his speeches were to be memorized and discussed by all students. All newspapers, the only radio station (RRI, government-run), and the only television station (TVRI, also government-run) were made into "tools of the revolution" and functioned to spread Sukarno's messages. Sukarno's cult extends to the capital of newly acquired West Irian renamed to Sukarnopura and the highest peak in the country was renamed from Carstensz Pyramid to Puntjak Sukarno (Sukarno Peak). The 1962 Asian Games Sports Complex was also renamed after him, as he was also the architect involved. He was featured in the obverse of some of the banknotes issued during his time in office.

Sukarno's depiction in the 1964-issued 1 rupiah banknote

Sukarno was popularly referred to as bung ("comrade"), and he painted himself as a man of the people who carried the aspirations of Indonesia and dared to take on the West.[99] Also, some other titles were given to him, like "Great Leader of the Revolution". When General Suharto gradually rose to power on March 11, 1966, Sukarno's cult, roles, and services were eradicated in a de-Sukarnoization policy.

### Suharto (New Order)

[edit]

Suharto's depiction in the 1993-issued 50,000 rupiah banknote

The New Order government created a propaganda in which Suharto is depicted as the "hero" during the 1949 General Offensive, as well as during the September 30 coup attempt and its subsequent mass killings and unrests. He was also granted the title of bapak pembangunan ("father of development") in 1983.[100] Several books praising him and his works were published during his 30 years of power, such as the 6-book series of "Jejak Langkah Pak Harto" (Mr. Harto's Footsteps) by Nazaruddin Sjamsuddin (1991), "The Smiling General: President Soeharto of Indonesia" by an unknown German named Otto Gustav Roeder (1969) – who was thought to be a former Schutzstaffel member and spy stationed in Indonesia named Rudolf Oebsger-Röder [id] – and his autobiography entitled "Pikiran, Ucapan, dan Tindakan Saya" (My Thoughts, Remarks, and Actions, 1989).

In 1993, its central bank, Bank Indonesia, issued the first – and the then-highest valued – banknote of 50,000 rupiah. Its obverse pictured Suharto as the Father of Development and the slogan "25 Tahun Indonesia Membangun" (25 years of Indonesia's development), which dated back to his first term as president in 1968.

In September 1998, four months after the Suharto's resignation, Information Minister Yunus Yosfiah – who was formerly his closest ally – declared that the Treachery of G30S/PKI film would no longer be compulsory viewing material, reasoning that it was an attempt to manipulate history and create a cult within Suharto as the protagonist. In addition, the aforementioned sports complex name was restored in 2001.

In the present day, Suharto is still venerated and revered among the country's older demographic and conservative politicians. Furthermore, there were demands by some citizens and politicians to re-establish his policies as part of the "New Order revivalism", whom many considers beneficial.[101]

## Iran

[edit]

The bazaar under the portrait of Ruhollah Khomeini in Isfahan, Iran

Following the Iranian Revolution, a cult of personality developed around Supreme Leaders Ruhollah Khomeini and Ali Khamenei.[102][103] This is most evident in the ubiquitous visual depictions of both men.[104] According to Baqer Moin, as part of Khomeini's personality cult, he "had been transformed into a semi-divine figure. He was no longer a grand ayatollah and deputy of the Imam, one who represents the Hidden Imam, but simply 'The Imam'."[105] Khomeini's personality cult fills a central position in foreign- and domestically targeted Iranian publications.[106] The methods used to create his personality cult have been compared to those used by such figures as Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong and Fidel Castro, and it was encouraged by Khomeini himself (which was negatively noted by his enemies inside Iran).[107][108][109] Regarding Khamenei, Amir Taheri has written, "Like Khomeini before him, Khamenei is the object of a massive cult of personality. Official flatterers describe him as a "Divine Gift to Mankind" or as the "Shining Sun of the Imamate." In official discourse, he is quoted more often than either Prophet Muhammad or the Koran itself. Objects which he has touched during provincial visits are collected and sold as icons..."[110]

There is a personality cult built around Qasem Soleimani, ever since his death.[111][112][113][114] Portraits, banners and posters of Qasem Soleimani can be seen in Iran and in Iraq, usually coupled with Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis.

## Iraq

[edit]

Main article: Saddamism § Cult of personality

Poster showing Saddam Hussein comparing himself to Hammurabi, King of Babylon, 1984

As a sign of his consolidation of power as Iraq's dictator, Saddam Hussein's personality cult pervaded Iraqi society. He had thousands of portraits, posters, statues and murals erected in his honor all over Iraq.[115] His face could be seen on the sides of office buildings, schools and classrooms, airports, and shops, as well as on all denominations of Iraqi currency (the dinar). Saddam's personality cult reflected his efforts to appeal to the various elements in Iraqi society. This was seen in his variety of apparel: he appeared in the costumes of the Bedouin, the traditional clothes of the Iraqi peasant (which he essentially wore during his childhood), and even appeared in Kurdish clothing, but he also appeared in Western suits fitted by his favorite tailor, projecting the image of an urbane and modern leader. Sometimes he would also be portrayed as a devout Muslim, wearing a full headdress and robe, praying towards Mecca, but most often he was depicted wearing a military uniform.[116]

An international airport, a university, a bridge, a dam, a stadium, an art centre, a street, an urban district (Saddam-city), a rocket and other objects were named after him. Saddam even had many well-decorated (by golden flush toilets) palaces for his own private use. People brought many gifts to Saddam that were collected in a special palace. According to his order, every tenth brick of reconstructed ancient buildings (including Nebuchadnezzar's palace) was marked with his name or signature. His biography and his literary works were required reading in schools and Ba'ath Party functioneers examined students' knowledge of them.[clarification needed] Many written songs, novels, scientific and propaganda articles were devoted to him. State television was broadcast with his image in the background and a mosque at the corner of the screen and it very often showed him, or his hands being kissed by children and other people.

After the fall of his regime, made visible by the toppling of his statue on Firdous Square in Baghdad on April 9, 2003, all statues of Saddam were destroyed.[116] All other aspects of his cult were dismantled, following the US invasion of Iraq.[117] After the fall of Saddam in 2003, personality cults of Moqtada Al-Sadr and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis can be seen throughout Iraq, through posters and banners. Some of the posters also carry insignia of the Popular Mobilization Forces.

## Italy

[edit]

Main articles: Propaganda of Fascist Italy § Personality cult, and Berlusconism

Benito Mussolini in a poster promoted by fascist propaganda with the motto: "Win and we shall win"

The personality cult of Benito Mussolini was in many respects the unifying force of the Fascist regime, acting as a common denominator for various political groups and social classes in both the fascist party and the wider Italian society. A basic slogan proclaimed that Mussolini was always right (Italian: Il Duce ha sempre ragione). Endless publicity revolved around him. He was generally portrayed in a macho manner, although he could also appear as a Renaissance man, a military man, a family man, or even as a common man. This reflected his presentation as a universal man, expert in all subjects; a light was left on his office long after he was asleep as a part of fascist propaganda in order to present him as an insomniac owing to his driven to work nature. Mussolini himself oversaw which photographs could appear, rejecting some, for instance, because he was not sufficiently prominent in a group. Legends of Mussolini defying death during the First World War and surviving assassination attempts were circulated in order to give the dictator a mythical, immortal aura. In addition to depicting Mussolini as being chosen by God, the regime presented him as having omnipotent, godlike or superhuman powers. His image proclaimed that he had improved the Italian people morally, materially, and spiritually. Even before his seizure of power, he was proclaimed the Duce in song. The war on Ethiopia was presented as a revival of the Roman Empire, with Mussolini as Augustus.

With the entry of media tycoon Silvio Berlusconi into Italian politics in the 1990s and 2000s, some critics claimed that a new kind of cult of personality was in place, favored by Berlusconi's three national television networks and newspapers.[118] Moreover, the hymn of Berlusconi's movements Forza Italia and People of Freedom was Meno male che Silvio c'è, literally "Thank goodness for Silvio".[119][120] In addition to that, Berlusconi often described himself as the Jesus Christ of Italian politics.[121][122] These attitudes were seen by public opinion as clear examples of the new political style that Berlusconi brought into Italy, focused on the leader's charisma, cult of personality and media domination.[123] Silvio Berlusconi was Prime Minister of Italy for three terms and four governments. He governed the country for a total of almost ten years (less than one year in 1994–1995; five years in 2001–2006; and three and a half years in 2008–2011).

## Kazakhstan

[edit]

The former first President Nursultan Nazarbayev is the subject of a state sponsored personality cult in Kazakhstan, where he has assumed the title "Leader of the Nation".[124][125] After the president's resignation, the Parliament of Kazakhstan voted to rename the capital, Astana, into Nur-sultan as a 'tribute'.[126][127] The city's previous name was restored in September 2022.

## South Korea

[edit]

A huge card stunt depicting Park Chung Hee at a ROK Armed Forces Day parade in 1973.

Further information: Propaganda in South Korea

After taking power in a coup in 1961, President Park Chung Hee developed a personality cult of a type identical to his northern counterpart, with his image on posters and paintings that were displayed dynamically at marches and stadium gatherings.[128] Many themes of Park's propaganda were very similar to those of North Korea, one example is being seen planting trees in a planting ceremony.

## North Korea

[edit]

Main article: North Korean cult of personality

The statues of Kim Il Sung (d. 1994) and Kim Jong Il (d. 2011) at the Mansudae Grand Monument in Pyongyang

The peer-reviewed academic journal North Korean Review, published by the Institute for North Korean Studies at the University of Detroit Mercy in Detroit, Michigan, United States, reports that "Like his father Kim Jong-il during his lifetime, Kim Jong-un has so far avoided a cult of personality around himself that would include statues, street and place names, or images in pins or in apartments. He inherited, however, a few titles such as 'Great Sun of the 21st century,' 'Marshal,' or his father's title 'Great Leader' [widaehan ryŏngdoja]. The other 'Great Leader' [widaehan suryŏng] is still exclusively used for Kim Il-sung." [sic][129]

## Laos

[edit]

A cult of personality is centered around the founders of the Lao People's Democratic Republic, Kaysone Phomvihane and the less prominent Prince Souphanouvong since their deaths in the early 1990s as there were no personality cults bestowed to them during their time in power.[130] Kaysone's portrait is displayed on public government buildings as well as on Laotian kip bills. There is a museum built in Vientiane in order to honor Kaysone's life. Statues are also erected in his honor. Souphanouvong's name and face are also seen in memorials, museums, and statues all across Laos, with a university being named after him in Luang Prabang. Due to Souphanouvong's past position as only a figurehead president and leader of the communist Pathet Lao movement with Kaysone holding the real power over Laos, the display of Souphanouvong's personality cult are seen with much lesser prominence than Kaysone.

## Libya

[edit]

The Central Bank of Libya illuminated with an image of Gaddafi in 2009

A cult of personality devoted to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi existed in Libya during his rule.[131] His face appeared on a wide variety of items, including postage stamps, watches, and school satchels. Quotations from The Green Book appeared on a wide variety of places, from street walls to airports and even on pens, and they were also put to pop music for public release.

Gaddafi claimed that he disliked the personality cult surrounding him, but he tolerated it because the Libyan people adored him.[131] Biographers Blundy and Lycett believed that he was "a populist at heart".[131] Throughout Libya, crowds of supporters would turn up to public events at which he appeared; described as "spontaneous demonstrations" by the government, there are recorded instances of groups being coerced or paid to attend.[132]

He was typically late to public events, and he would sometimes not show up at all.[133] Although Bianco thought that he had a "gift for oratory",[134] he was considered a poor orator by biographers Blundy and Lycett.[135] Biographer Daniel Kawczynski noted that Gaddafi was famous for his "lengthy, wandering" speeches,[136] which typically involved criticizing Israel and the U.S.[133]

## Peru

[edit]

Main article: Fujimorism

See also: Fujimorist propaganda

Fujimorism is the political ideology of former Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori as well as the personality cult built around him, his policies and his family, especially Keiko Fujimori. Fujimori was elected president in the 1990 election. He then led the 1992 Peruvian self-coup, ostensibly directed against domestic terrorists. Following the 1992 crisis, Fujimori would broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions as possible to persecute left-wing political opponents.[137] Using the terruqueo, a fearmongering tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a cult of personality by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru.[137]

Following Fujimori's fall from power, his self-exile to Japan, his extradition back to Peru and his subsequent trial and imprisonment, there emerged political parties that continued to proclaim to follow the legacy of Alberto Fujimori. The most prominent of these groups that formed in the aftermath of Alberto's downfall is Popular Force (Fuerza Popular), a political party that was created and is led by the former president's daughter Keiko Fujimori, a presidential candidate in 2011 and again in 2016. During the 2021 Peruvian general election, the right-wing elite, business groups and the majority of media organizations in Peru collaborated with the campaign of Keiko Fujimori by appealing to fear when discussing political opponents.[138][139] Media organizations in Peru would use the terruqueo along with fake news in an effort to support Keiko Fujimori.[140]

## Philippines

[edit]

Further information: Ferdinand Marcos' cult of personality, Diehard Duterte Supporters, and Epal (politics)

In the Philippines, many local politicians engage in some sort of cult of personality. The most famous are those of President Ferdinand Marcos, who was dictator from 1965 to 1986 and the Aquino family. They are often branded as "epalitiko" by the media, which is a contraction of the words epal (slang for "attention-grabber"), and pulítiko ("politician"). They put their images and their names on billboards of government projects. They also print tarpaulins, usually with their images in order to establish a sense of connection with their constituents.[141][142][143] Senate Bill No. 1967 or Anti-Signage of Public Works Act, colloquially known as the Anti-Epal Bill, was filed by Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago in November 2011, and refiled again in July 2013 in an effort to stop the practice.[144]

The 16th president, Rodrigo Duterte, is accused of creating a cult of personality on himself, with some supporters believing "he was appointed by God".[145][146]

## Poland

[edit]

Main articles: Józef Piłsudski's cult of personality and Edward Rydz-Śmigły's cult of personality

A girl reciting a poem in front of Piłsudski's bust

A cult of personality developed in Poland around the figure of Józef Piłsudski, a Polish military commander and politician, starting from the interwar period and continuing after his death in 1935 until the present day. During the interwar period, Piłsudski's personality cult was propagated by the state media, which described him as a masterful strategist and a political visionary, and associated him with his role in regaining Polish independence in the aftermath of World War I, and his leadership in the ensuing Polish–Soviet War. It has survived decades of repression, particularly during the era of communist rule.

In modern Poland, Piłsudski is recognized as an important and largely positive figure in Polish history. Polish Independence Day is commemorated on November 11, the date when Piłsudski assumed power in Poland after the First World War. Piłsudski's successor Edward Śmigły-Rydz began to develop his own cult of personality.

Pope John Paul II is also the namesake of numerous statues, museums, streets, universities,[147] etc. while at least one reporter was prosecuted for offending his persona in print.[148]

## Portugal

[edit]

A propaganda poster depicting the dictator António de Oliveira Salazar as Afonso I of Portugal. The motto says "Everything for the nation, nothing against the nation"

See also: Estado Novo (Portugal)

During the Estado Novo regime, but mainly at its beginning, there was a significant effort by the state to promote António de Oliveira Salazar as a national hero who saved the country from political and financial instability, with him often getting compared to other historical figures of Portugal. Sometimes called "chefe" (chief), propaganda posters and photographs glorifying not only Salazar[149] but also Óscar Carmona[citation needed] were commonly placed in public buildings such as schools and police stations. In schools, it was also common for books to have direct references to Salazar and his status as protector and savior of the nation, such as the famous "A Lição de Salazar" (The Lesson of Salazar),[150] printed and distributed in Portuguese schools in 1938 with the purpose of promoting the values of the National Union party and the work carried out by Salazar up to that point. The government also used cinema (which was at that time a relatively new and growing phenomenon in Portugal) to further glorify Salazar but also to spread anti-communist indoctrination and the apology of corporatism,[151] thus causing cinematographic propaganda to be spread throughout the country on classic Portuguese films such as "O Pátio das Cantigas" (The Courtyard of Songs).[152]

Some infrastructures inaugurated or restructured during the regime were named or renamed after the dictator, such as the 25 de Abril Bridge (formerly called Salazar Bridge, not to be confused with the Salazar Bridge built in 1935 in Santa Comba Dão)[citation needed] and the Josina Machel Secondary School (formerly called Salazar National Liceu),[citation needed] the latter also having a statue of the dictator at its main entrance.[153] The Portuguese coin of 20 escudos had represented in itself the Salazar Bridge[154] and Óscar Carmona had several stamps and angolar currency notes printed with his image in circulation in Angola.

## Romania

[edit]

### Kingdom of Romania

[edit]

Main article: Carol II of Romania's cult of personality

See also: Kingdom of Romania under Fascism

King of Romania, Carol II, also had a cult of personality during his rule.[155]

1942 post stamp featuring Ion Antonescu

Ion Antonescu, the Axis-aligned dictator of Romania during World War II who rose to power in 1940 with a coup orchestrated by him and the Fascist party Iron Guard and headed a fascist-like system, was also subjected to a personality cult. Antonescu had been identified with the "ideals of the Romanian people to the total fusion... truly [representing] the soul of the Romanian nation" and "eminent man with noble principles" and "iron will", "just, honest, a remarkable creator, capable of a penetrating comprehension of history", the founder of a new epoch.[156]

### Socialist Republic of Romania

[edit]

Main article: Nicolae Ceaușescu's cult of personality

In 1986 The New York Times reporter, David Binder stated that Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu presided over "a cult of personality that has equaled, or even surpassed, those of Stalin's Russia, Mao's China and Tito's Yugoslavia."[157] Inspired by the personality cult surrounding Kim Il Sung in North Korea, it started with the 1971 July Theses which reversed the liberalization of the 1960s and imposed a strict nationalist ideology. Initially, the cult of personality was only focused on Ceaușescu himself; however, by the early 1980s, his wife Elena was also a focus of the cult even to the extent that she got credit for scientific achievements which she could never have accomplished. It remained in force until the overthrow of the regime in 1989 and the couple's execution.

Another Romanian communist ruler, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej,[158] also had a personality cult.

## Russia

[edit]

### Soviet era

[edit]

Chinese communists celebrate Joseph Stalin's 70th birthday, 1949

See also: Stalin's cult of personality, List of statues of Stalin, and Neo-Stalinism

"Long live our teacher, our father, our leader, Comrade Stalin!" (1946 poster, Soviet Union). Stalin was the leader about whom the expression "cult of personality" was devised in 1956 by Nikita Khrushchev.

Nikita Khrushchev recalled Karl Marx's criticism in his 1956 "Secret Speech" denouncing Joseph Stalin and his cult of personality to the 20th Party Congress:[159]

> Comrades, the cult of the individual acquired such monstrous size chiefly because Stalin himself, using all conceivable methods, supported the glorification of his own person.... One of the most characteristic examples of Stalin's self-glorification and of his lack of even elementary modesty is the edition of his Short Biography, which was published in 1948.

> This book is an expression of the most dissolute flattery, an example of making a man into a godhead, of transforming him into an infallible sage, "the greatest leader", "sublime strategist of all times and nations". Finally no other words could be found with which to lift Stalin up to the heavens.

> We need not give here examples of the loathsome adulation filling this book. All we need to add is that they all were approved and edited by Stalin personally and some of them were added in his own handwriting to the draft text of the book.[159]

Some authors (e.g., Alexander Zinovyev) have argued that Leonid Brezhnev's rule was also characterized by a cult of personality, though unlike Stalin, Brezhnev did not initiate large-scale persecutions in the country. One of the aspects of Leonid Brezhnev's cult of personality was his obsession with titles, rewards and decorations, leading to his inflated decoration with medals, orders and so on.[160] This was often ridiculed by the ordinary people and led to the creation of many political jokes.

### Modern Russia

[edit]

See also: Putinism and Ramzan Kadyrov

Some journalists and Russian oppositionists argue that there is now a cult of personality around Vladimir Putin. As of 2011, one-fourth of the Russian population believes that a cult of personality reminiscent of Soviet Union-era leaders has developed around Putin, while another thirty percent believed that there were increasing signs of a personality cult surrounding Putin. Evidence of this includes food products named after him.[161] Other evidence of Putin's personality cult [ru] includes the existence of the Army of Putin, his own female fan club [162] as well as his involvement in action man publicity stunts.[161] According to the United States Government-funded Radio Free Europe, in December 2015, a Russian youth group by the name of "Network" published a book titled "World-Changing Words: Key quotes of Vladimir Putin", which has been compared to Mao Zedong's Little Red Book.[163]

The Head of the Chechen Republic, Ramzan Kadyrov has also been likened to possessing an extensive cult of personality. According to The New Yorker columnist Joshua Yaffa, media in Chechnya supplies heavy coverage to their leader, including "plenty of stories of citizens appealing to Kadyrov through messages on Instagram, and in many cases Kadyrov himself would show up the next day to fix some small problem or cajole an incompetent official into action."[164] Kadyrov's father Akhmad has also been subject to lavish attention, and in 2021 his book A Path Bathed in Light was made required reading for Chechen highschoolers.[165] Ramzan ordered dozens of images of superheroes in 2020 to be removed, on the grounds that "there are many real heroes from whom you can and should take an example, otherwise children think that only these heroes exist," and had them replaced with pictures of his father.[166] Then-Chechen President Alu Alkhanov criticized Kadyrov in 2007 for growing a personality cult. Kadyrov denied all such allegations in an interview with Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.[167]

## Serbia

[edit]

Serbian president Aleksandar Vučić petting a dog with Vladimir Putin, president of Russia. Pro-government media in Serbia most often presents Vučić as a powerful person under constant attack, who receives messages of support from Putin.[168]

Some observers have described that Aleksandar Vučić built a cult of personality during his authoritarian rule as prime minister and as president.[169][170][171][172][173][174][175][excessive citations] After Vučić's inauguration as the president of Serbia, he appointed Ana Brnabić as his successor as prime minister. Shortly afterwards, Brnabić suggested that portraits of Vućić be placed in all state institutions “to strengthen the cult of the state”, which was supported by some ministers.[173][175][176] According to investigative journalism portal Crime and Corruption Reporting Network, more than 700 fake news were published on the front pages of pro-government tabloids during 2018.[177][178] Many of them were about alleged attacks on Vučić and attempts of coups, as well as messages of support to him by Vladimir Putin.[178] In 2020, Twitter announced that it shut down a network of 8,500 spam accounts that wrote 43 million tweets – acted in concert to cheerlead for Vučić and his party, boost Vučić-aligned content and attack his opponents.[179] Some athletes and sports officials praised Vučić for own success, even giving him their own medals.[173][180]

In the last days of the campaign before the 2017 presidential election, he was a guest with his parents on a program on Happy TV, in which he offered assistance in front of the camera to a man who allegedly fainted.[181][182][183] Parliamentary leader of the governing Serbian Progressive Party, Zoran Babić, declared during the session that he admires the Vučić physically and mentally, stating that he was impressed that Vučić had not left the hall for hours to go to the toilet.[175][184] Director of the Institute for Health Protection of Mother and Child of Serbia stated that the children patients and parents were more smiling and cheerful than ever because of the president's visit.[185] After Vučić was hospitalized for cardiovascular problems in November 2019, ministers, party colleagues and local party committees wrote announcements and organized support groups, while his associates and pro-regime media accused the journalists of worsening the president's health by asking “inappropriate” questions about alleged corruption by government ministers.[186][187][188][189]

## Spain

[edit]

Equestrian statue of generalissimo Francisco Franco in the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (City Hall Plaza) of Santander, taken down in late 2008

A cult of personality surrounded Francisco Franco during his regime. From the mid-1940s onward, after he proclaimed Spain a monarchy with himself as regent for life, he was depicted much like a king. He wore the uniform of a captain general (a rank traditionally reserved for the king) and resided in the royal Pardo Palace. He appropriated the kingly privilege of walking beneath a canopy, and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. Indeed, although his formal titles were Jefe del Estado (Head of State) and Generalísimo de los Ejércitos Españoles (Generalissimo of the Spanish Armed Forces), he was referred to as Caudillo de España por la gracia de Dios, (By the Grace of God, the Leader of Spain). Por la Gracia de Dios is a technical, legal formulation which states sovereign dignity in absolute monarchies, and it had only been used by monarchs before Franco used it himself.[190][191][192][193]

For almost four decades, schoolchildren were taught that Franco had been sent by Divine Providence to save Spain from chaos, atheism and poverty.[194][195]

## Sri Lanka

[edit]

Mahinda Rajapaksa has been accused of creating a cult of personality around himself, using the civil war victory and Sinhala chauvinism. He was referred as a "King" by some of his supporters, and he used the media to portray himself as a strong man.[196][197][198] During his time in power, his pictures were shown on buses, billboards, and all forms of media. Television ads where songs were sung by school children in his rallies would hail him as "our father" and "father of the country". Rajapaksa also printed his picture on currency and named the budget airline Mihin Lanka after himself.[199][200][201] Rajapaksa thought having his name in the sky would bring him good fortune.[199] By 2022 the popularity of the Rajapaksas had declined and during the 2022 Sri Lankan Protests protesters named him "Myna" as an insulting nickname and demanded his resignation alongside the entire Rajapaksa family.[202]

Mattala Rajapaksa International Airport, Magampura Mahinda Rajapaksa Port, Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre, and Mahinda Rajapaksa International Stadium were all high-profile lavish infrastructure projects initiated by Rajapaksa during his administration and named for him.[203] Thus, critics have accused Rajapaksa of being narcissistic.[204][205][206]

## Syria

[edit]

Main article: Hafez al-Assad's cult of personality

Syrian army vehicle during the 1990 military parade. It shows the Ba'ath Party emblem and portraits of Hafez al-Assad.

As one of his strategies to maintain power over Syria, Hafez al-Assad developed a state-sponsored cult of personality.[207][208][209][210][211][212][excessive citations] Portraits of him, often depicting him engaging in heroic activities, were placed in every public space. He named myriad numbers of places and institutions in Syria after himself and other members of his family, such as Lake Assad, an artificial reservoir filled during his time in office. In school, children were taught to sing songs of adulation for Assad. Teachers would begin each school day with the slogan "Our eternal leader, Hafez al-Assad".[213] The personality cult that he developed portrayed him as a wise, modest and just leader of the country. This strategy of creating a cult of personality was continued by Hafez's son, Bashar al-Assad, until his overthrow in 2024.[214][215] After the fall of the Assad regime, various statues of the al-Assad family were destroyed in which become known as the "de-Assadization".

## Thailand

[edit]

An image of the TMB Bank office building in Bangkok in 2006, adorned with a portrait of King Bhumibol Adulyadej

See also: Chakri Dynasty

All members of Thailand's royal family, past and present, are officially venerated in a personality cult, especially beginning with King Bhumibol Adulyadej's ascension to the throne.[216] Huge portraits of Bhumibol and his son and successor King Maha Vajiralongkorn, and other members of the royal family are disseminated throughout the country. The royal family is protected by lèse-majesté laws which allow critics to be jailed for three to fifteen years.[217]

## Togo

[edit]

President Gnassingbé Eyadéma had a personality cult of titanic proportions, including, but not limited to, an entourage of one thousand dancing women who sang and danced in praise of him; schoolchildren beginning their day by singing his praises;[218] portraits which adorned most stores; a bronze statue in the capital Lomé; $20 wristwatches with his portrait, which disappeared and re-appeared every fifteen seconds; and even a comic book that depicted him as a superhero and budai with powers of invulnerability and superhuman strength.[219] In addition, the date of a failed attempt on Eyadéma's life was annually commemorated as "the Feast of Victory Over Forces of Evil."[220] Eyadéma even changed his first name from Étienne to Gnassingbé to note the date of the 1974 plane crash of which he was claimed to be the only survivor.[221] A 2018 study found that "Gnassingbé Eyadema's rule rested on repression, patronage, and a bizarre leadership cult."[222]

## Tunisia

[edit]

Main article: Habib Bourguiba

Statue of Habib Bourguiba.

Habib Bourguiba, the first leader and president of the Republic of Tunisia, represents a great cult of personality in the history of modern Tunisia. An advocate formed in France in the 1920s, he returned to Tunisia to campaign in nationalist circles. In 1934, at the age of 31, he founded the Neo-Destour, spearhead of the movement for the independence of Tunisia. Several times arrested and exiled by the authorities of the French protectorate, he chose to negotiate with the Fourth Republic, while putting pressure on it, to achieve his goal. Once independence was obtained on March 20, 1956, he helped put an end to the monarchy and proclaim the Republic, of which he took over as first president on July 25, 1957.

Huge portrait of Ben Ali on a Tunisian state agency building

From then on, he worked to set up a modern state. Among the priorities of its political action are the development of education, the reduction of inequalities between men and women, economic development and a balanced foreign policy, which makes it an exception among the Arab leaders.

Almost all the cities of Tunisia have a street or avenue bearing the name of Bourguiba since the independence of the country. The most famous of them is Avenue Habib Bourguiba located in Tunis. In 1965, it is even, during a trip to ten African countries, that an avenue bears his name in each of the capitals crossed.[223][224] There is a mausoleum of Bourgiba in Monastir.

Former president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali who ousted Bourgiba and ruled for more than 20 years before fleeing the country during the 2011 revolution, had established a personality cult of his own. Portraits of him could be seen on buildings and crossroads throughout the whole country.

## Turkey

[edit]

### Republicans

[edit]

Main articles: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's cult of personality and Kemalism

Monument to Atatürk in Kadıköy, Istanbul

In Turkey, founder of the Turkish Republic Mustafa Kemal Atatürk is commemorated by a myriad of memorials throughout the country, such as the Atatürk International Airport in Istanbul, the Atatürk Bridge over the Golden Horn (Haliç), the Atatürk Dam, and Atatürk Stadium. His titles include Great Leader (Ulu Önder), Eternal Commander (Ebedî Başkomutan), Head Teacher (Başöğretmen), and Eternal Chief (Ebedî Şef). Atatürk statues have been erected in all Turkish cities by the Turkish Government, and most towns have their own memorial to him. His face and name are seen and heard everywhere in Turkey; his portrait can be seen in all public buildings, in all schools and classrooms, on all school textbooks, on all Turkish lira banknotes, and in the homes of many Turkish families.[225]

At the exact time of Atatürk's death, on every November 10, at 09:05, most vehicles and people in the country's streets pause for one minute in remembrance.[226] In 1951, the Turkish Parliament issued a law (5816) outlawing insults to his reminiscence (Turkish: hatırasına alenen hakaret) or destruction of objects representing him, which is still in force.[227] There is a government website[228] that is aimed at denouncing different kinds of crimes found on the internet, including with the 8th element crimes committed against Atatürk (Turkish: Atatürk aleyhine işlenen suçlar). The Turkish government as of 2025 has filters in place to block websites deemed to contain materials insulting to his memory.

The start of Atatürk's cult of personality is placed in the 1920s when the first statues started being built.[229] The idea of Atatürk as the "father of the Turks" is ingrained in Turkish politics and politicians in that country are evaluated in relation to his cult of personality.[230] The persistence of the phenomenon of Atatürk's personality cult has become an area of deep interest to scholars.[231]

Atatürk impersonators are also seen around Turkey much after Atatürk's death to preserve what is called the "world's longest-running personality cult".[232]

### Monarchists

[edit]

Main articles: List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Neo-Ottomanism, Public image of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, and Erdoğanism

A wall rug of Erdoğan at a rally of his party

Ottoman sultans Mehmed the Conqueror and Abdul Hamid II have cults of personality created by religious conservatives and Islamists. The cults created for the sultans are kept alive by devout Muslims who oppose secular lifestyle and secularist ideas. Scholars have attributed a resurgence in Abdul Hamid's personality cult an attempt to check Atatürk's established image as the founder of modern Turkey.[233][234][235][236]

In recent years there has been a growing cult of personality in Turkey around current President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.[237]

## Turkmenistan

[edit]

Main article: Saparmurat Niyazov § Cult of personality

Niyazov in profile on Turkmenistan army flag

Saparmurat Niyazov, who was President of Turkmenistan from 1985 to 2006,[238] is another oft-cited cultivator of a cult of personality.[239][240][241] Niyazov simultaneously cut funding to and partially disassembled the education system in the name of "reform", while injecting ideological indoctrination into it by requiring all schools to use his own book, the Ruhnama, as their primary text, and like Kim Il Sung, there was even a creation myth surrounding him.[240][242]

During Niyazov's presidency, there was no freedom of the press or freedom of speech. This meant that opposition to Niyazov was strictly forbidden and major opposition figures were imprisoned, institutionalized, deported, or prompted to flee the country, and their family members were routinely harassed by the authorities.[239] Additionally, a silhouette of Niyazov was used as a logo on television broadcasts,[243] Krasnovodsk town was renamed "Turkmenbashi" after the then president, and schools, airports, and even a meteorite were also named after him and members of his family. Statues and pictures of him were also "erected everywhere".[244] For these and other reasons, the US government said that by the time he died, "Niyazov's personality cult … had reached the dimensions of a state-imposed religion."[245]

Human Rights Watch, in its World Report 2012, said there was a cult of personality of President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow and that it was strengthening.[246] Agence France-Presse reported a developing personality cult.[247] Reporters Without Borders said the president was promoting a cult of personality around himself and that his portraits had taken the place of those of the previous president.[248]

## United Kingdom

[edit]

The nature of the Westminster System used in the United Kingdom tends to create assertive figures that are revered in their party. Prime Ministers such as Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher sometimes develop a cult of personality due to their long tenure or their leadership through crisis.[249][250] Additionally, the reverence of the British monarchy, particularly former queen Elizabeth II, has been described as resembling a cult of personality.[251] Journalist Patrick Kane described the British state as "a quasi-North Korean cult of personality centered around the Royal Family and predominantly Queen Elizabeth".[252]

## United States

[edit]

Presidents in American history who have been assessed by various historians as being supported by the effects of a cult of personality include George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, and Donald Trump.

A number of presidents in American history have been noted by various historians as being supported by the effects of a cult of personality,[253] among them George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson, Theodore Roosevelt,[254][255] Franklin D. Roosevelt,[256][257] Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump.[258][259][260][261] Conrad Black, who wrote several biographies of American presidents, argued that the "supreme champion of the American personality cult" has "deservedly" been Abraham Lincoln.[262] John F. Kennedy's cult of personality largely came about after his assassination, although his and his wife Jackie Kennedy's appearance all contributed to the aura of "Camelot" which surrounded his administration.[263]

Another American politician to whom a cult of personality has been ascribed is Huey Long, the populist governor of Louisiana from 1928 to 1932, who continued to control the politics of the state as a United States senator until he was assassinated in 1935.[264][265] The LaRouche movement has been considered to be a personality cult based upon Lyndon LaRouche.[266][267][268]

## Venezuela

[edit]

A billboard of Hugo Chávez's eyes and signature in Guarenas, Venezuela

Main article: Hugo Chávez's cult of personality

In Venezuela, a cult of personality has been created around the late President Hugo Chávez, in which his supporters venerate him.[269] Chávez largely received his support through his charisma and by spending Venezuela's oil funds on the poor.[270] Since his death, his followers, known as "Chavistas"[271][272] refer to his death as a "transition to immortality", commonly calling Chávez the "eternal commander".[273] Among his followers, Chávez has been compared to holy figures, especially by his successor Nicolás Maduro.[274][275][276][277][278]

According to Tomás Straka of Andres Bello University, Chávez's cult of personality began following the 1992 Venezuelan coup d'état attempts which Chávez led, with Straka explaining that some Venezuelans "saw no solution to their most fundamental problems and they saw in Chávez a savior, or an avenger of those groups that had no hope".[279] Since the beginning of Chávez's tenure in 1999, the Venezuelan government manipulated the Venezuelan public with social programs depicting him as a great leader for the people.[279] The struggles that Chávez endured throughout his presidency, such as the 2002 Venezuelan coup d'état attempt, also drew compassion from his followers which boosted his support.[279] By the time of Chávez's death, speculation about potential Chavista reactions to his death were compared to the sorrow felt by those in North Korea who mourned the death of Kim Jong Il,[279] with one scholar of Latin America from the University of California Santa Barbara, Juan Pablo Lupi, stating that the creation of Chávez's cult of personality was "very well-staged, all this process of myth-making and appealing to the feelings and religious sentiment of the people. This is something that is quasi-religious".[269] The creation of Chávez's cult of personality was a strategy used by his government to maintain legitimacy before and after his death.[269][270]

## Vietnam

[edit]

### Communist Vietnam

[edit]

Ho Chi Minh statue in front of the City Hall of Ho Chi Minh City

The Vietnamese Communist Party regime has continually maintained a personality cult around Ho Chi Minh since the 1950s in North Vietnam, and it was later extended to South Vietnam after reunification, which it sees as a crucial part of its propaganda campaign surrounding Ho and the Party's past. The official communist philosophy in Vietnam is called Ho Chi Minh thought (tư tưởng Hồ Chí Minh). Ho Chi Minh is frequently glorified in schools by schoolchildren. Opinions, publications and broadcasts that are critical of Ho Chi Minh or that identify his flaws are de facto banned in Vietnam, and the commentators are arrested or fined for "opposing the people's revolution". Some people "worship the President", according to a BBC report.[280]

The former capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was officially renamed Ho Chi Minh City on May 1, 1975, one day after its capture, which officially ended the Vietnam War.[280]

### South Vietnam

[edit]

Portrait of President Ngo Dinh Diem during a pro-government demostration in South Vietnam

The establishment of a personality cult of Ngo Dinh Diem, who was the leader of South Vietnam, was a part of his efforts to legitimize his regime by organazing propaganda maintaining a Vietnamese national identity centered on his leadership and his ideals. In 1954, Ngo Dinh Diem launched the National Revolutionary Movement (NRM), a mass political organization designed to spread Ngo Dinh Diem's Person Dignity Theory and his policies and suppress the subversives to the regime, as opposed to the Personalist Labor Revolutionary Party which operated entirely out of public view. During the indoctrination campaigns led by the NRM, which were inspired by the ones of Vichy France, the government officials of South Vietnam repeated to the Vietnamese peasantry lectures given by the Ngo brothers on personalist principles of government and citizenship. In 1955, Ngo Dinh Diem launched the Ministry of Information and Youth to carry out propaganda and censorship activities, throughout which the Ministry sought to build a personality cult around Ngo Dinh Diem similar to the one of Ho Chi Minh ("Uncle Ho"). The Ministry presented Ngo Dinh Diem as an "enlightened sovereign" who could improve the lot of all Vietnamese by creating "economic and social stability for all" within a personalist framework, and constructed a public narrative of his life, focused on such episodes as his "refusal to compromise Vietnamese autonomy."[281]

## Yugoslavia

[edit]

Josip Broz Tito statue in Skopje, North Macedonia

A cult of personality was developed around Josip Broz Tito, the leader of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1980. Emerging from his leading role in Yugoslav Partisans' liberation struggle in World War II, Tito's cult of personality went on to be solidified by the Tito–Stalin split of 1948, embarking Yugoslavia on a path towards a socialist system independent of the Soviet Union. Aside from priding Yugoslavia on an international scene, Tito's call for brotherhood and unity of Yugoslav nations and similar methods made his position in the Yugoslav political landscape an important unifying force that held Yugoslavia together.[282] His cult has been described as a combination of a "peasant chief, protector and the legendary hero".[283] During his lifetime, his cult of personality included, among other things, naming places after him (including four cities), celebrations of his birthday (including Relay of Youth), widespread use of his portraits, writing his name in landscapes so that they could be seen from the air, etc.[284][285]

## Yemen

[edit]

In the Houthi controlled territory of Yemen, a cult of personality has developed around the leader of the Houthi movement, Abdul-Malik al-Houthi, with pictures and murals glorifying him. The streets are lined with propaganda, lionizing the leaders and martyrs of the Houthi movement.[286]

## Zaire

[edit]

Mobutu's depiction in the 1977-issued 1 zaire banknote

Mobutu Sese Seko used his cult of personality to create a god-like public image of himself in Zaire, which today is the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mobutu created a totalitarian state, amassed massive wealth for himself and presided over the economic deterioration of his country and human rights abuses.

He used mass media communications to entrench his rule.[287]

Mobutu embarked on a campaign of pro-African cultural awareness and in 1972, he formally changed his name from Joseph-Désiré Mobutu to Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga ("The all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake.")[288]

## References

[edit]

Notes

1. ^ Multiple references:[19][20][21][22][23]

Citations

1. ^ Popan, Adrian Teodor (August 2015). "The ABC of sycophancy : structural conditions for the emergence of dictators' cults of personality" (PDF). The University of Texas: 196–213\. doi:10.15781/T2J960G15 (inactive July 1, 2025). hdl:2152/46763. Retrieved September 7, 2018.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
2. ^ Russia's Muslim Frontiers. New Directions in Cross-Cultural Analysis by Dale F. Eickelman, 1993. p. 123.
3. ^ "Rashid Dostum: The treacherous general". Independent.co.uk. March 31, 2014.
4. ^ "The Taliban still Depend on Mullah Omar's Legacy". May 2, 2022.
5. ^ OECD (2003). Reviews of National Policies for Education:South Eastern Europe. OECD Publishing. p. 36\. ISBN 9789264100725.
6. ^ Gautam, Kul Chandra (2018). Global Citizen from Gulmi: My Journey from the Hills of Nepal to the Halls of United Nations. Publication Nepalaya. ISBN 9789937921251.
7. ^ McFadden, Robert D. (October 7, 2011). "Ramiz Alia, an Enforcer for a Dictator and Later Ruler of Albania, Dies at 85". The New York Times. Retrieved November 29, 2014.
8. ^ Politics and Education in Argentina, 1946–1962, by Mónica Esti Rein; trans by Martha Grenzeback. Published by M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY/London, 1998, p. 79–80.
9. ^ "Heidar Aliev, maestro of the Caucasus". The Economist. August 31, 2000. Retrieved September 24, 2012.
10. ^ Kucera, Joshua (May 20, 2008). "Travels in the Former Soviet Union. Entry 2: The Cult of Heydar Aliyev". Slate. Retrieved September 23, 2012.
11. ^ "Azerbaijan: Turning Over a New Leaf?". Baku/Brussels: International Crisis Group. April 13, 2004. Archived from the original on September 2, 2012. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
12. ^ Day, Alan J.; East, Roger; Thomas, Richard, eds. (2002). "Aliyev, Heydar". A political and economic dictionary of Eastern Europe. London: Europa Publications. p. 16\. ISBN 1857430638.
13. ^ Boland, Vincent (June 4, 2005). "Azerbaijan looks to Turkey as model for cult of dead leader". The Financial Times. Retrieved September 24, 2012.
14. ^ Univision. "El gobierno interino de Bolivia declara el fin al "culto a la personalidad" y borra los símbolos de Evo Morales". Univision (in Spanish). Archived from the original on September 4, 2020. Retrieved June 26, 2025.
15. ^ "Statues toppled as new Bolivian government works to erase 'personality cult' of Morales". The Independent. Archived from the original on April 30, 2025. Retrieved June 26, 2025.
16. ^ Molina, Fernando (April 2, 2025). "Evo Morales crea un nuevo partido y desafía al Gobierno de Luis Arce". El País América (in Spanish). Retrieved June 26, 2025.
17. ^ Sierra, María Silvia TrigoDesde Santa Cruz de la (April 2, 2025). "Ex presidente de Bolivia criticó a Evo Morales: "Cuando uno hace partidos con su nombre, ya le patinó la cabeza"". infobae (in European Spanish). Retrieved June 26, 2025.
18. ^ "Culto à personalidade: políticos pagam R$ 20 para ter fotomontagem com Lula | Reinaldo Azevedo | VEJA.com". VEJA.com (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved November 20, 2017.
19. ^ "Ode to the father: Bangladesh's political personality cult". France 24. January 4, 2024. Archived from the original on August 5, 2024.
20. ^ "Bangladesh's growing political personality cult around 'Father of the Nation'". The Hindu. January 5, 2024. Archived from the original on May 18, 2024.
21. ^ "By Revoking Some National Holidays, Bangladesh Signals Shift Away from Cult Worship of Sheikh Mujib". The Wire. October 20, 2024.
22. ^ Chowdhury, Jennifer (August 15, 2024). "In Bangladesh, a Personality Cult Gives Way After Student Protests". New Lines Magazine. Archived from the original on September 21, 2024.
23. ^ "Lessons from the fall of Bangladeshi icons Hasina and Mujib". Daily Mirror. August 20, 2024. Archived from the original on September 22, 2024.
24. ^ Campbell, Charlie (July 25, 2024). "How Mass Protests Challenge Bangladesh's Past—and Threaten to Rewrite Its Future". TIME. Archived from the original on July 28, 2024. Retrieved August 6, 2024. "In lieu of a true popular mandate—the U.S. deemed January's election, which returned the Awami League for a fourth straight term but was boycotted by the main opposition Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), as neither free nor fair—Hasina increasingly leans upon the cult of personality she's constructed around her father."
25. ^ Katongole, Emmanuel (2011). The Sacrifice of Africa: A Political Theology for Africa. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 89\. ISBN 978-0-8028-6268-6.
26. ^ "Burkina's Ibrahima Traore: A Thomas Sankara reincarnation?". October 16, 2024.
27. ^ "Thomas Sankara's mausoleum opens to honor revolutionary leader". May 19, 2025.
28. ^ "'The cult of Saint Traoré': how a Russia-backed junta leader became an icon". Financial Times. May 22, 2025.
29. ^ "Why Burkina Faso's junta leader has captured hearts and minds around the world". BBC News. May 12, 2025.
30. ^ "Burkina Faso's latest TikTok star? Its president — thanks to Putin". The Times. May 19, 2025.
31. ^ "Literacy and Education under the Khmer Rouge". Genocide Studies Program. June 14, 2024.
32. ^ Guillou, Anne Yvonne (2018). "The "Master of the Land": cult activities around Pol Pot's tomb". Journal of Genocide Research. 20 (2): 275–289\. doi:10.1080/14623528.2018.1459169. S2CID 81694769.
33. ^ "Jean-Bédel Bokassa: Central African Dictator, Emperor & Military Leader". Britannica. October 30, 2024. Retrieved November 2, 2024.
34. ^ "Central African Republic country profile". BBC News. April 20, 2011. Retrieved November 2, 2024.
35. ^ "CAR ex-President François Bozizé takes charge of rebel alliance". Al Jazeera. Retrieved November 2, 2024.
36. ^ "Wagner Group: Why the EU is alarmed by Russian mercenaries in Central Africa". December 19, 2021. Retrieved November 2, 2024.
37. ^ Rotella, Sebastian (November 27, 1997). "Pinochet at 82: Fascist or Father Figure?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 7, 2021.
38. ^ "Augusto Pinochet Ugarte (1915–2006) Memoria Chilena".
39. ^ Foerster, Rolf; Menard, André (2009). "Futatrokikelu: Don y autoridad en la relación mapuche-wingkaa". Atenea (499): 33–59. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
40. ^ "El tamaño de la traición". The Clinic. October 17, 2010. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
41. ^ Li, Gucheng (1995). A glossary of political terms of the People's Republic of China. Chinese University Press. p. 639\. ISBN 9789622016156. Retrieved August 1, 2012.
42. ^ "The power of Xi Jinping. A cult of personality is growing around China's president. What will he do with his political capital?". The Economist. Retrieved March 12, 2018.
43. ^ Choi, Chi-yuk; Jun, Mai (September 18, 2017). "Xi Jinping's political thought will be added to Chinese Communist Party constitution, but will his name be next to it?". South China Morning Post. Retrieved March 12, 2018.
44. ^ "La deificación del senador Uribe". Semana. May 13, 2017.
45. ^ Bamat, Joseph (December 5, 2018) "Is Castro's battle to avoid a personality cult destined to fail?" France 24. Quote: "The declaration came as a shock to many in and outside Cuba, especially because Fidel Castro already enjoys a cult-like following in many parts of the world. In Africa he is seen as a key player in the continent's anti-colonial and anti-apartheid movements. In Latin America, he is often simply referred to as Fidel – his first name enough to invoke a towering figure who proudly defied Washington for decades and outlived 10 US presidents."
46. ^ Azor, Marlene (August 12, 2016) "Fidel Castro and the Cult of Personality" Havana Times
47. ^ Sanchez, Juan Reinaldo with Gylden, Axel (2015) The Double Life of Fidel Castro: My 17 Years as Personal Bodyguard to El Lider New York: Macmillan. p. 185 ISBN 9781250068767. Quote: "Of course – and contrary to what his admirers stupidly affirm – the cult of personality around Fidel exists in Cuba, but it is less widespread and takes more subtle, discreet forms..."
48. ^ "Misstated Excerpt of Times Article Offers Fresh Take on President Sisi of Egypt". The New York Times. October 15, 2014.
49. ^ "Personality cult built around Egypt's top general". The Big Story. Archived from the original on July 24, 2015. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
50. ^ "Abdel Fattah el-Sisi News". ABC News.
51. ^ Kate, Linthicum (July 25, 2023). "Inside the growing cult of El Salvador's Nayib Bukele, Latin America's political star". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 13, 2025.
52. ^ Christine, Murray (February 2, 2024). "The 'cult' of Bukele: El Salvador's millennial strongman heads for second term". The Irish Times. Retrieved January 13, 2025.
53. ^ "Macias Nguema: Ruthless and bloody dictator". Afroarticles.com. Archived from the original on November 4, 2014. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
54. ^ Gardner, Dan (November 6, 2005). "The Pariah President: Teodoro Obiang is a brutal dictator responsible for thousands of deaths. So why is he treated like an elder statesman on the world stage?". The Ottawa Citizen (reprint: dangardner.ca). Archived from the original on June 12, 2008.
55. ^ "Macias Nguema: Ruthless and bloody dictator". Afroarticles.com. Archived from the original on March 13, 2016. Retrieved April 20, 2014.
56. ^ "Equatorial Guinea's 'God'". BBC. July 26, 2003. Retrieved November 1, 2007.
57. ^ Maass, Peter (2005) "A Touch of Crude" Mother Jones 30 (1): pp. 48–89
58. ^ Silverstein, Ken (2010) "Saturday Lagniappe: UNESCO for Sale: Dictators allowed to buy their own prizes, for the right price" Petroleumworld, originally published by Harpers Magazine, June 2, 2010, archived at Freezepage
59. ^ "In his address to UNESCO's annual meeting of governments on 30 October 2007 the "Gentleman of the great island of Bioko, Annobón and Río Muni, El Jefe (the boss), "a god who is 'in permanent contact with the Almighty'" and "can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell" His Excellence, President Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, ..." Kabanda (October 3, 2010) "Money for good causes: does the source matter?" Sunday Times (Rwanda), premium content that requires login, last accessed October 21, 2010
60. ^ Staff (September 28, 2010) "Africa's Worst Dictators: Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo" Archived August 23, 2011, at the Wayback Machine MSN News (South Africa), archived at Freezepage
61. ^ Kershaw, Ian (2016). To Hell and Back: Europe 1914–1949. New York: Penguin Books. p. 400\. ISBN 978-0-14-310992-1.
62. ^ Short, Philip. Pol Pot: Anatomy of a Nightmare. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 2005. p. 29. ISBN 9780805066623.
63. ^ "Wie Goethe". Der Spiegel. November 28, 1961.
64. ^ Adenauer: A Critical Biography. Coward-McCann. 1964.
65. ^ Konrad Adenauer. Secker & Warburg. 1964.
66. ^ Weimar and Nazi Germany: Continuities and Discontinuities. Routledge. September 25, 2014. ISBN 978-1-317-88151-3.
67. ^ a b c Dubois, Laurent (2012). Haiti: The Aftershocks of History. Macmillan. ISBN 9780805093353.
68. ^ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376671884_Nation_Building_and_Religion_The_Horthy_Cult_in_Hungary_between_1919_and_1944
69. ^ Apor, Balázs (November 20, 2010). ""Rákosi a hős." Sztálinista vezérkultusz Magyarországon". transindex (in Hungarian). Archived from the original on August 26, 2016. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
70. ^ Kurcz, Béla (March 9, 2012). "A személyi kultusz legfényesebb napja". index.hu (in Hungarian). Retrieved November 6, 2021.
71. ^ "Rákosi Mátyás hatvanadik születésnapjának megünneplése". archivnet.hu. February 8, 2013.
72. ^ Guha, Ramachandra (May 3, 2014). "Dangers of hero worship – Reading Ambedkar in the time of Modi". The Telegraph.
73. ^ Team, Lounge (May 24, 2014). "Nehru's India". mint.
74. ^ "Rise and Demise of Nehruvian Consensus: A Historical Review" (PDF).
75. ^ Sherman, Taylor. "The Myths and Reality of the Nehru Years". Hindustan Times.
76. ^ "We Want No Caesars: Nehru's Warning to Himself". caravanmagazine. November 14, 2016.
77. ^ Masani, Zareer (February 5, 2022). "Chacha's Musty Coat-Tails". Outlook India. Archived from the original on January 14, 2018.
78. ^ Vaidyanathan, Rajini (May 21, 2019). "The 'personality politics' of Narendra Modi and Donald Trump". BBC. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
79. ^ Chatterjee, Manini (May 13, 2019). "I, me, myself: The Modi cult could threaten the BJP too". The Telegraph. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
80. ^ Dhillon, Amrit (February 2, 2022). "Narendra Modi has traces of god in him, says BJP minister as personality cult grows". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460.
81. ^ Vaishnav, Milan (May 25, 2019). "Opinion: If it's 'the economy, stupid,' why did Modi win?". Washington Post. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
82. ^ Khare, Harish (November 25, 2016). "The Cult of the Leader: Demonetisation and Modi Worship". The Wire. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
83. ^ Safi, Michael (May 23, 2019). "India election results 2019: Modi claims landslide victory". The Guardian. Retrieved July 31, 2021.
84. ^ Ghosh, Ambar Kumar (May 19, 2019). "Decoding the Modi personality cult". QRIUS. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
85. ^ Ray, Saptarshi (April 13, 2019). "How Narendra Modi has tried to co-opt Bollywood to push his cult of personality". The Telegraph. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
86. ^ Tharoor, Shashi (May 28, 2019). "India's Cult of Modi". Project Syndicate. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
87. ^ C, Sohini (February 5, 2019). "The triumph of Modi propaganda in Bollywood". South China Morning Post. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
88. ^ Ghosh, Samrudhi (June 25, 2019). "Vivek Agnihotri: PM Narendra Modi did not even run for 7 days. This is what happens to propaganda films". India Today. Retrieved September 29, 2019.
89. ^ Bose, Adrija (July 14, 2016). "11 Times Prime Minister Narendra Modi Proved That Camera Is His First Love". HuffPost. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
90. ^ Staff, The Wire (February 18, 2020). "'Narcissist', 'A Hint of Megalomania': What Observers Have Said About Narendra Modi". The Wire. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
91. ^ Correspondents, HT (January 27, 2015). "Modi wears Modi: PM's suit has his name on it". Hindustan Times. Retrieved May 22, 2022. `{{cite news}}`: `|last1=` has generic name (help)
92. ^ "PM Narendra Modi's Rs 4.31 crore suit enter Guinness Book record". livemint.com. August 22, 2016.
93. ^ "'God has sent me, convinced that my energy is not biological': Prime Minister Narendra Modi". Business Today. May 23, 2024. Retrieved July 3, 2024.
94. ^ "Lord Jagannath is devotee of PM Modi: Sambit Patra". The Statesman. May 20, 2024. Retrieved July 3, 2024.
95. ^ Sircar, Neelanjan (February 4, 2022). "From Modi to Mamata, how did Indian politics become so dependent on the cult of personality?". Scroll.in. Retrieved July 6, 2024.
96. ^ Guha, Ramachandra (December 4, 2016). "Why bhakti in politics is bad for democracy". Hindustan Times.
97. ^ "Deconstructing Jayalalithaa's Cult of Personality". The Wire. Retrieved July 6, 2024.
98. ^ "Jayalalitha: The 'goddess' of Tamil Nadu politics". BBC News. December 5, 2016. Retrieved July 6, 2024.
99. ^ Witton (2003), p. 28
100. ^ Rock (2003), p. 3
101. ^ "Dari 1965 hingga slogan 'piye kabare enak jamanku toh': Suharto dibenci, Suharto dirindukan". BBC News Indonesia (in Indonesian). May 24, 2018. Archived from the original on February 3, 2024.
102. ^ Ervand Abrahamian (1992). The Iranian Mojahedin (reprint ed.). Yale University Press. p. 255\. ISBN 9780300052671.
103. ^ Michael Chertoff (2011). Homeland Security: Assessing the First Five Years. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 27\. ISBN 9780812205886.
104. ^ Chetan Bhatt (1997). Liberation and Purity: Race, New Religious Movements and the Ethics of Postmodernity (illustrated, reprint ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 141. ISBN 9781857284232.
105. ^ Baqer Moin (1999). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah (illustrated ed.). I.B. Tauris. p. 200\. ISBN 9781850431282.
106. ^ Sivan, Emmanuel; Friedman, Menachem, eds. (1990). Religious Radicalism and Politics in the Middle East (illustrated ed.). State University of New York Press. p. 68\. ISBN 9780791401583.
107. ^ Barry Rubin (2015). The Middle East: A Guide to Politics, Economics, Society and Culture. Routledge. p. 427\. ISBN 9781317455783.
108. ^ Mikaberidze, Alexander, ed. (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 483\. ISBN 9781598843378.
109. ^ Arshin Adib-Moghaddam (2014). A Critical Introduction to Khomeini (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 305\. ISBN 9781107012677.
110. ^ Amir Taheri (2010). The Persian Night: Iran Under the Khomeinist Revolution (reprint ed.). Encounter Books. p. 235\. ISBN 9781594034794.
111. ^ Borger, Julian (December 1, 2011). "Iran: Quds Force leader is developing a cult status". The Guardian. Retrieved November 7, 2021.
112. ^ Packer, George (January 3, 2020). "Killing Soleimani Was Worse Than a Crime". The Atlantic. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
113. ^ Gerecht, Reuel Marc (January 3, 2020). "The Bloody Legacy of Qasem Soleimani". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 7, 2021.
114. ^ Melman, Yossi (January 7, 2020). "As Qassem Soleimani's Megalomania Grew, He Became Less Grounded in Reality". Haaretz. Retrieved November 7, 2021.
115. ^ Franklin, Stephen (September 5, 1990). "Hussein's Dark Side Enshrouded". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved November 29, 2014.
116. ^ a b Göttke, F. Toppled, Rotterdam: Post Editions, 2010
117. ^ Sher, Lauren (April 9, 2009). "Saddam Hussein's Statue of Limitations". ABC News. Retrieved November 29, 2014.
118. ^ ""Silvio forever sarà, Silvio è genialità" il culto della personalità diventa canzone – Politica – Repubblica.it". repubblica.it.
119. ^ Meno male che Silvio c'è video ufficiale inno campagna PDL on YouTube
120. ^ "Berlusconi: vent'anni fa la "discesa in campo"". 100 passi journal. January 27, 2014.
121. ^ "BBC NEWS – Europe – Berlusconi says 'I am like Jesus'". bbc.co.uk. February 13, 2006.
122. ^ "Top 10 Worst Silvio Berlusconi Gaffes". Time. December 8, 2012.
123. ^ "Il culto della Personalità in Italia". Giovani.it fourm. Archived from the original on February 1, 2014. Retrieved April 16, 2015.
124. ^ Lilis, Joanna (January 20, 2014). "Kazakhstan's Nazarbayev Cult Hijacks Winter Fun". eurasianet.org. Archived from the original on July 6, 2014. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
125. ^ "Kazakhstan's new holiday boosts Nazarbayev's personality cult". Fox News. Retrieved June 26, 2014.
126. ^ "Parliament approved renaming of Astana as Nursultan". Kazinform. March 20, 2019. Retrieved March 20, 2019.
127. ^ "Kazakh capital renamed after outgoing president". National Post. Associated Press. March 20, 2019. Retrieved March 20, 2019.
128. ^ https://www.soas.ac.uk/koreanstudies/overseas-leading-university-programmes/soas-aks-working-papers-in-korean-studies-ii/file102887.pdf Archived August 4, 2021, at the Wayback Machine [bare URL PDF]
129. ^ Grzelczyk, Virginia (Fall 2015) "The Kim Dynasty and North-East Asian Security: Breaking the Cycle of Crises?" North Korean Review, Vol. 11, No. 2, p. 5. Accessed August 1, 2017.
130. ^ Kamm, Henry (August 6, 1995). "Laos Capital Defies Time And Change". The New York Times. Retrieved August 4, 2016.
131. ^ a b c Blundy & Lycett 1987, p. 20.
132. ^ Blundy & Lycett 1987, p. 16.
133. ^ a b Blundy & Lycett 1987, p. 17.
134. ^ Bianco 1975, p. 7.
135. ^ Blundy & Lycett 1987, p. 18.
136. ^ Kawczynski 2011, p. 191.
137. ^ a b Villalba, Fernando Velásquez (2022). "A TOTALIDADE NEOLIBERAL-FUJIMORISTA: ESTIGMATIZAÇÃO E COLONIALIDADE NO PERU CONTEMPORÂNEO". Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais. 37 (109): e3710906. doi:10.1590/3710906/2022. S2CID 251877338. "terruqueo, ou seja, a construção artificial, racista e conveniente de um inimigo sociopolítico para deslegitimar formas de protesto social"
138. ^ Burt, Jo-Marie (June 5, 2021). "Peru's military say Shining Path insurgents killed 16 civilians. Others are not so sure". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on June 10, 2021. Retrieved June 5, 2021. "The Fujimori campaign seized upon the Vizcatán massacre to reiterate the 'Castillo-as-extremist' narrative, pointing to alleged ties between Castillo and a Shining Path front group, MOVADEF, to suggest that Castillo bore some responsibility for the gruesome killings."
139. ^ "Former Peru dictator's spymaster reappears in alleged plot to swing recount". The Guardian. June 29, 2021. Archived from the original on July 2, 2021. Retrieved July 1, 2021.
140. ^ Mitrovic, Mijail (December 30, 2021). "At the fabric of history: Peru's political struggle under (and against) the pandemic". Dialectical Anthropology. 45 (4): 431–446\. doi:10.1007/s10624-021-09634-5. PMC 8716181. PMID 34980936.
141. ^ "Bishop wants anti-'epal' bill to cover politicians' holiday greetings". The Philippine Star.
142. ^ "Luistro has no problem with 'epal' politicians | National". Journal.com.ph. September 1, 2013. Archived from the original on September 6, 2013. Retrieved September 17, 2013.
143. ^ VERA Files (January 22, 2013). "Posters of 'epal' politicians ordered removed | The Inbox – Yahoo! News Philippines". Ph.news.yahoo.com. Retrieved September 17, 2013.
144. ^ "'Anti-epal' bill: No more self-praise on posters – Yahoo! News Philippines". Ph.news.yahoo.com. November 8, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2013.
145. ^ "Why Filipinos believe Duterte was 'appointed by God'". Rappler. June 28, 2019. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
146. ^ Heydarian, Richard (March 4, 2019). "Duterte is the Putin of Asia. Maria Ressa is the proof". South China Morning Post. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
147. ^ "Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II". kul.pl. Retrieved May 23, 2019.
148. ^ "Urban skazany za zniewagę Papieża". wyborcza.pl (in Polish). Retrieved May 23, 2019.
149. ^ https://repositorio.ul.pt/bitstream/10451/28004/4/ICS_JLGarcia_TAlves_Salazar_LEN.pdf [bare URL PDF]
150. ^ https://oliveirasalazar.org/download/documentos/A lição de Salazar___4D121BE9-3394-4D43-AB1F-A81584CE2799.pdf [bare URL PDF]
151. ^ ""Salazar reconheceu ser preciso a propaganda cinematográfica como faziam Hitler e Mussolini"". Diário de Notícias (in Portuguese). December 27, 2020. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
152. ^ ""Hollywood, tens cá disto?": O Pátio das Cantigas (1942)". January 26, 2017.
153. ^ "A Estátua de Salazar No Liceu – 40 Anos Depois". February 2, 2012.
154. ^ "20 Escudos – Ponte Salazar". July 17, 2015.
155. ^ Ilie, Mihaela (2015). "Processing the Political Image of a King: An Overview of the Interwar and Communist Discourse about Carol II of Romania". Revista de Științe Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques (47): 206–215.
156. ^ Fascism: The 'fascist epoch'. Taylor & Francis. 2004. ISBN 978-0-415-29019-7.
157. ^ Binder, David (November 30, 1986). "The Cult of Ceausescu". The New York Times. Retrieved November 29, 2014.
158. ^ Navadaru, Cosmin (November 13, 2011). "Cultul personalității lui Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej". HotNews (in Romanian).
159. ^ a b Khrushchev, Nikita (April 26, 2007). "The Cult of the Individual". The Guardian. London. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
160. ^ See e.g. http://oldgazette.ru/kopravda/21021978/01-1.html Archived October 8, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
161. ^ a b Osborn, Andrew (November 16, 2011). "One in four Russians believe country is mired in Vladimir Putin cult of personality". Telegraph.co.uk.
162. ^ Такого как Путин / One Like Putin, English Subs on YouTube
163. ^ Wesolowsky, Tony (December 28, 2015). "Putin's Little Red Book Offers Up 'Prophetic' Words Of Russian President". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved January 1, 2016.
164. ^ "The Putin of Chechnya". The New Yorker. February 1, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
165. ^ Sevryuk, Pyotr; Coalson, Robert (December 4, 2021). "'Bathed In Light': Glowing Bio Of Strongman Kadyrov's Father Now Required Reading In Chechen Schools". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
166. ^ "Chechen Leader Wages War On American Superheroes". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. November 21, 2020. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
167. ^ "Acting Chechen Leader Denies Personality Cult". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. February 2, 2012. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
168. ^ Jovanović, Srđan Mladenov (2019). "'You're Simply the Best': Communicating Power and Victimhood in Support of President Aleksandar Vučić in the Serbian Dailies Alo! and Informer". Journal of Media Research. 11 (2): 22–42\. doi:10.24193/jmr.31.2.
169. ^ Ristić, Irena (2014). "Parliamentary Elections in Serbia 2014: Replay or Reset?". Contemporary Southeastern Europe. 1 (2): 80–87.
170. ^ P. Ramet, Sabrina; M. Hassenstab, Christine; Listhaug, Ola (2017). Building Democracy in the Yugoslav Successor States: Accomplishments, Setbacks, and Challenges since 1990. Cambridge University Press. p. 174\. ISBN 9781107180741.
171. ^ "My Europe: Serbia's military parade between the East and the West". Deutsche Welle. April 10, 2019.
172. ^ "Serbs Ponder Vucic's Claim to Tito's Legacy". balkaninsight.com. November 10, 2016.
173. ^ a b c "Vucic's personality cult strengthens". Independent Balkan News Agency. August 25, 2017. Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
174. ^ "Prpa: Vučić svih ovih godina pokušava da izgradi kult ličnosti" (in Serbian). Danas. February 17, 2019.
175. ^ a b c Karabeg, Omer (November 11, 2018). "Ko su Vučićevi 'najveći poltroni'?". Radio Slobodna Evropa (in Serbian). Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
176. ^ "Brnabić i Šarčević za Vučićeve slike i jačanje kulta države" (in Serbian). N1. August 23, 2017. Archived from the original on October 30, 2019. Retrieved October 30, 2019.
177. ^ "700 false news stories in Serbian tabloids in 2018". Stop Fake. January 24, 2019. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
178. ^ a b "Više od 700 laži na naslovnim stranama tri tabloida u 2018. godini". Crime and Corruption Reporting Network. Retrieved February 8, 2019.
179. ^ Bush, Daniel (April 2, 2020). ""Fighting Like a Lion for Serbia": An Analysis of Government-Linked Influence Operations in Serbia" (PDF). Stanford University.
180. ^ "Vučić dočekao odbojkašice Srbije, selektor Terzić mu poklonio zlatnu medalju sa Svetskog prvenstva" (in Serbian). Blic. October 20, 2018.
181. ^ "Dečko ponovo pao u nestvest u Ćirilici dok je Vučić pričao: Srušio se odjednom, a evo ko mu je pomogao (VIDEO)". espreso.rs. Retrieved January 8, 2019.
182. ^ "Vucic's victory leads Serbia towards autocracy". Kosovo.2. April 4, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2019.
183. ^ "In Macedonia and Serbia, Right-Wing Politicians Make Their Followers Swoon – Literally". Global Voices. November 17, 2017. Retrieved January 8, 2019.
184. ^ "Vučić: Zameram Babiću lapsuse, ali on uči, obrazuje se" (in Serbian). Blic. July 1, 2017.
185. ^ "Zloupotreba dece, ugrožavanje bezbednosti i povreda slobode kretanja – prve 3 nedelje Vučićeve kampanje" (in Serbian). talas.rs. February 21, 2019.
186. ^ "Dan kada je cela Srbija bila na nogama" (in Serbian). istinomer.rs. November 19, 2019. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
187. ^ "Niški naprednjaci poželeli Vučiću dobro zdravlje". Dnevni List Danas (in Serbian). Danas. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
188. ^ "Serbia's president released from hospital". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 20, 2019.[dead link]
189. ^ "N1 TV under attack again; journalist say it's dangerous; new attack on Sovilj". N1. Archived from the original on November 29, 2019. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
190. ^ Basilio, Mirian (October 25, 2020) "When Photographers Created a Cult of Personality Around General Franco" Hyperallergic
191. ^ Staff (July 30, 2015) "Ukraine Crisis: Personality Cults Behind the Revolutions" International Business Times
192. ^ Luhnow, David; de Córdoba, José; and Casey, Nicholas (July 16, 2009) "The Cult of the Caudillo" The Wall Street Journal
193. ^ Moradiellos, Enrique "Biographies for a Caudillo After a War: A Bibliographical Commentary on Biographies of Franco", translated by Allison Pinnington and Helen Graham, in Graham, Helen (2016) Interrogating Francoism: History and Dictatorship in Twentieth-Century Spain (chapter 10) London: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781472576330
194. ^ Holzworth, Larry (July 25, 2019) [Franco: a spectre from the past in Spain "These 30 Rulers in History Were Hated by All"] History Collection
195. ^ Moradiellos, Enrique (March 13, 2018) "Franco: a spectre from the past in Spain" The Irish Times
196. ^ "Cult of personality grows around Sri Lanka's leader". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved September 16, 2015.
197. ^ "Reappearance of Rajapaksa Cult at Nugegoda". February 20, 2015. Retrieved September 16, 2015.
198. ^ "Is Mahinda Rajapaksa Suffering From The Complex Of "Excessive Self-Love "?". April 26, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2015.
199. ^ a b "Name your price". The Economist. Retrieved October 25, 2015.
200. ^ "In Rajapaksa's defeat, a lesson for strongmen in democracies". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on August 15, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2015.
201. ^ "A 1000 Rupee Handbill". The Sunday Leader. Archived from the original on January 7, 2016. Retrieved September 17, 2015.
202. ^ "Sri Lanka protest site started to oust Prime Minister". EconomyNext. April 27, 2022.
203. ^ "This man built his own vanity international airport..." The Journal. thejournal.ie. September 6, 2015. Retrieved October 25, 2015.
204. ^ "Is Mahinda Rajapaksa Suffering From The Complex Of 'Excessive Self-Love'?". Colombo Telegraph. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
205. ^ "This Picture of Mahinda Says Thousand Words". Colombo Telegraph. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
206. ^ "Sycophantic gibberish of saying Rajapaksas are descendants of Dutu Gemunu and relatives of Lord Buddha". transcurrents.com. Archived from the original on February 26, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
207. ^ Personenkulte Im Stalinismus By Klaus Heller, Jan Plamper, V&R unipress GmbH, 2004
208. ^ Wedeen, Lisa. Ambiguities of domination: Politics, rhetoric, and symbols in contemporary Syria. University of Chicago Press, 2015.
209. ^ Peter Beaumont No longer the pariah President. The Observer, November 16, 2008
210. ^ Annia Ciezadlo Bashar Al Assad: An Intimate Profile of a Mass Murderer, The New Republic December 19, 2013
211. ^ Anthony Shadid: "In Assad's Syria, There Is No Imagination", PBS, November 8, 2011
212. ^ Aron Lund Syria's Phony Election: False Numbers and Real Victory, Diwan, Carnegie Middle East Centre, June 09, 2014
213. ^ Pipes, Daniel (1995) Syria Beyond the Peace Process. Washington Institute for Near East Policies. pp. 15–16 ISBN 9780944029640
214. ^ Commanding Syria: Bashar Al-Assad And the First Years in Power (B.Tauris, 2007), By Eyal Zisser, page 50
215. ^ Tony Badran Bashar's Cult of Personality NOW Lebanon August 30, 2012
216. ^ Irene Stengs, "A Kingly Cult: Thailand's Guiding Lights in a Dark Era", Vol. 12, No. 2, Personality Cults (1999), pp. 41–75
217. ^ Champion, Paul (September 25, 2007). "Professor in lese majeste row". Reuters. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved September 26, 2007.
218. ^ "Toughs at the top". The Economist. December 16, 2004.
219. ^ David Lamb, The Africans, page 48
220. ^ Dr. F. Jeffress Ramsay, Global Studies Africa: Seventh Edition, p. 63
221. ^ Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Worldmark Press. 1984.
222. ^ Osei, Anja (2018). "Like father, like son? Power and influence across two Gnassingbé presidencies in Togo". Democratization. 25 (8): 1460–1480\. doi:10.1080/13510347.2018.1483916. S2CID 149724978.
223. ^ Vandewalle, Dirk (1980). "Bourguiba, Charismatic Leadership and the Tunisian One Party System". Middle East Journal. 34 (2): 149–159\. JSTOR 4326016.
224. ^ Lamb, David; Daniszewski, John (April 7, 2000). "Habib Bourguiba; Leader Shaped Tunisia". Los Angeles Times.
225. ^ Navaro-Yashin, Yael (2002). Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey. Princeton University Press. pp. 196–199. ISBN 0691088454.
226. ^ Morrison, Terry; Conaway, Wayne A. (1994). Kiss, Bow, Or Shake Hands: How to Do Business in Sixty Countries. Adams Media. p. 392. ISBN 1558504443.
227. ^ Yonah, Alexander (2007). Turkey: Terrorism, Civil Rights, and the European Union. Routledge. p. 137\. ISBN 9780415441636.
228. ^ "İhbar Web". İhbar Web. Retrieved September 17, 2013.
229. ^ Touraj Atabaki; Erik J. Zurcher (2004). Men of Order: Authoritarian Modernization Under Atatürk and Reza Shah. I.B. Tauris. p. 4\. ISBN 9781860644269. Retrieved June 21, 2013. "...and in Ataturk's case the cult of personality began early with ..."
230. ^ M. Hakan Yavuz (2009). Secularism and Muslim Democracy in Turkey. Cambridge University Press. p. 120\. ISBN 9780521888783. Retrieved June 21, 2013. "In other works there is a deeply internalized notion of Ataturk as the "father" of the Turks, and all politicians are very much measured against his cult of personality."
231. ^ Carter V. Findley (2010). Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007. Yale University Press. pp. 467–. ISBN 9780300152609. Retrieved June 21, 2013.
232. ^ Alexander Christie-Miller (April 20, 2013). "Lookalike keeps alive the cult of Ataturk". The Times of London.
233. ^ Zürcher, Erik (1993). Turkey: A Modern History (2nd ed.). I. B. Tauris. pp. 80–81\. ISBN 1-86064-222-5.
234. ^ İnanç, Yusuf Selmen (March 29, 2024). "Abdulhamid II: An autocrat, reformer and the last stand of the Ottoman Empire". Middle East Eye.
235. ^ Yetkin, Murat (July 29, 2020). "Abdülhamid: yazdım diye MİT sitesinden çıkarabilirler ama". Yetkin Report.
236. ^ Edhem Eldem. “Sultan Abdülhamid II: Founding Father of the Turkish State?” Journal of the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association, vol. 5, no. 2, 2018, pp. 25–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2979/jottturstuass.5.2.05. Accessed 15 Feb. 2025.
237. ^ Awiti, Alex (October 2, 2011). "Erdoganism: A Word of Caution". Intpolicydigest.org. Retrieved July 30, 2016.
238. ^ "Bizarre, brutal and self-obsessed. Now time's up for Turkmenistan's dictator". The Guardian. December 22, 2006.
239. ^ a b "Turkmenistan". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. U.S. State Department. March 4, 2002.
240. ^ a b International Crisis Group. July 2003. Central Asia: Islam and the State. ICG Asia Report No. 59. Available on-line at http://www.crisisgroup.org/
241. ^ Shikhmuradov, Boris. May 2002. Security and Conflict in Central Asia and the Caspian Region. International Security Program, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University. Available on-line at http://www.ciaonet.org/
242. ^ Soucek, Svat. 2000. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
243. ^ "Turkmenistan: The Personality Cult Lives On, Residents Take It In Stride" Archived November 23, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Eurasianet. July 10, 2007.
244. ^ "Obituary: Saparmurat Niyazov". BBC. December 2006.
245. ^ "Turkmenistan: Ending the Personality Cult" Archived May 2, 2014, at the Wayback Machine (Press release). U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom. January 3, 2007.
246. ^ "Turkmenistan: Events of 2011". World Report 2012. Human Rights Watch. January 22, 2012. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
247. ^ "Turkmenistan president 'sings own birthday song'". Google News. Agence France-Presse. July 3, 2011. Archived from the original on January 31, 2014. Retrieved July 24, 2012.'&rft.date=2011-07-03&rft_id=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gMrcDVqoJ2g2dYJxI88whdc_06Rg?docId=CNG.c45b1499618bdfc8c2602868ded684ec.901&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:List+of+cults+of+personality" class="Z3988">
248. ^ "Gurbanguly Berdymukhamedov, President, Turkmenistan". Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on July 10, 2012. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
249. ^ Moon, Jeremy; Sindle, Jenna (July 1994). "Reading Thatcher". Australian Journal of Political Science. 29 (2): 369–377\. doi:10.1080/00323269408402302. ISSN 1036-1146.
250. ^ Wheatcroft, Geoffrey. "Churchill and His Myths". New York Review of Books. ISSN 0028-7504. Retrieved March 25, 2021.
251. ^ Walker, Esther (May 10, 2022). "The Royal Family has become a cult of personality, but can't we just let the poor Queen rest?". The i Paper. Retrieved May 21, 2025.
252. ^ Kane, Patrick. "Great Britain and the cult of the monarchy". The Carroll News. Retrieved May 21, 2025.
253. ^ Isemberg, Nanmu and Burstein, Andrew (2019) The Problem of Democracy: The Presidents Adams Confront the Cult of Personality. New York: Penguin. pp. 66, 447–448. ISBN 9780525557517
254. ^ Hawley, Joshua David. Theodore Roosevelt: Preacher of Righteousness. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 187. ISBN 9780300145144
255. ^ Cullinane, Michael Patrick. Theodore Roosevelt's Ghost: The History and Memory of an American Icon Baton Rouge: Louisiana: LSU Press. p. 87. ISBN 9780807166734
256. ^ Bilias, George Athan and Brob Gerald N. (1971) 'American history: retrospect and prospect[permanent dead link] New York Free Press.
257. ^ Billias, George Athan; Grob, Gerald N. (1971). American history: Retrospect and prospect. Free Press. "Cult of personality American history."
258. ^ Haltiwanger, John (March 4, 2021). "Republicans have built a cult of personality around Trump that glosses over his disgraced presidency". Business Insider. Retrieved September 25, 2022.
259. ^ Steven Hassan The Cult of Trump: A Leading Cult Expert Explains How the President Uses Mind Control, 2019. ISBN 9781982127336
260. ^ Serwer, Adam (March 20, 2020). "Donald Trump's Cult of Personality Did This". The Atlantic. Retrieved April 15, 2020.
261. ^ Woods, Thomas E. Jr. (2007) 33 Questions About American History You're Not Supposed to Ask New York, Crown. p. 136 ISBN 9780307406125
262. ^ Black, Conrad (October 9, 2012). "Abraham Lincoln is worthy of his reputation". National Post. Retrieved January 10, 2022.
263. ^ Beck, Kent M. (1974) "The Kennedy Image: Politics, Camelot, and Vietnam". The Wisconsin Magazine of History, v. 58, n. 1, pp. 45–55. Retrieved May 28, 2021
264. ^ Kaplan-Levinson, Laine (November 23, 2018) "Huey Long Vs. The Media" New Orleans Public Radio
265. ^ Curtis, Michael (January 24, 2016) "The Danger of the Cult of Personality in Politics" Archived October 24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine New English Review
266. ^ Severo, Richard (February 13, 2019). "Lyndon LaRouche, Cult Figure Who Ran for President 8 Times, Dies at 96". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 21, 2024.
267. ^ Goldwag, Arthur (August 11, 2009). Cults, Conspiracies, and Secret Societies: The Straight Scoop on Freemasons, the Illmuniati, Skull & Bones, Black Helicopters, the New World Order, and Many, Many More. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-45666-3.
268. ^ King, Dennis (1989). Lyndon LaRouche and the New American Fascism. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-23880-9.
269. ^ a b c James, Ian (January 24, 2013). "Hugo Chavez Personality Cult Flourishes In Venezuela". Huffington Post. Associated Press. Retrieved September 7, 2014.
270. ^ a b Strange, Hannah (September 4, 2014). "Saintly Hugo Chavez Replaces God in Socialist Lord's Prayer". Vice News. Retrieved December 12, 2015.
271. ^ Rueda, Manuel (October 14, 2013). "The Cult Following of Venezuela's Hugo Chávez". Fusion. Archived from the original on September 8, 2014. Retrieved September 7, 2014.
272. ^ Taylor, Guy (March 25, 2014). "Pro-Chavista 'paramilitary' active in Venezuela, jailed opposition leader says". Washington Times. Retrieved March 25, 2014. "Mr. Maduro continues to enjoy widespread support from Chavez followers – known as "Chavistas" – who've countered the recent opposition rallies in Caracas with massive pro-government demonstrations of their own."
273. ^ Gray, Kevin (March 7, 2015). "Hugo Chávez still rockin' the cult of personality, 2 years after his 'transition to immortality'". Fusion. Archived from the original on December 30, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
274. ^ "Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2013" (PDF). Report. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. August 2009. Retrieved May 2, 2014.
275. ^ "Chávez y Dios soplaron para eliminar la sequía en Venezuela, afirma Maduro". Espacio 360. May 10, 2014. Archived from the original on May 12, 2014. Retrieved May 11, 2014.
276. ^ "Maduro compares Chavez to Christ on 5-month anniversary of his death". Fox News Latino. August 5, 2013. Archived from the original on April 30, 2014. Retrieved April 29, 2014.
277. ^ "Maduro: Diosito y Chávez soplaron las nubes y llegó la lluvia (Video)". La Patilla. Retrieved May 11, 2014.
278. ^ "A Year After His Death, Proof Hugo Chavez Is A God (According To Maduro)". Fox News Latino. March 5, 2014. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
279. ^ a b c d Rueda, Manuela (January 11, 2013). "The Cult Following of Venezuela's Hugo Chávez". ABC News. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
280. ^ a b Marsh, Viv (June 6, 2012). "Uncle Ho's legacy lives on in Vietnam". BBC News. Retrieved December 2, 2012.
281. ^ https://www.google.com/books/edition/Cauldron_of_Resistance/S26Cfh4muwMC
282. ^ Rogel, Carole (1998). The Breakup of Yugoslavia and the War in Bosnia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 16. ISBN 978-0313299186. Retrieved July 5, 2013. "Tito's successors were less committed than he was to preserving Yugoslav unity; some even plotted the state's dismemberment. Tito in a way was the country's last unifying force; for many he was the glue that had held Yugoslavia together until 1980."
283. ^ Apor, Balazs; Behrends, Jan C.; Jones, Polly; Rees, E. A. (2004). The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships: Stalin and the Eastern Bloc. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230522367. OCLC 1086547189.
284. ^ Peric Zimonjic, Vesna (October 22, 2011). "30 years after his death, Tito's legacy lives on in the Balkans". The Independent. Retrieved April 26, 2023.
285. ^ "Tito on Mars". Titomanija – Josip Broz Tito. August 12, 2010. Archived from the original on June 21, 2018. Retrieved April 26, 2023.
286. ^ "How 10 Years of Houthi Rule Radically Changed Yemen". This Is Beirut. September 26, 2024.
287. ^ "Mobutu Sese Seko". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2012. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
288. ^ There are multiple translations of the full name, including "the all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inflexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest leaving fire in his wake", "the earthy, the peppery, all-powerful warrior who, by his endurance and will to win, goes from contest to contest leaving fire in his wake" and "the man who flies from victory to victory and leaves nothing behind him"<http://www.plexoft.com/SBF/N04.html#Sese> and "the all-powerful warrior who goes from conquest to conquest, leaving fire in his wake" (Wrong, p. 4)

### Works cited

[edit]

* Bianco, Mirella (1975). Gadafi: Voice from the Desert. Translated by Lyle, Margaret. London: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-78062-0.
* Blundy, David; Lycett, Andrew (1987). Qaddafi and the Libyan Revolution. Boston: Little Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0-316-10042-7.
* Kawczynski, Daniel (2011). Seeking Gaddafi: Libya, the West and the Arab Spring. London: Biteback. ISBN 978-1-84954-148-0.
* Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74059-154-2.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Hufbauer, Benjamin (2006) Presidential Temples: How Memorials and Libraries Shape Public Memory. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700614222
* Burckel, Nicholas (April 2007) "Presidential Temples: How Memorials and Libraries Shape Public Memory (review)" Portal: Libraries and the Academy v. 7, n. 2, pp. 250–252.