List of sieges of Constantinople

For the final siege of Constantinople, see Fall of Constantinople.

Topographical map of Constantinople during the Byzantine period, corresponding to the modern-day Fatih district of Istanbul. The city was known as Byzantium under Roman Empire.

The following is a list of sieges of Constantinople, a historic city located in an area which is today part of Istanbul, Turkey. The city was built on the land that links Europe to Asia through Bosporus and connects the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. As a transcontinental city within the Silk Road, Constantinople had a strategic value for many empires and kingdoms who tried to conquer it throughout history.

Originally known as Byzantium in classical antiquity, the first recorded siege of the city occurred in 510 BC by the Achaemenid Empire under the command of Otanes. Following this successful siege, the city fell under the rule of Persians until it won its independence again and became part of the Roman Empire around 70 BC. Despite being part of the Roman Empire, it was a free city until it became under siege by Septimius Severus between 193–196 and was partially sacked during the civil war. After it was captured by Constantine the Great in 324, it became the capital of the Byzantine Empire under the name of New Rome. It later became known as Constantinople and in the years that followed it became under attack by both Byzantine pretenders fighting for the throne and also by foreign powers for a total of twenty-two times. The city remained under Byzantine rule until the Ottoman Empire took over as a result of the siege in 1453, known as the Fall of Constantinople, after which no other sieges took place.

Constantinople was besieged thirty-four times throughout its history. Out of the ten sieges that occurred during its time as a city-state and while it was under Roman rule, six were successful, three were repelled and one was lifted as a result of the agreement between the parties. Three of these sieges were carried out by the Romans who claimed the throne during civil war. Of the twenty-four sieges that took place while it was under Byzantine rule, five were successful, fourteen remained inconclusive, and five were lifted by reaching mutual agreements. Four of these sieges took place during civil wars. The Sack of Constantinople that took place in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade caused the city to fall and established the Latin Empire. It also sent the Byzantine imperial dynasty to exile, who founded the Empire of Nicaea. Constantinople came under Byzantine rule again in 1261, but was conquered by the Ottomans with the siege in 1453, as a result of which the Byzantine Empire came to an end. The city has been under the rule of Turks since the last siege, except for the period of Allied occupation from 1920 to 1923.

## Sieges[edit]

Date  | Attackers  | Defenders  | Forces used  | Result[A] | Reference(s)

|
|
|
|
|

510 BC | Achaemenid Empire | Byzantium | Naval and land  | Successful  | [1][2][3][4]
478 BC | Delian League | Achaemenid Empire | Naval  | Successful  | [5][6][7][8][9]
408 BC | Athens | Byzantium, Megara, Boeotia | Naval and land  | Successful  | [10][11][12][13][14]
340–339 BC | Macedonia | Byzantium, Athens | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [15][16][17][18][19]
278–277 BC | Galatians | Byzantium | Land  | Lifted | [20][21][22][23]
251 BC | Seleucid Empire | Byzantium, Heraclea Pontica,
Ptolemaic Kingdom | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [24][25][26]
73–72 BC | Pontus | Byzantium | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [B][27][28][29][30][31]
193–196 | Septimius Severus | Pescennius Niger | Naval and land  | Successful  | [32][33][34][35][36]
313 | Maximinus II | Licinius | Land  | Successful  | [37][38][39][40][41]
324 | Constantine the Great | Licinius | Naval and land  | Successful  | [42][43][44][45]
378 | Goths | Byzantine Empire | Land  | Unsuccessful  | [46][47][48]
626 | Pannonian Avars, Sasanian Empire | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [49][50][51]
654 | Rashidun Caliphate | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [52][53]
669 | Umayyads | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [54][55][56][57]
674–678 | Umayyads | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [58][59][60][61]
715 | Opsician Theme | Anastasios II | Naval and land  | Successful  | [62][63][64]
717–718 | Umayyads | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [65][66][67]
813 | First Bulgarian Empire | Byzantine Empire | Land  | Unsuccessful  | [68][69][70][71]
821–822 | Thomas the Slav | Michael II | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [72][73][74]
860 | Rus' Khaganate | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [C][75][76][77]
907 | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [78][79][80]
913 | First Bulgarian Empire | Byzantine Empire | Land  | Unsuccessful  | [81]
921 | First Bulgarian Empire | Byzantine Empire | Land  | Unsuccessful  | [82]
923 | First Bulgarian Empire | Byzantine Empire | Land  | Unsuccessful  | [83]
941 | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [84][85][86]
1047 | Leo Tornikios | Constantine IX Monomachos | Land  | Unsuccessful  | [87][88][89]
1203 | Crusaders | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Successful  | [90][91][92][93]
1204 | Crusaders | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Successful  | [94][95][96][97]
1235–1236 | Empire of Nicaea, Second Bulgarian Empire | Latin Empire, Duchy of the Archipelago | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [98][99][100]
1260 | Empire of Nicaea | Latin Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful  | [101][99][102][103]
1376 | Andronikos IV Palaiologos, Ottoman Empire, Genoa | John V Palaiologos | Land  | Successful  | [104][105][106]
1391 | Ottoman Empire | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful | [107][108][109][110]
1394–1402 | Ottoman Empire | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Unsuccessful | [111][112][113][114]
1411 | Musa Çelebi | Byzantine Empire | Land  | Unsuccessful | [115][116][117][118]
1422 | Ottoman Empire | Byzantine Empire | Land  | Unsuccessful | [119][120][121][122]
1453 | Ottoman Empire | Byzantine Empire | Naval and land  | Successful  | [123][124][125][126]

## Notes[edit]

^A The "Result" column is relative to the side that carries out the siege.
^B While some sources have used Cicero and Tacitus's writings as a reference to argue that the city was in fact under a siege until it "repelled the enemies", other ancient writings found mention that a siege was planned through the sea but didn't take place due to stormy weather conditions.[127][31]
^C Byzantine sources give 860 and Russian sources give 866 as the year in which this siege occurred, although it is accepted that the latter is wrong.
^D The year in which the siege started is controversial. Fahameddin Başar, Halil İnalcık and Konstantin Josef Jireček gave it as 1394, while Feridun Emecen and Haldun Eroğlu believed that it was 1396. In addition, some sources mention that the siege started in 1391 and ended in 1396, and that between these years, there was only one siege, the severity of which increased and decreased from time to time.[107][112]

## References[edit]

Inline citations

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44. ^ Hughes 2017, p. 231.
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57. ^ Uçar, Şahin (1990). Anadolu'da İslâm-Bizans Mücadelesi. İstanbul: İşaret Yayınları. p. 82.
58. ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 249.
59. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 115.
60. ^ Norwich 2013a, p. 263.
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62. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 144.
63. ^ Hughes 2017, p. 1283.
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66. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 145.
67. ^ Norwich 2013a, p. 286.
68. ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 265.
69. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 188.
70. ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 326.
71. ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 28.
72. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 192.
73. ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 319.
74. ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 40.
75. ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 282.
76. ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 322.
77. ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 66.
78. ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 287.
79. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 241.
80. ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 369.
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84. ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 289.
85. ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 371.
86. ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 129.
87. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 308.
88. ^ Norwich 2013b, p. 248.
89. ^ Hughes 2017, p. 1289.
90. ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 341.
91. ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 518.
92. ^ Freely 2011, p. 159.
93. ^ Demirkent, Işın (1997). Haçlı Seferleri. İstanbul: Dünya Yayıncılık. p. 172\. ISBN 975-7632-54-6.
94. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 386.
95. ^ Vasiliev 2016, p. 520.
96. ^ Robert de Clari (1994). İstanbul'un Zaptı (1204). Beynun Akyavaş, çev. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. p. VI.
97. ^ Ayönü, Yusuf (July 2015). "IV. Haçlı Seferi'nin Ardından Batı Anadolu'da Mücadele Eden İki Rakip: İstanbul Latin Krallığı ve İznik İmparatorluğu". Cihannüma: Tarih ve Coğrafya Araştırmaları Dergisi. İzmir: İzmir Katip Çelebi Üniversitesi Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Fakültesi. 1 (1): 13. doi:10.30517/cihannuma.283488. ISSN 2149-0678.
98. ^ Arslan & Kaçar 2017, p. 349.
99. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 405.
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103. ^ Freely 2011, p. 168.
104. ^ Ostrogorsky 2015, p. 499.
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106. ^ Baştav 1989, p. 74.
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Sources

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* Arslan, Murat; Kaçar, Turhan (2017), Byzantion'dan Constantinopolis'e İstanbul Kuşatmaları, İstanbul: İstanbul Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, ISBN 978-605-4642-67-0
* Baştav, Şerif (1989), Bizans İmparatorluğu Tarihi: Son Devir (1261-1461), Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayınları, ISBN 975-456-024-2
* Freely, John (2011), Troya Savaşı'ndan İstiklal Harbi'ne Anadolu'da Yunanlar, Gül Çağalı Güven, çev., İstanbul: Doğan Kitap, ISBN 978-605-09-0434-5
* Hughes, Bettany (2017), Istanbul: A Tale of Three Cities, Londra: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-297-86849-1
* İnalcık, Halil (2014), Devlet-i 'Aliyye (54 ed.), İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, ISBN 978-9944-88-645-1
* Norwich, John Julius (2013a), Bizans: Erken Dönem (MS 323-802), vol. 1, Hamide Koyukan, çev., İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi, ISBN 978-605-5093-01-3
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* Ostrogorsky, Georg (2015), Bizans Devleti Tarihi, Fikret Işıltan, çev. (8 ed.), Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, ISBN 978-975-16-0348-7
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* Samos
* Dromon
* Greek fire
* Droungarios of the Fleet
* Megas doux
* Admirals
* Naval battles

Religion and law

| Religion|

* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Byzantine Rite
* Hesychasm
* Patriarchate of Constantinople
* Saints
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Alexandrian Rite
* Armenian Rite
* West Syriac Rite
* Miaphysitism
* Ecumenical councils
* Arianism
* Monophysitism
* Paulicianism
* Iconoclasm
* Great Schism
* Bogomilism
* Mount Athos
* Missionary activity
* Bulgaria
* Moravia
* Serbs
* Kievan Rus'
* Jews

|

Law|

* Codex Theodosianus
* Corpus Juris Civilis
* Code of Justinian
* Ecloga
* Basilika
* Hexabiblos
* Mutilation

Culture and society

| Architecture|

* Secular
* Sacred
* Cross-in-square
* Domes

Constantinople|

* Basilica Cistern
* Baths of Zeuxippus
* Blachernae Palace
* Chora Church
* City Walls
* Great Palace of Constantinople
* Hagia Irene
* Hagia Sophia
* Hippodrome
* Pammakaristos Church
* Prison of Anemas

Thessalonica|

* Arch of Galerius and Rotunda
* Byzantine Bath
* Hagia Sophia
* Hagios Demetrios
* Panagia Chalkeon
* Walls of Thessaloniki

Ravenna|

* San Vitale
* Sant'Apollinare in Classe
* Sant'Apollinare Nuovo

Other locations|

* Daphni Monastery
* Hosios Loukas
* Nea Moni of Chios
* Panagia Gorgoepikoos
* Saint Catherine's Monastery
* Mystras

Art|

* Icons
* Enamel
* Glass
* Mosaics
* Early Byzantine mosaics
* Painters
* Macedonian period art
* Komnenian renaissance

Economy|

* Agriculture
* Coinage
* Mints
* Trade
* silk
* Silk Road
* Varangians
* Dynatoi

Literature|

* Novel
* Acritic songs
* Digenes Akritas
* Alexander Romance
* Historians

Everyday life|

* Calendar
* Cities
* Cuisine
* Dance
* Dress
* Flags and insignia
* Gardens
* Music
* Lyra
* Octoechos
* People
* Byzantine Greeks
* Women
* Slavery
* Units of measurement

* Science
* Learning

* Encyclopedias
* Imperial Library
* Inventions
* Medicine
* Philosophy
* Rhetoric
* Scholars
* University
* University of Constantinople

Impact

* Byzantine commonwealth
* Byzantine studies
* Museums
* Byzantinism
* Cyrillic script
* Neo-Byzantine architecture
* Greek scholars in the Renaissance
* Third Rome
* Megali Idea

* Byzantine Empire portal

Portals:

Byzantine Empire History
*[Lifted]: As a result of the agreement reached with the mediator of Bithynia, the siege was lifted.
*[Unsuccessful]: The siege was lifted after Mustafa Çelebi's move to Anatolian lands to fight against Murad II.
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