List of political parties in Indonesia

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Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system.[1] In the six legislative elections since the fall of the New Order regime, no political party has won an overall majority of seats, resulting in coalition governments.

Pursuant to the Indonesian political parties act,[2] political parties' ideologies "must not be against Pancasila" and "is an explanation of Pancasila".

## Overview

[edit]

An election rally for the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, 1999

The Indonesian political party system is regulated by Act No. 2 of 2008 on Political Parties.[3] The law defines political party as "a national organisation founded by like-minded Indonesian citizens with common goals to fulfill common interests and to defend the unity of the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia as based on Pancasila and the 1945 State Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia".

Political parties must register themselves with the Ministry of Law and Human Rights to be recognised by the authority. The law dictates that political parties' registration criteria shall include a notarial act recognising the party establishment and party constitution; a document describing party symbols; address of party headquarters and proof of distribution of party local offices in provinces, and cities and regencies; and a proof of party bank account.[4][3] The law also dictates minimum membership of new political parties on 50 persons, with the percentage of woman members and allocation of woman members to party offices are set on a minimum of 30%.

### Electoral eligibility

[edit]

The party must undergo another registration process in order to participate in national elections; the registration shall be submitted to the General Elections Commission (KPU).[5] Several criteria are required by the KPU, namely related to the party's presence in Indonesia's regions:[6]

* A formal leadership in all provinces of Indonesia;
* A formal leadership in at least 75 percent of all regencies and cities in each province;
* A formal leadership in at least half of districts in a regency or city in which the party has a formal leadership;
* A card-holding membership of at least 1,000 or 1/1000 of the local population in the district branches.

Political parties who have had their registration declined by the electoral commission due to failure to satisfy administrative criteria or other reasons are able to appeal their rejection to the General Election Supervisory Agency (BAWASLU).[7] Specifically for regional political parties in Aceh, the first requirement is waived, while the second and third requirements are set at two-thirds of the regencies/cities and districts.[8]

### Party principles

[edit]

Indonesian political party should recognise the superiority of Pancasila, the national philosophy

Indonesian political parties should recognise the superiority of Pancasila and the national constitution, but Indonesian law tolerates the practice of other ideologies not in violation of the Pancasila and the constitution.[1] A 1966 Provisional People's Consultative Assembly resolution still in force today, however, explicitly prohibits establishment of a communist party, and political parties are banned from adopting "Communism/Marxism-Leninism" (sic; explicitly defined in the resolution's corresponding explanatory memorandum to include "the struggle fundaments and tactics taught by ... Stalin, Mao Tse Tung et cetera") as the party ideology.[3]

In essence, Indonesian political parties differs little on party policy and ideology. The only major difference between Indonesian parties is their position as to how major a role Islam, by far the nation's majority religion, should play in public affairs.[9] This tendency resulting in several Indonesian political parties to brand itself as the part of nationalist-religious broad coalition in order to attract potential voters from both Muslim or Islamist and secular nationalist groups.[1] Thus, for instance, (1) the Democratic Party (Demokrat), Party of Functional Groups (Golkar) and Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) are identified as the secular, (2) the National Awakening Party (PKB) and National Mandate Party (PAN) as the Muslim, but not Islamist, and (3) the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) and United Development Party (PPP) as the Islamist.[1]

The language of the left–right political spectrum is seldom used in Indonesia, in contrast with other countries. This tendency arose as the result of the New Order regime under Suharto which was anathema to left-wing policies after the 1965–66 Indonesian mass killings of members and supporters of the Communist Party of Indonesia.[9] The New Order regime further stigmatised left-wing ideals as those espoused only by communists, discouraging Indonesian political parties from identifying themselves as left-wing movements lest they lose potential voters and be accused as communist. This tendency has survived even after the 1998 Reforms, partly due to the new regime's insistence on keeping anti-communist legislation in force. In addition, due to how widely presidents shared power, Indonesian party cartelization differs significantly from canonical electoral alliances in Europe.[10]

### Funding

[edit]

Political parties which won seats in the national or regional parliaments are eligible for funding from the central or local governments, based on number of votes received in the relevant legislative elections. The funding amount is set for Rp 1,000 per vote received at the national level, Rp 1,200 at the provincial level, and Rp 1,500 at the city/regency level.[11] Local government can opt to allocate more funding to political parties - Jakarta, for example, paid in 2021 Rp 5,000 per vote received.[12] After the 2019 election, this amounted to Rp 126 billion (USD 8 million) from the central government on an annual basis.[13] This payout only made up a small proportion of party revenues – the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, for example, raised just 1.5 percent of its reported revenue from government funding. Donations and fees from elected officials made up a larger proportion of income.[14]

## Parties represented in legislatures

[edit]

### Parties represented in national and regional legislatures

[edit]

Logo  | Name  | Leader  | Year  | Status in the DPR | Provincial
DPRD seats  | City/regency
DPRD seats

|
|
|
|
|
|

Est.  | First
election  | Seats  | Status
|  | PDI-P | Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle
Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan | Megawati Sukarnoputri | 1999[nb 1][15][16][17] | 1999 |

110 / 580

| Confidence and supply  |

389 / 2,372

2,810 / 17,510

|  | Golkar | Party of Functional Groups
Partai Golongan Karya | Bahlil Lahadalia | 1964[18][19][17] | 1971 |

102 / 580

| Government  |

365 / 2,372

2,521 / 17,510

|  | Gerindra | Great Indonesia Movement Party
Partai Gerakan Indonesia Raya | Prabowo Subianto | 2008[17] | 2009 |

86 / 580

| Government  |

323 / 2,372

2,120 / 17,510

|  | NasDem | NasDem Party
Partai NasDem | Surya Paloh | 2011[17] | 2014 |

69 / 580

| Confidence and supply  |

265 / 2,372

1,849 / 17,510

|  | PKB | National Awakening Party
Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa | Muhaimin Iskandar | 1998[1][17] | 1999 |

68 / 580

| Government  |

220 / 2,372

1,833 / 17,510

|  | PKS | Prosperous Justice Party
Partai Keadilan Sejahtera | Ahmad Syaikhu | 1999[nb 2][20][21][17][22][23] | 1999 |

53 / 580

| Confidence and supply  |

210 / 2,372

1,312 / 17,510

|  | PAN | National Mandate Party
Partai Amanat Nasional | Zulkifli Hasan | 1998[24][17] | 1999 |

48 / 580

| Government  |

160 / 2,372

1,236 / 17,510

|  | Demokrat | Democratic Party
Partai Demokrat | Agus Harimurti Yudhoyono | 2001[25][1][17] | 2004 |

44 / 580

| Government  |

206 / 2,372

1,479 / 17,510

### Parties represented only in regional legislatures

[edit]

These parties participated in the 2024 elections but failed to attain a single seat in the national House of Representatives after winning less than the parliamentary threshold of 4% of the popular vote.[26] Notable failures were of the United Development Party, which lost all its seats in the 2024 election after having been represented in DPR since 1977, and Hanura, which won DPR seats in 2009 and 2014 but lost them in 2019 and failed to recover their seats in 2024.

Despite electoral failure in the DPR, these parties successfully gained seat in regional parliaments (DPRD). Although, these political parties, along with other extra-parliamentary parties, are sometimes referred as partai gurem.

Aceh's special autonomy statutes allowed formation of local political parties to compete only in the Aceh House of Representatives. Although the party number is serialised from the national list, Aceh local parties only appeared in ballot paper circulating in Aceh province.[1][27]

Logo  | Name  | Leader  | Year  | Provincial
DPRD seats  | City/regency
DPRD seats

|
|
|
|
|

Est.  | First
election
|  | PPP | United Development Party
Partai Persatuan Pembangunan | Muhamad Mardiono | 1973[28][17] | 1977 |

83 / 2,372

850 / 17,510

|  | Hanura | People's Conscience Party
Partai Hati Nurani Rakyat | Oesman Sapta Odang | 2006[17] | 2009 |

42 / 2,372

486 / 17,510

|  | PSI | Indonesian Solidarity Party
Partai Solidaritas Indonesia | Kaesang Pangarep | 2014  | 2019 |

33 / 2,372

149 / 17,510

|  | Perindo | Indonesian Unity Party
Partai Persatuan Indonesia | Angela Tanoesoedibjo | 2015  | 2019 |

31 / 2,372

349 / 17,510

|  | PBB | Crescent Star Party
Partai Bulan Bintang | Fahri Bachmid  | 1998[17] | 1999 |

12 / 2,372

164 / 17,510

|  | PKN | Nusantara Awakening Party
Partai Kebangkitan Nusantara | Anas Urbaningrum | 2022  | 2024 |

4 / 2,372

52 / 17,510

|  | Garuda | Change Indonesia Guardian Party
Partai Garda Perubahan Indonesia | Ahmad Ridha Sabana | 2015  | 2019 |

3 / 2,372

34 / 17,510

|  | Gelora | Indonesian People's Wave Party
Partai Gelombang Rakyat Indonesia | Anis Matta | 2019  | 2024 |

1 / 2,372

72 / 17,510

|  | Ummat | Ummah Party
Partai Ummat | Ridho Rahmadi | 2021  | 2024 |

0 / 2,372

20 / 17,510

|  | PB | Labour Party
Partai Buruh | Said Iqbal | 2021  | 2024 |

0 / 2,372

11 / 17,510

Parties represented only in Aceh
|  | PA | Aceh Party
Partai Aceh | Muzakir Manaf | 2007  | 2009[29] |

20 / 81

116 / 665

|  | PAS Aceh | Aceh Just and Prosperous Party
Partai Adil Sejahtera Aceh | Tu Bulqaini Tanjongan  | 2023  | 2024 |

3 / 81

16 / 665

|  | PNA | Nanggroe Aceh Party
Partai Nanggroe Aceh | Irwandi Yusuf | 2011  | 2014[30] |

1 / 81

21 / 665

|  | PDA | Aceh Abode Party
Partai Darul Aceh | Muhibbussabri A. Wahab  | 2007[nb 3] | 2009[31] |

1 / 81

7 / 665

|  | SIRA | Independent Solidity of the Acehnese Party
Partai Soliditas Independen Rakyat Aceh | Muslim Syamsuddin  | 2007  | 2009[32] |

0 / 81

3 / 665

## Extra-parliamentary parties

[edit]

These political parties have no representation in either national or regional parliaments.

The term "partai gurem" (minor party, literally "tropical fowl mite party" referring to the small size) is commonly used by Indonesian media to refer to these political parties. The term initially referred to political parties that won a very small number of parliamentary seat, but after the 2004 election, to political parties that have no chance of surpassing the parliamentary threshold (currently 4%) necessary to gain representation on the House of Representatives.[33] These political parties are often perceived to be lacking in organisational structure, their leaders seemingly interested solely in attracting media attention.[33]

These parties often have their attempts at registering for elections turned down by the KPU due to the parties' failure to satisfy registration criteria set by the commission, which includes completeness of party documents, a permanent physical party headquarters, minimum membership and minimum percentage of woman members.[34][35] Parties that had their registration rejected often resort to appealing their rejection to the Bawaslu, with varied success.[36]

Logo  | Name[nb 4] | Leader  | Year

|
|
|

Est.  | Contested
elections
|  | PKP | Justice and Unity Party
Partai Keadilan dan Persatuan | Yussuf Solichien  | 1999[37][17] | 2019
|  | Berkarya | Party of Functional Banyan
Partai Beringin Karya | Muchdi Purwopranjono | 2016  | 2019
|  | PBI | Indonesian Bhinneka Party
Partai Bhinneka Indonesia | Nurdin Purnomo  | 1998[nb 5][38] | 1999
|  | Republik | Republican Party
Partai Republik | Suharno Prawiro  | 1998[39] | 1999
|  | Reformasi | Reform Party
Partai Reformasi | Syamsahril Kamal  | 2000  |
|  | PPB | National Unity Party
Partai Pemersatu Bangsa | Eggi Sudjana  | 2001  |
|  | Pakar | Republican Functional Party
Partai Karya Republik | Ari Sigit  | 2012  |
|  | Parsindo | Indonesian People's Voice Party
Partai Swara Rakyat Indonesia | M Jusuf Rizal  | 2013  |
|  | Rakyat | People's Party
Partai Rakyat | Arvindo Noviar  | 2014  |
|  | PDRI | Indonesian People's Democracy Party
Partai Demokrasi Rakyat Indonesia | Ambarwati Santoso  | 2015[nb 6][40] |
|  | Pandai | Indonesian Sovereign Nation Party
Partai Negeri Daulat Indonesia | Farhat Abbas | 2020  |
|  | Masyumi | Masyumi Party
Partai Masyumi | Ahmad Yani  | 2020[nb 7] |
|  | PRIMA | Just and Prosperous People's Party
Partai Rakyat Adil Makmur | Agus Jabo Priyono  | 2021  |
|  | PPB | National Guide Party
Partai Pandu Bangsa | Widyanto Kurniawan  | 2021  |
|  | Perkasa | Village Awakening Movement Party
Partai Pergerakan Kebangkitan Desa | Eko Santjojo  | 2021[nb 8] |
|  | PKR | People's Sovereignty Party
Partai Kedaulatan Rakyat | Tuntas Subagyo  | 2021  |
|  | PMI | Indonesian Students Party
Partai Mahasiswa Indonesia | Eko Pratama  | 2021  |
|  | IBU | Awaken and United Indonesia Party
Partai Indonesia Bangkit Bersatu | Zulki Zulkifli Noor  | 2021  |
|  | PDSP | Prosperous Peace Party of Renewal
Partai Damai Sejahtera Pembaharuan | Hendrik RE Assa  | 2021[nb 9] |
|  | PDKB | National Peace and Love Party
Partai Damai Kasih Bangsa | Apri Hananto Sukandar  | 2021  |
|  | Pelita | Pelita Party
Partai Pelita | Ari Chandra Kurniawan  | 2022  |
|  | Republiku | Indonesian Republiku Party
Partai Republiku Indonesia | Ramses David Simandjuntak  |  |
|  | PRS | One Republic Party
Partai Republik Satu | D Yusad Siregar  |  |
|  | Kongres | Congress Party
Partai Kongres | Zakariani Santoso  |  |
|  | PP | Party of Change
Partai Perubahan | Robi Nurhadi  | 2024  |
Parties that are not registered in the KPU RI Political Party Registration System
|  | SRI | Union of Independent People
Serikat Rakyat Independen | Damianus Taufan  | 2011  |
|  | PHI | Green Party of Indonesia
Partai Hijau Indonesia | Collective leadership | 2012  | [nb 10]

## Political party coalitions

[edit]

Outside of the Suharto period, no political parties controlled a majority of the Indonesian parliament, necessitating the formation of coalitions.[41][42] Coalitions may also be required to nominate candidates to executive office elections (i.e. President, Governors, Regents, Mayors and their deputies), and political parties often form coalitions for regional elections with parties which are on opposing coalitions at the national level.[43][44]

Logo  | Name  | Active period  | Status  | Presidential candidate  | Election  | DPR seats

|
|
|
|
|
|

Formed  | Disbanded
|  | PPPKI | Association of Political Organisations
of the Indonesian People
Pemufakatan Perhimpunan-Perhimpunan Politik Kebangsaan Indonesia[45] | 1927–1942  | Disbanded  | —  |  |  | 17–18 December 1927  | 20 March 1942
|  | GAPI | Indonesian Political Federation
Gabungan Politik Indonesia[46] | 1939–1942  | Disbanded  | —  |  |  | 21 May 1939  | 20 March 1942
|  | PT | Central Axis
Poros Tengah | 1999–2004  | Disbanded  | Abdurrahman Wahid | 1999 |

163 / 462

| 7 October 1999  | 20 October 2004[47]
|  | Bangsa | National Coalition [id]
Koalisi Kebangsaan | 2004–2009  | Disbanded  | Megawati Sukarnoputri | 2004 |

307 / 550

| 19 August 2004[48] | 16 May 2009[49]
|  | Rakyat | People's Coalition [id]
Koalisi Kerakyatan | 2004–2009  | Continued
(Joint Secretariat of the Government-Supporting Coalition Parties) | Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono | 2004 |  | 28 August 2004  | 16 May 2009
|  | SetGab | Joint Secretariat of the Government-Supporting Coalition Parties
Sekretariat Gabungan Partai Koalisi Pendukung Pemerintahan | 2009–2014  | Disbanded  | Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono | 2009 |

317 / 560

| 16 May 2009  | 20 October 2014
|  | KIH | Great Indonesia Coalition [id]
Koalisi Indonesia Hebat[10] | 2014–2018  | Continued
(Onward Indonesia Coalition) | Joko Widodo | 2014 |

207 / 560

| 19 May 2014  | 10 August 2018
|  | KMP | Red-White Coalition [id]
Koalisi Merah Putih[10] | 2014–2018  | Disbanded  | Prabowo Subianto | 2014 |

292 / 560

| 14 July 2014  | 18 September 2018
|  | KIM | Onward Indonesia Coalition
Koalisi Indonesia Maju | 2018–2024  | Disbanded  | Joko Widodo | 2019 |

349 / 575

| 10 August 2018  | 20 October 2024
|  | KIAM | Just and Prosperous Indonesia Coalition [id]
Koalisi Indonesia Adil Makmur | 2018–2019  | Disbanded  | Prabowo Subianto | 2019 |

226 / 575

| 18 September 2018  | 28 June 2019
|  | KIM | Advanced Indonesia Coalition
Koalisi Indonesia Maju | since 2022  | Active  | Prabowo Subianto | 2024 |

280 / 580

| 13 August 2022  |
|  | KP | Coalition of Change
Koalisi Perubahan | 2023–2024  | Disbanded  | Anies Baswedan | 2024 |

190 / 580

| 24 March 2023  | 30 April 2024
|  | KSPP | Alliance of Political Parties Supporting Ganjar Pranowo
Kerja Sama Partai Politik Pengusung Ganjar Pranowo | 2023–2024  | Disbanded  | Ganjar Pranowo | 2024 |

110 / 580

| 30 April 2023  | 6 May 2024

## Historical political parties

[edit]

### Pre-independence parties

[edit]

See also: Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)

In the first decade of the 20th century as a natural outcome of the Dutch Ethical Policy, which emphasised the importance of looking after the welfare of the people of the Dutch East Indies, the Dutch were tolerant of the rise and development of Indonesian society.[50] Through this, the Dutch allowed the creation of education societies and funded its creation. Dutch educated Intelligentsias' would establish schools and education across the Dutch East Indies. Whilst the policy attempted to raise awareness among the natives of the need to break free from the shackles of the feudal system and develop along Western lines and were concerned about the native population's social and cultural conditions, it spearheaded the spread of Indonesian National Revivalism, allowing people to silently organize and articulate their objections to colonial rule.[51] The Budi Utomo was considered the first nationalist society (not party yet) in the Dutch East Indies, initiated the Indonesian National Awakening.[52] Among other political organizations were the Indo Europeesch Verbond (Indo-European Alliance) and Indonesia Arab Association.[53] Over time organizations turned into political parties, such how Budi Utomo turned into Parindra[54][55] and Sarekat Islam into Indonesian Islamic Union Party. The Indische Partij is considered the first Indonesian political party.[56] Years of campaigning by various political organizations across the Dutch East Indies eventually compelled the Dutch Government to recognize the need for concessions. As a result, on 16 December 1916, Governor-General J.P. van Limburg Stirum, in collaboration with the Dutch Minister of Colonial Affairs, Thomas Bastiaan Pleyte, sanctioned the establishment of a legislative assembly designed to represent the people of the Dutch East Indies. This assembly was named the Volksraad.[57][58]

The Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies began when the Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies through Tarakan, Kalimantan, on 8 March 1942. By the Japanese Government, parties that were based on Indonesian nationalism and wanted to fight for Indonesian Independence were dissolved and banned from political activities on 20 March 1942.[59]

Name  | Established  | Dissolved  | Notes  | Independence method

|
|
|
|

Indies Party
Indische Partij | IP  | 1912  | 1913  | Advocated Indonesian independence.[56] | Non-cooperative
Insulinde, or Nationaal Indische Partij  | NIP  | 1913  | 1919  | Direct successor to the Indies Party, advocated in establishing an independent dominion for Indo people in the Dutch East Indies.[56][60] | Non-cooperative
Sundanese Circle of Friends
Paguyuban Pasundan | 1913[nb 11]
1919[nb 12][45] | 1942[nb 13] | Advocated to preserve Sundanese culture by involving not only Sundanese people but all those who care about Sundanese culture and to pursue Indonesian Independence  | Cooperative
Communist Party of Indonesia
Partai Komunis Indonesia | PKI  | 1914  | 1966  | Before 1920 as the Indies Social Democratic Association (Indische Sociaal-Democratische Vereeniging).  | Non-cooperative
Indies Catholic Party
Indische Katholieke Partij | IKP  | 1917  | 1949  | Made as a response to the emergence of nationalist inlander movements, it represented Dutch totok Roman Catholic interests. It had close ties with its mainland counterpart, the Roman Catholic State Party.[61] |

Dutch party

Christian Constitutional Party
Christenlijk Staatkundige Partei | CSP  | 1917  | 1942  | Before 1929 as the Christian Ethic Party (Christelijk Ethische Partij). Advocated to make the statutes of God, as revealed in the Holy Scriptures, nature, and history, the foundation of political life in the Dutch East Indies. Also invited native Indonesians, which was rare for a Dutch-majority party at the time.[62] Precursor to Parkindo.  |

Dutch party

Indonesian Islamic Union Party
Partai Syarikat Islam Indonesia | PSII  | 1923  | 1973  | Advocated Islamic socialism.  | Non-cooperative
Catholic Party
Partai Katolik | PK  | 1923  | 1973  | Split from IKP. Advocated for Christian democracy for natives.[63] | Cooperative
Indonesian National Party
Partai Nasional Indonesia | PNI  | 1927  | 1931  | The first incarnation (second in 1945) of the significant party, which advocated Indonesian independence.  | Non-cooperative
Chinese Association
Chung Hwa Hui | CHH  | 1928  | 1942  | Advocated Chinese rights in the Dutch East Indies.  | Cooperative
Indonesian Party
Partai Indonesia | Partindo  | 1931  | 1936  | Advocated Indonesian independence.  | Non-cooperative
National Socialist Movement in the Dutch East Indies

Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging in Nederlands-Indië

| 1931  | 1940  | East Indies branch of the NSB. Most of its members were Indos.  |

Dutch party

Indonesian Chinese Party
Partai Tionghoa Indonesia | PTI  | 1932  | 1942  | Advocated closer ties between Chinese and native Indonesians.  | Cooperative
Indonesian Fascist Party
Partai Fasis Indonesia | PFI  | 1933  | 1933  | Advocated an independent Java, led by an ethnic Javanese descendant of Sutawijaya as its constitutional monarch,[64] ruling over a federation of kingdoms across Nusantara.[65] | Non-cooperative
Great Indonesian Party
Partai Indonesia Raya | Parindra  | 1935  | 1939  | National conservative party, that advocated for full political rights for Indonesians in a system of government in the Dutch East Indies.[55] | Cooperative
Indonesian People's Movement
Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia | Gerindo  | 1937  | 1942  | Successor to Partindo, left-wing nationalist party.[66] | Cooperative[67][68]
Indonesian Islamic Party
Partai Islam Indonesia | PII  | 1938[69] | 1942  | Cooperative split from PSII.  | Cooperative

### Political parties participating in 1955 and 1971 elections

[edit]

Parties that had been officially registered in Indonesia in 1954.

The election in 1955 was the first national election held since the end of the Indonesian National Revolution, and saw over 37 million valid votes cast in over 93 thousand polling locations, with more than 30 parties participating. Due to the numerous political parties participating in the election, the result was inconclusive, with no party receiving a clear mandate.[70][71][72] The legislature which was elected through the election would eventually be dissolved by President Sukarno in 1959, through Presidential Decree number 150. Later on, after the take over by the New Order regime, only 10 parties was allowed to participate in the 1971 legislative election.[73][72]

Logo  | Name[74][75] | Established  | Dissolved  | Contested elections

|
|
|
|

1955  | 1971
DPR  | Constituency[76]
| Indonesian Islamic Union Party
Partai Serikat Islam Indonesia | PSII  | 1923
1947[77] | 1973  |  |  |
| Indonesian National Party
Partai Nasional Indonesia | PNI  | 1946[78] | 1973  |  |  |
| Communist Party of Indonesia
Partai Komunis Indonesia | PKI  | 1914  | 1966[79]
Banned |  |  |
| Masyumi Party
Majelis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia | Masyumi  | 1943[nb 14]
1945[nb 15][77][80][81][82] | 1960[83][84]
Banned
Revived in 2020[85] |  |  |
| Islamic Education Movement
Pergerakan Tarbijah Islamijah | Perti  | 1928[nb 16]
1945[nb 17][77][86] | 1973  |  |  |
| Nahdhatul Ulama | NU  | 1952[77][87] | 1973
Still active as religious organisation |  |  |
| Indonesian Christian Party
Partai Kristen Indonesia | Parkindo  | 1945[88] | 1973  |  |  |
| Catholic Party
Partai Katolik | 1923  | 1973  |  |  |
| Socialist Party of Indonesia
Partai Sosialis Indonesia | PSI  | 1945[88] | 1960
Banned |  |  |
| Indonesian Marhaen People's Union
Persatuan Rakyat Marhaen Indonesia | Permai  | 1945[88] |  |  |  |
| Popular Consultative Party
Partai Musyawarah Rakyat Banyak | Murba  | 1948  | 1973
Revived in 1998[89] |  |  |
| Labour Party
Partai Buruh | 1949  |  |  |  |
| National People's Party
Partai Rakyat Nasional | PRN  | 1950  |  |  |  |
| Indonesian People's Party
Partai Rakyat Indonesia | PRI  | 1950[90] |  |  |  |
| League of Supporters of Indonesian Independence
Ikatan Pendukung Kemerdekaan Indonesia | IPKI  | 1954[91] | 1973
Revived in 1998[92] |  |  |
| Pancasila Defender Movement
Gerakan Pembela Pantja Sila | GPPS  | 1955  |  |  |  |
| Police Employee Association of the Republic of Indonesia
Persatuan Pegawai Polisi Republik Indonesia | P3RI  | 1955  |  |  |  |
| Indonesian Citizenship Consultative Assembly
Badan Permusjawaratan Kewarganegaraan Indonesia | Baperki  | 1954  |  |  |  |
| Great Indonesia Unity Party Wongsonegoro
Partai Indonesia Raya Wongsonegoro | PIR/W  | 1948

Split in 1954[93]

|  |  |  |
| Great Indonesia Unity Party Hazairin
Partai Indonesia Raya Hazairin | PIR/RIN  |  |  |  |
| Great Indonesia Unity Party West Nusa Tenggara
Partai Indonesia Raya Nusa Tenggara Barat | PIR/NTB  |  |  |  |
| Indonesian Movement
Gerakan Indonesia | Grinda  | 1955  |  |  |  |
| Dayak Unity Party
Partai Persatuan Dayak | PPD  | 1946  | 1959
Banned |  |  |
| Islamic Tharikah Unity Party
Partai Persatuan Tharikah Islam | PPTI  |  |  |  |  |
| Islamic Victory Force
Angkatan Kemenangan Umat Islam | AKUI  |  |  |  |  |
| Village People's Union
Persatuan Rakjat Desa | PRD  |  |  |  |  |
| Party of the People of Free Indonesia
Partai Rakjat Indonesia Merdeka | PRIM  |  |  |  |  |
| Young Communist Force
Angkatan Communis Muda | Acoma  | 1952  | 1965
Banned |  |  |
| Muslim Party of Indonesia
Partai Muslimin Indonesia | Parmusi  | 1967[94] | 1973  |  |  |
| R. Soedjono Prawirosoedarso
R. Soedjono Prawirosoedarso | 1955[95] | 1957[96] |  |  |
| Sundanese Choice Movement
Gerakan Pilihan Sunda | Gerpis  |  |  |  |  |
| Indonesian Peasants Party
Partai Tani Indonesia | PTI  | 1945[97] |  |  |  |
| King of Keprabohan
Radja Keprabonan | 1955[98] |  |  |  |
| Indonesian Republican Bull Movement
Gerakan Banteng Republik Indonesia | GBRI  |  |  |  |  |
| Centre for the Candidacy Movement of La Ode M. Effendi
Pusat Penggerak Pentjalonan La Ode M. Effendi | L.M. Idrus Effendi  | 1955[4] |  |  |  |
Parties that failed to enter or lost contested elections
| People's Heritage Party
Partai Adat Rakyat | PAR  | 1950  | 1959  |  |  |

### Political parties of the New Order

[edit]

#### Government parties

[edit]

A poster encouraging citizens to support the 1997 Indonesian legislative election.

After his rise into power, President Suharto expressed his discontent regarding multiple political parties, arguing that the failure of Konstituante in 1955–1959 was caused by party deadlock — unacceptable in his regime.[99] He proposed that existing political parties unite based on their ideological essence — either spiritual (religious) or materialist (secular nationalist) — in order to cripple the resulting umbrella parties with infighting. Political parties' reaction to Suharto's propositions was generally positive, with Islamic parties claiming that party fusion was in line with their last National Islamic Congress resolution agreed in 1969. A political alliance dubbed the "Democratic Development Group" was formed by the PNI, the IPKI, Parkindo, the Murba Party, and the Catholic Party to compete in 1971 election.[100]

After 1971 election, New Order regime reiterated its call for political parties to fuse, and a MPR ordinance regulating political parties grouping issued in 1973 further pressured political parties to merge.[72] All Islamic political parties merged to form the United Development Party (PPP) on 5 January 1973, and the remaining nationalist and non-Islamic political parties united to form the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDI) on 10 January 1973.[101] Golkar, officially a "federation of public organisations" but effectively a political party, remained dominant for the entirety of the New Order. From 1985, all political parties were required to declare national ideology Pancasila as their "one and only ideological basis".

The parties participated for the last time in the 1997 election, and the three-party system survived until the collapse of the New Order in 1998 Reformasi. Ensuing political liberalisation allowed establishment of multitudes of new political parties, with the number of political parties participating in 1999 election jumping substantially to 48 parties.

Logo  | Name  | Established  | Fate

|
|
|

|  | Party of Functional Groups
Partai Golongan Karya | Golkar  | 1964  | Active
|  | Indonesian Democratic Party
Partai Demokrasi Indonesia | PDI  | 1973[102] | Disbanded in 2003
succeeded by PPDI[103]
|  | United Development Party
Partai Persatuan Pembangunan | PPP  | 1973[104] | Active

#### Activist parties

[edit]

Prior to the end of the New Order era, there was a time where several political activists and student movements established small political parties in the early 1990s. Sensing the near fall of the New Order, the formation of these newly unregistered and unrecognized political parties was based on opposition to the New Order government and positioned themselves as the opposition and played a crucial part in the fall of the new order. The new parties then and only participated in the 1999 elections.

Whilst the New Masyumi Party predates the wave of the new opposition parties, the Indonesian Democratic Union Party (PUDI) was considered as the first genuine opposition party. As PUDI was upfront and outspoken in their political opposition as a party against the New Order regime, the first out of many.[105] At one point, fielding both presidential and vice-presidential candidates, PUDI was considered a challenger to Suharto's rule.[106][107] Emboldened by the success of PUDI, the Democratic People's Association (PRD) organisation declared itself the People's Democratic Party (also abbreviated as PRD). On 22 July 1996, the PRD was officially declared to the public and announced its political manifesto.[108]

Logo  | Name  | Established  | Fate

|
|
|

|  | League of Supporters of Indonesian Independence
Ikatan Pendukung Kemerdekaan Indonesia | IPKI  | 1994/1998[109][39][nb 18] | Non-active
|  | Indonesian National Party – Supeni
Partai Nasional Indonesia – Supeni | PNI-Supeni  | 1995[nb 19]/1998[110][nb 20] | Disbanded in 2002. Merged to form the Indonesian National Party Marhaenism
|  | New Masyumi Party
Partai Masyumi Baru | 1995[110] | Non-active
|  | Indonesian Democratic Union Party
Partai Uni Demokrasi Indonesia | PUDI  | 1996[38] | Non-active
|  | People's Democratic Party
Partai Rakyat Demokratik | PRD  | 1996[110] | Disbanded in 2021
Merged with the Just and Prosperous People's Party

### Political parties in Reform era (1998–2004)

[edit]

#### Parties participating only in 1999 elections

[edit]

Following political liberalisation after the collapse of the New Order regime in 1998 Reformasi, registration for new political parties jumped significantly. As the result, the following 1999 election had 148 registered political parties[111] and 48 of them competing for DPR seats,[1][111][110][39][38] compared to the previous 1997 election that saw only 2 political parties plus Golkar.

After the Reform, the PPP survived and continues to participate in all following elections after 1999, albeit with much of its membership having broken off from it and founded their own parties. Golkar too was made a proper party and exists to this day.[18] The PDI failed to imitate the post-Suharto successes of the PPP and Golkar after the government intervened and unseated Chairman Megawati Soekarnoputri, causing PDI support to collapse in the 1997 election. PDI votes further eroded as support instead went to its breakaway Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), led by Megawati in the post-Suharto 1999 election, resulting in the party winning only two seats in contrast to the PDI-P's 153 seats.[37] After poor electoral performance and failure to register for the 2004 election, PDI rebranded itself as the Indonesian Democratic Vanguard Party (PPDI) in 2003.[37][103]

Several parties claimed inheritance from former political parties existing prior to the New Order era, resulting in parties sharing similar political party names, with faction names as the only characteristics that made those parties distinct from each other. Example on this case was on claimants to the heritage of the former Indonesian National Party (PNI), Indonesian Islamic Union Party (PSII), League of Supporters of Indonesian Independence (IPKI), Masyumi Party, and Murba Party.

Most of the parties failed to gain even a single seat due to lack of votes.[112][72] After the new electoral law authorised the use of a parliamentary threshold to determine the division of DPR seats, those parties were forced to reorganise themselves in order to be able to register for the next 2004 election.[113]

Below is the list of political parties participating only in the 1999 election which failed to participate in the next 2004 election.

Logo  | Name  | Established

|
|

| Aceh Orphans' Foundation Party
Partai Abul Yatama | PAY  | 1999[110]
| All-Indonesia Workers' Solidarity Party
Partai Solidaritas Pekerja Seluruh Indonesia | PSPSI  | 1998[38]
| Democratic Catholic Party
Partai Katolik Demokrat | PKD  | 1998[39]
| Democratic Islamic Party
Partai Islam Demokrat | PID  | 1998[39]
| Democratic National Party
Partai Nasional Demokrat | PND  | 1998[38]
| Familial Consultative Party of Mutual Assistance
Partai Musyawarah Kekeluargaan Gotong Royong | MKGR  | 1998[38]
| Indonesian Democratic Alliance Party
Partai Aliansi Demokrat Indonesia | PADI  | 1998[110]
| Indonesian Democratic Union Party
Partai Uni Demokrasi Indonesia | PUDI  | 1996[38]
| Indonesian Islamic Political Party "Masyumi"
Partai Politik Islam Indonesia "Masyumi" | 1998[39][nb 7]
| Indonesian Islamic Ummah Party
Partai Umat Muslimin Indonesia | PUMI  | 1998[38]
| Indonesian Islamic Union Party
Partai Syarikat Islam Indonesia | PSII  | 1998[110][nb 21]
| Indonesian Islamic Union Party 1905
Partai Syarikat Islam Indonesia 1905 | PSII 1905  | 1998[39][nb 21]
| Indonesian Muslim Awakening Party
Partai Kebangkitan Muslim Indonesia | KAMI  | 1998[110]
| Indonesian National Christian Party
Partai Kristen Nasional Indonesia | Krisna  | 1998[110]
| Indonesian National Party – Marhaenist Front
Partai Nasional Indonesia – Front Marhaenis | PNI-FM  | 1999[39][nb 20]
| Indonesian National Party – Marhaen Masses
Partai Nasional Indonesia – Massa Marhaen | PNI-MM  | 1998[39][nb 20]
| Indonesian National Party – Supeni
Partai Nasional Indonesia – Supeni | PNI-Supeni  | 1995 / 1998[110][nb 20]
| Indonesian National Union Solidarity Party
Partai Solidaritas Uni Nasional Indonesia | SUNI  | 1998[38]
| Indonesian People's Party
Partai Rakyat Indonesia | Pari  | 1998[39]
| Indonesian Workers' Party
Partai Pekerja Indonesia | PPI  | 1998[38]
| Islamic Ummah Party
Partai Ummat Islam | PUI  | 1998[110]
| League of Supporters of Indonesian Independence
Ikatan Pendukung Kemerdekaan Indonesia | IPKI  | 1994 / 1998[109][39][nb 18]
| Love and Peace Party
Partai Cinta Damai | PCD  | 1998[38]
| Murba Party
Partai Musyawarah Rakyat Banyak | Murba  | 1998[39][nb 22]
| National Freedom Party
Partai Kebangsaan Merdeka | PKM  | 1998[110]
| National Love Democratic Party
Partai Demokrasi Kasih Bangsa | PDKB  | 1998[110]
| National Party of the Indonesian Nation
Partai Nasional Bangsa Indonesia | PNBI  | 1998[38]
| New Indonesia Party
Partai Indonesia Baru | PIB  | 1999[110]
| New Masyumi Party
Partai Masyumi Baru | 1995[110]
| People's Choice Party
Partai Pilihan Rakyat | Pilar  | 1998[39]
| People's Sovereignty Party
Partai Daulat Rakyat | PDR  | 1999[38]
| Justice Party
Partai Keadilan | PK  | 1999[20][22][23]
| United Party
Partai Persatuan | PP  | 1999[38]
| Ummah Awakening Party
Partai Kebangkitan Umat | PKU  | 1998[110]
| Workers' Solidarity Party
Partai Solidaritas Pekerja | PSP  | 1999[38]
| People's Democratic Party
Partai Rakyat Demokratik | PRD  | 1996[110]

#### Parties participating in 2004 and 2009 elections

[edit]

After the 1999 legislative election, 150 parties were registered with the Ministry of Law and Human Rights. However, after a review by the newly formed General Election Commission, this number was reduced to 50, and then to 24.[1][114][72] This decrease from the 48 parties that ran in the 1999 legislative election was primarily due to a new election law that allowed only parties that had won 2% of DPR seats or 3% of seats in provincial and regental legislatures in half of the provinces to run in the 2004 election. Only six parties met this criterion, and the others were forced to merge or reorganize into a new party.[115]

In 2009, introduction of a parliamentary threshold also meant that only parties receiving more than 2.5% of the popular vote would be seated in the DPR.[116] This threshold was raised to 3.5% in 2014,[117] then finally to 4% in 2017 as a way to cut election costs and ensure stability.[118] As a result small parties have no chance of surpassing the parliamentary threshold.

Below is the list of political parties participating in the 2004 and 2009 elections which failed to participate in the next 2014 election.

Name[119][120][121] | Established  | Dissolved  | Contested elections

|
|
|

2004  | 2009
Labour Party
Partai Buruh | PB  | 1998
As "National Labour Party"[38] | 2021
Reformed into the Labour Party |  |
Indonesian Democratic Party of Devotion
Partai Kasih Demokrasi Indonesia | PKDI  | 1998  | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |  |
Patriot Party
Partai Patriot |  | 1998  | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |  |
Ulema National Awakening Party
Partai Kebangkitan Nasional Ulama | PKNU  | 2000s  | 2022
Merged into the People's Sovereignty Party (PKR)[123] |  |
Archipelago Republic Party
Partai Republika Nusantara | RepublikaN  | 2001  | 2013
Merged into the People's Conscience Party[124] |  |
Prosperous Peace Party
Partai Damai Sejahtera | PDS  | 2001  | 2013
Merged into the People's Conscience Party[124] |  |
Indonesian National Party Marhaenism
Partai Nasional Indonesia Marhaenisme | PNIM  | 2002[20]
Merger of PNI–Supeni and PNI–MM |  |  |
Pioneers' Party
Partai Pelopor | PP  | 2002[125] | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |  |
Reform Star Party
Partai Bintang Reformasi | PBR  | 2002  | 2011
Merged into the Gerindra Party[126] |  |
Regional Unity Party
Partai Persatuan Daerah | PPD  | 2002  | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |  |
New Indonesia Association Party
Partai Perhimpunan Indonesia Baru | PPIB  | 2002  | 2012
Merged to form Concern for the Nation Functional Party[127] |  |
Concern for the Nation Functional Party
Partai Karya Peduli Bangsa | PKPB  | 2002  |  |  |
Democratic Nationhood Party
Partai Demokrasi Kebangsaan | PDK  | 2002  | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |  |
Freedom Party
Partai Merdeka | PM  | 2002  | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |  |
Indonesian Unity Party
Partai Sarikat Indonesia | PSI  | 2002  | 2005
Merged into the National Mandate Party[128] |  |
Indonesian Nahdlatul Community Party
Partai Persatuan Nahdlatul Ummah Indonesia | PPNUI  | 2003  |  |  |
Indonesian Democratic Vanguard Party
Partai Penegak Demokrasi Indonesia | PPDI  | 2003[37] | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |  |

### Political parties in post-reform era (2005–present)

[edit]

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

Below is the list of defunct political parties established in a period from 2005 to present.

Name

| Established  |

Dissolved

| Contested
elections

|
|
|

Democratic Renewal Party
Partai Demokrasi Pembaruan | PDP  | 2005  | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |
Sovereignty Party
Partai Kedaulatan | PK  | 2006  | 2013
Merged into the People's Conscience Party[124] |
National People's Concern Party
Partai Rakyat Peduli Nasional | PPRN  | 2006  | 2013
Merged into the People's Conscience Party[124] |
National Sun Party
Partai Matahari Bangsa | PMB  | 2006  | 2014[129] |
Functional Party of Struggle
Partai Karya Perjuangan | Pakar Pangan  | 2007  | 2012
Merged into Democratic Party[130] |
Indonesian Youth Party
Partai Pemuda Indonesia | PPI  | 2007  | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |
National Front Party
Partai Barisan Nasional | PBN  | 2007  |  |
Prosperous Indonesia Party
Partai Indonesia Sejahtera | PIS  | 2007[131] | 2011
Merged to form the National Unity Party[122] |
Nusantara Prosperous Party
Partai Kemakmuran Bangsa Nusantara | PKBN  | 2011  | 2012
Merged to form the Concern for the Nation Functional Party[127] |
New Indonesia National Sovereignty Party
Partai Kedaulatan Bangsa Indonesia Baru | PKBIB  | 2012  |  |
Peace and Safe Islamic Party
Partai Islam Damai Aman | Idaman  | 2015  | 2018
Merged into the National Mandate Party[132] |
Indonesian People's Da'wah Party
Partai Dakwah Rakyat Indonesia | PDRI  | 2021  | 2025
Merged into the Ummah Party[133] |

### Others

[edit]

#### Indonesian integrationist parties

[edit]

Logo  | Name  | Established  | Dissolved  | Notes

|
|
|
|

| Partai Kemerdekaan Indonesia Irian
Indonesian Irian Independence Party | PKII  | 1946  | 1962  | Founded in Netherlands New Guinea, advocated integration of Western New Guinea into Indonesia.
| Associação Popular Democrática Timorense
Timorese Popular Democratic Association | APODETI  | 1974  | 2007  | Founded in Portuguese Timor, advocated integration of East Timor into Indonesia.

## See also

[edit]

* Politics of Indonesia
* List of political parties by country
* List of youth wings of political parties in Indonesia

## References

[edit]

### Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Split from the Indonesian Democratic Party, de facto, its transformation.
2. ^ as Partai Keadilan
3. ^ as Aceh Sovereignty Party (Partai Daulat Aceh)
4. ^ Political parties registered at the KPU RI Political Party Registration System (SIPOL) for the 2024 general elections and other notable parties.
5. ^ As "Indonesian Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Party"
6. ^ Reformed from Indonesian Democratic Vanguard Party (PPDI)
7. ^ a b Claimed inheritance from the original Masyumi
8. ^ Reformed from Pioneers' Party
9. ^ Reformed from Prosperous Peace Party
10. ^ Not seeking registration for 2024 general elections
11. ^ as cultural organization
12. ^ also as political party
13. ^ as political party, nowadays exists only as cultural organization
14. ^ as religious administrative board
15. ^ as political party
16. ^ as religious organization
17. ^ as political party
18. ^ a b Claimed inheritance from the original IPKI
19. ^ as Indonesian National Unity (Persatuan Nasional Indonesia)
20. ^ a b c d Claimed inheritance from the original PNI
21. ^ a b Claimed inheritance from the original PSII
22. ^ Claimed inheritance from the original Murba

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[edit]

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## Selected bibliography

[edit]

* Al-Hamdi, Ridho (2013). Partai politik Islam: Teori dan praktik di Indonesia [Islamic political parties: Theory and practice in Indobesia] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu. ISBN 978-602-262-049-5.
* Ananta, Aris; Arifin, Evi Nurvidya & Suryadinata, Leo (2005). Emerging Democracy in Indonesia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 981-230-323-5.
* Dirkse, Jan-Paul; Hüsken, Frans & Rutten, Mario, eds. (1993). Development and Social Welfare: Indonesia’s Experiences under the New Order. Leiden: Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde.
* Evans, Kevin Raymond (2003). The History of Political Parties & General Elections in Indonesia. Jakarta: Arise Consultancies. ISBN 979-97445-0-4.
* Feith, Herbert (2007) [1962]. The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia. Jakarta; Kuala Lumpur: Equinox Pub. ISBN 978-979-3780-45-0.
* Formichi, Chiara (2012). Islam and the Making of the Nation: Kartosuwiryo and Political Islam in 20th Century Indonesia (PDF). Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-26046-7.
* Hwang, Julie Chernov (2014). "Patterns of normalization: Islamist parties in Indonesia". In Mecham, Quinn; Hwang, Julie Chernov (eds.). Islamist parties and political normalization in the Muslim world. Philadelphia, Pa: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812246056.
* Indonesia Electoral, Political Parties Laws and Regulations Handbook — Strategic Information, Regulations, Procedures (updated ed.). International Business Pub., USA. 2015. ISBN 9781514517017.
* Kahin, Audrey (2015). Historical Dictionary of Indonesia. Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East, 51 (3rd ed.). Lanham, Ma: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8108-7195-3.
* King, Blair A. (2011). "Chapter 4. Government and Politics". In Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (eds.). Indonesia: A Country Study. Area handbook series, 39. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division (6th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 225–306\. ISBN 978-0-8444-0790-6.
* King, Dwight Y. (2003). Half-Hearted Reform: Electoral Institutions and the Struggle for Democracy in Indonesia (2024 Online Version). Wesport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-2759-7942-3.
* Labolo, Muhadam; Ilham, Teguh (2015). Partai Politik dan Sistem Pemilihan Umum di Indonesia: Teori, Konsep dan Isu Strategi [Political Parties and the General Election System in Indonesia: Theory, Concepts and Strategy Issues] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Rajawali Pers. ISBN 978-979-769-881-2.
* Machmudi, Yon (2008). Islamising Indonesia: The Rise of Jemaah Tarbiyah and the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) (e-Book). Islam in Southeast Asia. ANU Press. doi:10.22459/II.11.2008. ISBN 9781921536243.
* Madinier, Rémy (2015). Islam and Politics in Indonesia: The Masyumi Party between Democracy and Integralism. Translated by Jeremy Desmond. Singapore: NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-843-0. PDF
* Miaz, Yalvema (2012). Partisipasi Politik: Pola Perilaku Pemilih Pemilu Masa Orde Baru dan Reformasi [Political Participation: Behavioral Patterns of Election Voters during the New Order and Reform Period] (PDF) (in Indonesian). Padang: UNP Press. ISBN 978-602-8819-65-7.
* Mietzner, Marcus (2013). Money, Power, and Ideology: Political Parties in Post-Authoritarian Indonesia. Singapore: NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-768-6.
* Nainggolan, Bestian; Wahyu, Yohan, eds. (2016). Partai Politik 1999–2019, Konsentrasi dan Dekonsentrasi Kuasa [Political Parties 1999–2019, Concentration and Deconcentration of Power]. Kompaspedia (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Buku Kompas. ISBN 978-602-412-005-4.
* Noer, Deliar (1987). Partai Islam di pentas nasional 1945–1965 [Islamic parties on the national stage 1945–1965] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Pustaka Utama Grafiti.
* Pringgodigdo, Abdul Karim (1984) [1949]. Sejarah pergerakan rakyat Indonesia [History of Indonesian Popular Movements] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Dian Rakyat.
* Ricklefs, M.C. (2008) [1981]. A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 (4th ed.). London: MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-54685-1.
* Riswandha, Imawan (1989). The Evolution of Political Party Systems in Indonesia, 1900 to 1987. Northern Illinois University Press.
* Sebastian, Leonard C.; Hasyim, Syafiq; Arifianto, Alexander R., eds. (2021). Rising Islamic Conservatism in Indonesia: Islamic Groups and Identity Politics. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-81941-5.
* Tomsa, Dirk (2008). Party Politics and Democratization in Indonesia: Golkar in the post-Suharto era (2010 Online version). Routledge contemporary Southeast Asia series. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-041-557-429-7.
* Ufen, Andreas (2009). "Political parties and democratization in Indonesia". In Bünte, Marco; Ufen, Andreas (eds.). Democratization in post-Suharto Indonesia. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 160–168.
* Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6.

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