List of tributary states of China

Overview of Chinese tributary states

This is a list of states that paid tribute to the Imperial dynasties of China under the tributary system. It encompassed states in Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe.[1]

## List of tributaries

[edit]

In the 5th century, a status hierarchy was an explicit element of the tributary system in which Korea and Vietnam were ranked higher than others, including Japan, the Ryukyus, Siam and others.[2] All diplomatic and trade missions were construed in the context of a tributary relationship with China,[3] including:

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

* Bhutan[4]
* Brunei (文萊)[5]
* Borneo[6]
* Poni (渤泥)[7][8]
* Burma (Myanmar)[9][10]
* Cambodia[11]
* Kingdom of Funan[12]
* Zhenla[13]
* Ceylon (Sri Lanka)[14]
* Japan[15][16][17][18][19][20]
* Wa (Japan) (16 tribute missions)[21][22][23]
* Asuka Japan (5 tribute missions)[16][24]
* Nara/Heian Japan (16 tribute missions)[25][26][27][28]
* Ashikaga shogunate (20 tribute missions) [29][30]
* Korea[31][32]
* Goguryeo (173 tribute missions) [31]
* Baekje (45 tribute missions) [31]
* Silla (19 tribute missions) [31][33][34]
* Unified Silla (63 tribute missions in 8th century) [31][34]
* Goryeo (The envoy missions)[31][35]
* Joseon (826 tribute missions) [36][37][38][39][31][35]
* Laos (老挝)[4]
* Lan Xang[40][41]
* Malaysia
* Tanah Merah Kingdom[42]
* Kedah Kingdom[43]
* Kelantan[44]
* Malacca Sultanate[45]
* Nepal[4][8][46]
* Philippines[47]
* Butuan (蒲端)[48][49]
* Sanmalan (三麻蘭)[48][49]
* Sulu[11]
* Ryukyus[50][51][52]
* Hokuzan[53]
* Chūzan[8][54]
* Nanzan[53]
* Siam (Thailand)[50][55]
* Sikkim (锡金)[4]
* Tibet[56]
* Vietnam[50][57]

The Portraits of Periodical Offering of Liang. 6th-century painting in National Museum of China. Ambassadors from right to left: Uar (Hephthalites); Persia; Baekje (Korea); Qiuci; Wo (Japan); Langkasuka (in present-day Malaysia); Dengzhi (鄧至) (Qiang) Ngawa; Zhouguke (周古柯), Hebatan (呵跋檀), Humidan (胡密丹), Baiti (白題, of similar Hephthalite people), who dwell close to Hephthalite; Mo (Qiemo).

## By dynasty

[edit]

### Western Han

[edit]

* Internal vassals (206 BC - ?) - Upon the founding of the dynasty, the first emperor awarded up to one-half of territory of Han as fiefdoms to various relatives, who ruled as princes. These fiefdoms collected their own taxes and established their own laws and were not directly administered by imperial government. Consolidation and centralization by succeeding emperors increased imperial controls, gradually dissolving the princedoms. During the period of Three kingdoms, Japan's king also sent tribute to Cao Rui stating about his status as a vassal to the Rui.
* Dayuan (102 BC) - Kingdom located in the Fergana Valley. Hearing tales of their high-quality horses, which would be of great utility in combatting the Xiongnu, Emperor Wu of Han dispatched an expedition to acquire their submission and the horses. The first expedition of 3,000 was woefully undermanned, but the second, numbering 100,000 besieged the capital, bringing them into submission after negotiations. The expedition returned with 10,000 horses along with a promise to pay an annual tribute in horses[citation needed].
* Dian Kingdom (109 BC) - A kingdom located in modern-day Yunnan province. Brought into subjugation by Emperor Wu of Han, who annexed the kingdom into an imperial commandery but allowed local rulers to remain in power.
* Jushi (108 BC) - City-state in modern-day Turpan. Brought into submission by an imperial expedition dispatched by Emperor Wu of Han.[58]
* Loulan (108 BC) - Located along the northeastern edge of the Taklamakan Desert in modern-day Xinjiang province. Brought into submission by an imperial expedition dispatched by Emperor Wu of Han.[58]
* Minyue (138 BC - ?) - A Baiyue people situated in modern-day Fujian province. After an attack by the Minyue people, Emperor Wu of Han launched a massive expedition, and forced their entire population to relocate within imperial borders.
* Nanyue (211 BC - 111 BC) - A kingdom situated today's northern Vietnam, and the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi founded by a former Chinese general, Zhao Tuo. Under Zhao Tuo it paid nominal tribute to Han but his successors lost more and more power. After a coup d'état against the king, Han directly conquered the kingdom and directly administered it from then on.[58]
* Xiongnu (53 BC - 10) - A nomadic confederation/empire in Central Asia and modern day Mongolia and extending their control to territories as far as Siberia, western Manchuria, the areas along the Caspian Sea, and modern day Chinese provinces of Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Xinjiang. They entered tributary relations with the Han after several defeats, territorial losses, and internal conflicts[citation needed]. Tributary relationships terminated as a result of diplomatic fumblings during the reign of Wang Mang. Xinjiang passed to Chinese control after their defeat.[58]
* Wusun (105 BC - ?) - Central Asian people. Bitter enemies with the Xiongnu, they entered a military alliance with the Han. In 53 BC, the kingdom split into two following a succession dispute. Both continued to recognize Han sovereignty and remained faithful vassals[citation needed].

### Xin

[edit]

During Wang Mang's reign, relations with many of the empire's allies and tributaries deteriorated, due in large part to Wang Mang's arrogance and inept diplomacy.

### Eastern Han

[edit]

* Khotan - King Guangde of Khotan submitted to the Han dynasty in 73 AD. In 129: Fangqian, the king of Khotan, sent an envoy to offer tribute to Han. The Emperor pardoned the crime of the king of Khotan, ordering him to hand back the kingdom of Keriya. Fangqian refused. Two years later Fangqian sent one of his sons to serve and offer tribute at the Chinese Imperial Palace.
* Southern Xiongnu (50 - 220) - The Xiongnu split into northern and southern factions. The southern Xiongnu brought themselves into tributary relations with the Han. They were resettled along with large numbers of Chinese immigrants in frontier regions. Economically dependent on Han, they were obliged to provide military services under a tightened tributary system with greater direct imperial supervision.

### Jin, Northern and Southern, Tang

[edit]

In the 5th century the Wa (Japan during the Kofun period) sent five tributes to the Jin and to the Liu Song dynasty and the emperors promoted the five kings to the title like Supreme Military Commander of the Six States of Wa, Silla, Mimana, Gaya, Jinhan and Mahan.

According to the Xīn Táng shū the kingdom of Zhēnlà had conquered different principalities in Northwestern Cambodia after the end of the Yǒnghuī (永徽) era (i.e. after 31 January 656), which previously (in 638/39) paid tribute to China.[59]

The Chinese retaliated against Cham which was raiding the Rinan coast around 430s-440s by seizing Qusu, and then plundering the capital of the Cham around Huế. Around 100,000 jin in gold was the amount of plunder. Lin Yi then paid 10,000 jin in gold, 100,000 jin in silver, and 300,000 jin in copper in 445 as tribute to China. The final tribute paid to China from Lin Yi was in 749, among the items were 100 strings of pearls, 30 jin gharuwood, baidi, and 20 elephants.[60]

Enslaved people from tributary countries were sent to Tang China by various groups, the Cambodians sent albinos, the Uyghurs sent Turkic Karluks, the Japanese sent Ainu, and Göktürk (Tujue) and Tibetan girls were also sent to China.[61] Prisoners captured from Liaodong, Korea, and Japan were sent as tribute to China from Balhae.[62] Tang dynasty China received 11 Japanese girl dancers as tribute from Balhae in 777.[63]

### Song

[edit]

The Song dynasty received 302 tribute missions from other countries. Vietnamese missions consisted of 45 of them, another 56 were from Champa. More tribute was sent by Champa in order to curry favor from China against Vietnam.[64] Champa brought as tribute Champa rice, a fast-growing rice strain, to China, which massively increased Chinese yields of rice.[65][66]

In 969 the son of King Li Shengtian named Zongchang sent a tribute mission to China. According to Chinese accounts, the King of Khotan offered to send in tribute to the Chinese court a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar in 970.[67]

### Yuan

[edit]

The Mongols extracted tribute from throughout their empire.[68] From Goryeo, they received gold, silver, cloth, grain, ginseng, and falcons.[69][70] The tribute payments were a burden on Goryeo and subjugated polities in the empire.[69][70][71] As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided palace women, eunuchs, Buddhist monks, and other personnel to the Mongols.[72]

Just as Korean women entered the Yuan court, the Korean Koryo kingdom also saw the entry of Mongol women.[73] Great power was attained by some of the Korean women who entered the Yuan court.[74] One example is the Empress Ki (Qi) and her eunuch Bak Bulhwa when they attempted a major coup of Northern China and Koryo.[75] King Ch'ungson (1309-1313) married two Mongol women, Princess Botasirin and a non-royal woman named Yesujin. She gave birth to a son and had a posthumous title of "virtuous concubine". In addition 1324, the Yuan court sent a Mongol princess of Wei named Jintong to the Koryo King Ch'ungsug.[76]

The entry of Korean women into the Yuan court was reciprocated by the entry of Yuan princesses into the Goryeo court, and this affected relations between Korea and the Yuan. Marriages between the imperial family of Yuan existed between certain states. These included the Onggirat tribe, Idug-qut's Uighur tribe, the Oirat tribe, and the Koryo (Korean) royal family.[77][78]

### Ming

[edit]

A Ming-era painting of a tribute giraffe from Bengal, which was thought to be a Qilin by court officials

Under the Ming dynasty, countries that wanted to have any form of relationship with China, political, economic or otherwise, had to enter the tribute system. As a result, tribute was often paid for opportunistic reasons rather than as a serious gesture of allegiance to the Chinese emperor, and the mere fact that tribute was paid may not be understood in a way that China had political leverage over its tributary.[79] Also some tribute missions may just have been up by ingenious traders. A number of countries only paid tribute once, as a result of Zheng He's expeditions. As of 1587, in Chinese sources the following countries are listed to have paid tribute to the Ming emperors:[80]

The Hongwu Emperor started tributary relations in 1368, emissaries being sent to countries like Korea, Vietnam, Champa, Japan, of which Korea, Vietnam, and Champa sent back tribute in 1369. During Hongwu's rule, Liuch'iu sent 20, Korea sent 20, Champa sent 19, and Vietnam sent 14 tribute missions.[81] The tribute system was an economically profitable form of government trade, and Korea requested and successfully increased the number of tributes sent to Ming from once every three years to three times each year starting in 1400, and eventually four times each year starting in 1531.[82]

The 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa and Ming Turpan Border Wars were either started by or marked by disruptions in the tribute system.

Tribute in the form of servants, eunuchs, and virgin girls came from: Ming's various ethnic-minority tribes, tribes on the Mongolian Plateau, Korea,[83] Vietnam,[84] Cambodia, Central Asia, Siam, Champa, and Okinawa.[85]

There were Korean, Jurchen, Mongol, Central Asian, and Vietnamese eunuchs under the Yongle Emperor,[86][87] including Mongol eunuchs who served him while he was the Prince of Yan.[88] In 1381, Muslim and Mongol eunuchs were captured from Yunnan, and possibly among them was the great Ming maritime explorer Zheng He.[89] Vietnamese eunuchs like Ruan Lang, Ruan An, Fan Hong, Chen Wu, and Wang Jin were sent by Zhang Fu to the Ming.[90]

During Ming's early contentious relations with Joseon, when there were disputes such as competition for influence over the Jurchens in Manchuria, Korean officials were even flogged by Korean-born Ming eunuch ambassadors, when their demands were not met.[91] Some of the ambassadors were arrogant, such as Sin Kwi-saeng who, in 1398, got drunk and brandished a knife at a dinner in the presence of the king.[92][93] Sino-Korean relations later became amiable, and Korean envoys' seating arrangement in the Ming court was always the highest among the tributaries.[91] A total of 198 eunuchs were sent from Korea to Ming.[94]

On 30 Jan 1406, the Ming Yongle Emperor expressed horror when the Ryukyuans castrated some of their own children to become eunuchs in order to give them to Yongle. Yongle said that the boys who were castrated were innocent and didn't deserve castration, and he returned the boys to Ryukyu and instructed them not to send eunuchs again.[95]

Joseon sent a total of 114 women to the Ming dynasty, consisting of 16 virgin girls, accompanied by 48 female servants, 42 cooks (執饌女), and 8 musical performers (歌舞女).[96][97] The women were sent to the Yongle and Xuande emperors in a total of 7 missions between 1408 and 1433.[97] Xuande was the last Ming emperor to receive human tribute from Korea.[91] with his death in 1435, 53 Korean women were repatriated.[98][99] There was much speculation that the Yongle Emperor's real mother was a Korean[100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108] or Mongolian[109] concubine.[110][111][112] Relations between Ming China and Joseon Korea improved dramatically and became much more amicable and mutually profitable during Yongle's reign.[104] Yongle and Xuande were said to have a penchant for Korean cuisine and women.[104][113][114]

An anti pig slaughter edict led to speculation that the Zhengde Emperor adopted Islam, due to his use of Muslim eunuchs who commissioned the production of porcelain with Persian and Arabic inscriptions in white and blue color.[115] Muslim eunuchs contributed money in 1496 to repairing Niujie Mosque. Central Asian women were provided to the Zhengde Emperor by a Muslim guard and Sayyid Hussein from Hami.[116] The guard was Yu Yung and the women were Uighur.[117]

It is unknown who really was behind the anti-pig slaughter edict.[118] The speculation of him becoming a Muslim is remembered alongside his excessive and debauched behavior along with his concubines of foreign origin.[119] Muslim Central Asian girls were favored by Zhengde, with Korean girls being favored by Xuande.[120] A Uighur concubine was kept by Zhengde.[121] Uighur and Mongol women were favored by the Zhengde emperor.[122]

### Qing

[edit]

"Moghul embassy", seen by the Dutch visitors in Beijing in 1656. According to Lach & Kley (1993), modern historians (namely, Luciano Petech) think that the emissaries portrayed had actually come from Turfan, and not all the way from the Moghul India. The Dutch embassy before the Court and the Qianlong Emperor in 1795. The Dutch embassy was the last European embassy sent to China under the tributary system.

This list covers states that sent tribute between 1662 and 1875, and were not covered under the Lifan Yuan. Therefore, Tibet or the Khalkha are not included, although they did send tribute in the period given:[123]

* Badakhshan[124]
* Hunza (1761)[125]
* Joseon (Korea) (three or four times a year;[126][127] 435 embassies, 1637-1881[2])
* Empire of Holland (1663(?), 1667, 1686, and 1795).[128][129]
* Sulu Sultanate (1726,[130])

After the Second Manchu Invasion of Korea, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon.[131][132][133][134][135][136][137] In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順).[138] The Princess' name in Korean was Uisun, she was Prince Yi Kaeyoon's (Kumrimgoon) daughter.[139] Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.[140]

The tribute system did not dissolve in 1875, but tribute embassies became less frequent and regular: twelve more Korean embassies until 1894, one more (abortive) from Liuqiu in 1877, three more from Vietnam, and four from Nepal, the last one in 1908.[123]

In 1886, after Britain took over Burma, they maintained the sending of tribute to China, putting themselves in a lower status than in their previous relations.[9] It was agreed in the Burma convention in 1886 that China would recognize Britain's occupation of Upper Burma while Britain continued the Burmese payment of tribute every ten years to Peking.[10]

## See also

[edit]

* Chinese expansionism
* Chinese nationalism
* Emperor at home, king abroad
* Foreign relations of imperial China
* Foreign relations of China
* Greater China
* History of China#Imperial China
* Tributary system of China
* List of recipients of tribute from China
* Silk Road
* Sinocentrism
* Zheng He
* Adoption of Chinese literary culture

General:

* Suzerainty
* Tributary state
* Tribute

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Gundry, R. S. "China and her Tributaries," National Review (United Kingdom), No. 17, July 1884, pp. 605-619., p. 605, at Google Books
2. ^ a b Kang, David C. (2010). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute, p. 59., p. 59, at Google Books
3. ^ Wang, Zhenping. (2005). Ambassadors from the islands of immortals: China-Japan relations in the Han-Tang period, pp. 4-5, p. 4, at Google Books; excerpt, criticizing "the western tributary theory, which sees the world only from the viewpoint of the Chinese and overly simplifies the intricate domestic and international situations ...."
4. ^ a b c d "由钓鱼岛故事想到清代中国的藩属国" [Thinking about the vassal states of China in the Qing Dynasty from the story of Diaoyu Islands]. city.udn.com (in Chinese). China. 2010-09-26. Retrieved 2025-03-15.
5. ^ Mohammad Al-Mahdi Tan Kho; Hurng-yu Chen (July 2014). "Malaysia-Philippines Territorial Dispute: The Sabah Case" (PDF). National Chengchi University. NCCU Institutional Repository. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2016. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
6. ^ Wan Kong Ann; Victor H. Mair; Paula Roberts; Mark Swofford (April 2013). "Examining the Connection Between Ancient China and Borneo Through Santubong Archaeological Sites" (PDF). Tsinghua University and Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania. Sino-Platonic Papers. ISSN 2157-9687. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
7. ^ Johannes L. Kurz. "Boni in Chinese Sources: Translations of Relevant Texts from the Song to the Qing Dynasties" (PDF). Universiti Brunei Darussalam. National University of Singapore. p. 1\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
8. ^ a b c Kerr, George. (2000). Okinawa: The History of an Island People, p. 65., p. 65, at Google Books
9. ^ a b Alfred Stead (1901). China and her mysteries. LONDON: Hood, Douglas, & Howard. p. 100. Retrieved February 19, 2011. "burma was a tributary state of china british forward tribute peking."(Original from the University of California)
10. ^ a b William Woodville Rockhill (1905). China's intercourse with Korea from the XVth century to 1895. LONDON: Luzac & Co. p. 5. Retrieved February 19, 2011. "tribute china."(Colonial period Korea; WWC-5)(Original from the University of California)
11. ^ a b Shambaugh, David L. et al. (2008). International Relations of Asia, p. 54 n15., p. 54, at Google Books citing the 1818 Collected Statutes of the Qing Dynasty (DaQing hui-tien)
12. ^ "Funan". About.com. Archived from the original on 2007-11-09. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
13. ^ "The Kingdom of Funan and Chenla (First to Eighth Century AD)". Archived from the original on 2006-05-03. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
14. ^ Giovanni Andornino. "Working Papers of the Global Economic History Network (GEHN) No. 21/06 - The Nature and Linkages of China's Tributary System under the Ming and Qing Dynasties" (PDF). London School of Economics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-01-10. Retrieved 2016-10-31.
15. ^ Yoda, p. 40., p. 40, at Google Books; excerpt, "... King Na was awarded the seal of the Monarch of the Kingdom of Wa during the Chinese Han dynasty, and Queen Himiko, who had sent a tribute mission to the Wei Dynasty (third century) was followed by the five kings of Wa who also offered tribute to the Wei. This evidence points to the fact that at this period Japan was inside the Chinese tribute system ...."
16. ^ a b Book of Sui, vol. 81
17. ^ "The Early Relations between China and Japan". Archived from the original on 2010-11-08. Retrieved 2011-01-24.
18. ^ Delmer M. Brown, John Whitney Hall. The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan, pp. 280-283., p. 280, at Google Books
19. ^ Chisholm, Hugh. (1911). The Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. 15, p. 224, p. 224, at Google Books
20. ^ Yoda, Yoshiie et al. (1996) The Foundations of Japan's Modernization: a Comparison with China's Path, p. 40., p. 40, at Google Books; excerpt, "While other countries in East Asia were almost consistently emeshed within the Chinese tribute system, Japan found itself sometimes inside sometimes outside of the system ...."
21. ^ According to the Book of Later Han vol. 85, zh:s:Frédéric Nussbaum, see Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File Archived 2012-05-24 at archive.today.
22. ^ Yoda, p. 40., p. 40, at Google Books; excerpt, "... Japanese missions to the Sui [Dynasty] (581–604) ... were recognized by the Chinese as bearers of imperial tribute ...."
23. ^ Imperial envoys made perilous passages on kentoshi-sen ships to Tang China Archived 2011-01-28 at the Wayback Machine "The cross-cultural exchanges began with 5 missions between 600 and 614, initially to Sui China (on kenzuishi-sen), and at least 18 or 19 missions were sent to T'ang China from 630 to 894 although not all of them were designated kentoshi."
24. ^ Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Kentoshi" in Japan encyclopedia, p. 511, p. 511, at Google Books; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Loui
25. ^ Fogel, Joshua A. (2009). Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time, pp. 102-107., p. 102, at Google Books
26. ^ Yoda, p. 40., p. 40, at Google Books; excerpt, "Japanese missions to the ... Tang Dynasties were recognized by the Chinese as bearers of imperial tribute; however, in the middle of the ninth century -- the early Heian Period -- Japan rescinded he sending of missions to the Tang Empire. Subsequently Japan conducted a flourishing trade with China and for the next five hundred years also imported much of Chinese culture, while nevertheless remaining outside the tribute system."
27. ^ Edwin O. Reischauer (1955). Ennin's travels in T'ang China: Chapter III - Kentoshi. ISBN 978-89-460-3814-1
28. ^ Old book of Tang, vol. 199
29. ^ Fogel, p. 27., p. 27, at Google Books; Goodrich, Luther Carrington et al. (1976). Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644, p. 1316., p. 1316, at Google Books; note: the economic benefit of the Sinocentric tribute system was profitable trade. The tally trade (kangō bōeki or kanhe maoyi in Chinese) was a system devised and monitored by the Chinese -- see Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric et al. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia, p. 471.
30. ^ Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank. The Cambridge history of China: The Ming dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1, pp. 491-492., p. 491, at Google Books
31. ^ a b c d e f g Pratt, Keith L. (1999). Korea: a historical and cultural dictionary. Psychology Press. p. 482\. ISBN 9780700704637. Archived from the original on 2021-06-22. Retrieved 2021-02-01.
32. ^ Kwak, Tae-Hwan et al. (2003). The Korean peace process and the four powers, p. 100., p. 100, at Google Books; excerpt, "The tributary relations between China and Korea came to an end when China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895."
33. ^ Seth, Michael J. (2006). A concise history of Korea, p. 64, p. 64, at Google Books; excerpt, "China found instead that its policy of using trade and cultural exchanges and offering legitimacy and prestige to the Silla monarchy was effective in keeping Silla safely in the tributary system. Indeed, the relationship that was worked out in the late seventh and early eighth centuries can be considered the beginning of the mature tributary relationship that would characterize Sino-Korean interchange most of the time until the late nineteenth century;"
34. ^ a b Korean History Project, Unified Silla Archived 2008-11-20 at the Wayback Machine.
35. ^ a b Kwak, p. 99., p. 99, at Google Books; excerpt, "Korea's tributary relations with China began as early as the fifth century, were regularized during the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), and became fully institutionalized during the Yi dynasty (1392–1910)."
36. ^ 391 envoy missions between 1392 and 1450
37. ^ 435 special embassy missions between 1637 and 1881.
38. ^ Clark, Donald N. (1998). "The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644 Part 2". The Cambridge History of China. 8: 280. ISBN 0-521-24333-5. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2020-10-18. "Between 1392 and 1450, the Choson court dispatched 391 envoys to China: on average, seven each year."
39. ^ Kang, David C. (2010). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. Columbia University Press. p. 59\. ISBN 978-0-231-15318-8. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2020-10-18. "thus, between 1637 and 1881, Korea sent 435 special embassies to the Qing court, or an average of almost 1.5 embassies per year."
40. ^ Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. SUNY Press. pp. 119–120\. ISBN 978-0791426876. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
41. ^ Eisemann, Joshua; Heginbotham, Eric; Mitchell, Derek (2015-08-20). China and the Developing World: Beijing's Strategy for the Twenty-first Century. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317282945. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
42. ^ "Chinese Sui Dynasty annals". Archived from the original on June 27, 2006.
43. ^ "Kedah: The Birthplace of Malay Civilisation". www.sabrizain.org. Archived from the original on 2012-02-04. Retrieved 2012-01-11.
44. ^ "Kelantan". Archived from the original on 2012-02-02. Retrieved 2012-01-11.
45. ^ "First Ruler of Melaka : Parameswara 1394-1414". Archived from the original on 2013-06-03. Retrieved 2012-01-11.
46. ^ Gundry, "Nepal," pp. 609-610., p. 609, at Google Books
47. ^ "The Political Economy of Philippines- China Relations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-21. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
48. ^ a b Tan, Rita C. (1991). "Participation of the Philippines in the Nanhai Trade". International Seminar for UNESCO Integral Study of the Silk Roads: Roads of Dialogue: "Manila as an Entrepot in the Trans-pacific Commerce".: 2–3.
49. ^ a b Wang, Zhenping (March 31, 2008). "Reading Song-Ming Records on the Pre-colonial history of the Philippines". Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies. 1: 249–260\. hdl:10112/3180.
50. ^ a b c "Tribute and Trade" Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine, KoreanHistoryProject.org. Retrieved on 30-01-2007.
51. ^ "The Ancient Ryukyus Period/The Sanzan Period". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
52. ^ Gundry, "Ryūkyū," pp. 615-616., p. 615, at Google Books
53. ^ a b Kerr, George. (2000). Okinawa: The History of an Island People, p. 74., p. 74, at Google Books
54. ^ Kerr, p. 66., p. 66, at Google Books
55. ^ Gundry, "Siam," pp. 616-619., p. 616, at Google Books
56. ^ Gundry, "Tibet," pp. 610-611., p. 610, at Google Books
57. ^ Gundry, "Annam," pp. 613-615., p. 613, at Google Books
58. ^ a b c d page 63 of the book, "MAPPING HISTORY WORLD HISTORY, by Dr. Ian Barnes. ISBN 978-1-84573-323-0
59. ^ Wolters, "North-western Cambodia in the seventh century", p. 356 and pp. 374–375
60. ^ Robert S. Wicks (1992). Money, markets, and trade in early Southeast Asia: the development of indigenous monetary systems to AD 1400. SEAP Publications. p. 210\. ISBN 0-87727-710-9. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
61. ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. University of California Press. p. 50\. ISBN 0-520-05462-8. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2011-01-09. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
62. ^ Михаил Иосифович Сладковский (1981). Тхе лонг роад: Сино-Руссиян экономик контактс фром анциент тимес то 1917. Прогресс Публишерс. p. 13\. ISBN 9780828521260. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
63. ^ Schafer 1963 Archived 2016-04-24 at the Wayback Machine, p. 66.
64. ^ Brantly Womack (2006). China and Vietnam: the politics of asymmetry. Cambridge University Press. p. 121\. ISBN 0-521-61834-7. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
65. ^ Richard Bulliet; Pamela Kyle Crossley; Daniel Headrick; Steven Hirsch; Lyman Johnson (2008). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History: to 1550. Cengage Learning. p. 279\. ISBN 978-0-618-99238-6. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
66. ^ Lynda Noreen Shaffer, A Concrete Panoply of Intercultural Exchange: Asia in World History (1997) in Asia in Western and World History, edited by Ainslie T. Embree and Carol Gluck (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe), p. 839-840.
67. ^ E. Yarshater, ed. (1983-04-14). "Chapter 7, The Iranian Settlements to the East of the Pamirs". The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge University Press. p. 271\. ISBN 978-0521200929. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2020-12-15.
68. ^ Allsen, Thomas T. (1997). Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles. Cambridge University Press. pp. 28–29\. ISBN 9780521583015. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
69. ^ a b Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 172\. ISBN 9780253000248. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
70. ^ a b Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 157\. ISBN 9780674615762. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
71. ^ Robinson, David M. (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. Harvard University Press. p. 49\. ISBN 9780674036086. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
72. ^ Robinson, David M. (2009). Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols. Harvard University Press. p. 48\. ISBN 9780674036086. Archived from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 8 June 2019.
73. ^ 崔 CUI, 鲜香 Xian-xiang (2010). "高丽女性在高丽与蒙元关系中的作用". Pku Cssci (1). Tianjin: 天津师范大学性别与社会发展研究中心. Archived from the original on 2018-07-06. Retrieved 2018-07-15.
74. ^ 李, 鹏 (2006). "元代入华高丽女子探析". 广西师范大学. Archived from the original on 2018-07-06. Retrieved 2018-07-15. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
75. ^ Peter H. Lee (13 August 2013). Sourcebook of Korean Civilization: Volume One: From Early Times to the 16th Century. Columbia University Press. pp. 681–. ISBN 978-0-231-51529-0. Archived from the original on 2 September 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
76. ^ George Qingzhi Zhao (2008). Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to Yuan Dynasty. Vol. 60 of Asian thought and culture (illustrated ed.). Peter Lang. p. 182\. ISBN 978-1433102752. ISSN 0893-6870. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2020-10-18.
77. ^ 兰, 阳 (2007). "论元丽联姻及其对高丽的政治影响". 延边大学. Archived from the original on 2018-07-06. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
78. ^ George Qingzhi Zhao. Marriage as Political Strategy and Cultural Expression: Mongolian Royal Marriages from World Empire to Yuan Dynasty.
79. ^ John K. Fairbank and Têng Ssu-yü: On the Ch'ing Tributary System, in: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6, no. 2 (1941), p. 137-150
80. ^ John K. Fairbank and Têng Ssu-yü: On the Ch'ing Tributary System, in: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6, no. 2 (1941), p. 150ff
81. ^ Edward L. Dreyer (1982). Early Ming China: a political history, 1355-1435. Stanford University Press. p. 116\. ISBN 0-8047-1105-4. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
82. ^ Kang, Jae-eun (2006). The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism. Homa & Sekey Books. p. 179\. ISBN 9781931907309. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2016. "Reciprocating a tribute usually exceeded the tribute itself, which was a profitable government trade to the small nation but a big burden for China. Therefore, China requested for Joseon to send tribute only "once every three years," but in contrast, Joseon requested to send a tribute "thrice each year" or "four times per year" instead and achieved it."
83. ^ Association for Asian Studies. Ming Biographical History Project Committee, Luther Carrington Goodrich, Chao-ying Fang (1976). Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644. Columbia University Press. p. 1597\. ISBN 0-231-03833-X. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2010-07-04.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
84. ^ Hugh Dyson Walker (20 November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. pp. 259–. ISBN 978-1-4772-6517-8. Archived from the original on 25 December 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
85. ^ Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty. SUNY Press. pp. 14–16\. ISBN 0-7914-2687-4. Archived from the original on 2020-03-24. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
86. ^ John W. Dardess (2012). Ming China, 1368-1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 36–. ISBN 978-1-4422-0490-4. Archived from the original on 2019-12-28. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
87. ^ Frederick W. Mote; Denis Twitchett (26 February 1988). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644. Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2. Archived from the original on 28 December 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
88. ^ Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1 July 2011). Perpetual happiness: the Ming emperor Yongle. University of Washington Press. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-0-295-80022-6. Archived from the original on 26 December 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
89. ^ Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty. SUNY Press. pp. 14–. ISBN 978-0-7914-2687-6. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
90. ^ Association for Asian Studies. Ming Biographical History Project Committee; Luther Carrington Goodrich; 房兆楹 (January 1976). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. Columbia University Press. pp. 1363–. ISBN 978-0-231-03833-1. Archived from the original on 2019-12-27. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
91. ^ a b c Wang, Yuan-kang (2010). Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231522403. Archived from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
92. ^ Donald N. Clark. "The Ming Connection: Notes on Korea's Experience In the Chinese Tributary System". Archived from the original on 2014-01-10. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
93. ^ Twitchett, Denis C.; Mote, Frederick W. (1998). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty. Cambridge University Press. pp. 283–284\. ISBN 9780521243339. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
94. ^ 김한규 (1999). 한중관계사 II. 아르케. pp. 581~585. ISBN 89-88791-02-9.
95. ^ Wade, Geoff (July 1, 2007). "Ryukyu in the Ming Reign Annals 1380s-1580s" (PDF). Working Paper Series (93). Asia Research Institute National University of Singapore: 75. SSRN 1317152. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 September 2009. Retrieved 6 July 2014. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
96. ^ Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies (2011). 조선 사람의 세계여행 (규장각 교양총서05) [World Travels of the Joseon People] (in Korean). 글항아리. ISBN 9788967352790. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
97. ^ a b 김운회 (2015). 몽골은 왜 고려를 멸망시키지 않았나 [Why Did Mongolia Not Destroy Goryeo?] (in Korean). 역사의아침. ISBN 9788993119916. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
98. ^ Dardess, John W. (2012). Ming China, 1368-1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 39\. ISBN 9781442204904. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
99. ^ Twitchett, Denis Crispin; Fairbank, John King (1978). The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. p. 301\. ISBN 9780521243322. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
100. ^ Hua, Hsieh Bao (2014-06-18). Concubinage and Servitude in Late Imperial China. Lexington Books. p. 285\. ISBN 9780739145166. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
101. ^ Watt, James C. Y.; Leidy, Denise Patry (2005). Defining Yongle: Imperial Art in Early Fifteenth-century China. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 12\. ISBN 9781588391537. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
102. ^ Mote, Frederick W. (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. Harvard University Press. p. 594\. ISBN 9780674012127. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
103. ^ The Taiping Rebellion. M.E. Sharpe. 2001. p. 661\. ISBN 9780765619532. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
104. ^ a b c Swope, Kenneth M. (2013-04-29). A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592-1598. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 44\. ISBN 9780806185026. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
105. ^ Forges, Roger V. Des; Major, John S. (2005). The Asian World, 600-1500. Oxford University Press. p. 152\. ISBN 9780195178432. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
106. ^ "Arts of Asia". Arts of Asia Publications. 1 January 2008: 120. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2016. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
107. ^ Fogel, Joshua A. (2005). The Teleology of the Modern Nation-state: Japan and China. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 209\. ISBN 9780812238204. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
108. ^ He, Li; Knight, Michael; Vinograd, Richard Ellis; Bartholomew, Terese Tse; Chan, Dany; Culture, Asian Art Museum--Chong-Moon Lee Center for Asian Art and; Art, Indianapolis Museum of; Museum, St Louis Art (2008-07-22). Power and glory: court arts of China's Ming dynasty. Asian Art Museum--Chong-Moon Lee Center for Asian Art and Culture. p. 153\. ISBN 9780939117420. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
109. ^ Chase, Kenneth Warren (2003-07-07). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 47\. ISBN 9780521822749. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
110. ^ Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (July 2001). Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle. University of Washington Press. p. 20\. ISBN 9780295981093. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
111. ^ Weidner, Marsha Smith; Berger, Patricia Ann; Art, Helen Foresman Spencer Museum of; Francisco, Asian Art Museum of San (1994). Latter Days of the Law: Images of Chinese Buddhism, 850 - 1850; [exhibition, August 27 - October 9 1994 ...]. University of Hawaii Press. p. 107\. ISBN 9780824816629. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
112. ^ Dardess, John W. (2012). Ming China, 1368-1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 34\. ISBN 9781442204904. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
113. ^ Dardess, John W. (2012). Ming China, 1368-1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 39\. ISBN 9781442204904. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
114. ^ Schirokauer, Conrad; Brown, Miranda (2012-01-06). A Brief History of Chinese Civilization. Cengage Learning. p. 187\. ISBN 978-1133709251. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
115. ^ Jay A. Levenson; National Gallery of Art (U.S.) (1991). Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration. Yale University Press. pp. 477–. ISBN 978-0-300-05167-4. Archived from the original on 2019-12-31. Retrieved 2019-01-26. Bernard O'Kane (15 December 2012). The Civilization of the Islamic World. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 207–. ISBN 978-1-4488-8509-1. Archived from the original on 24 December 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019. "Bonhams Auctioneers : A rare blue and white screen Zhengde six-character mark and of the period". bonhams.com. Archived from the original on 2016-08-21. Oriental Blue and White, London, 1970, p.29. Dr. Yeewan Koon. "FINE2055 Crossing Cultures: China and the Outside World" (PDF). www.fa.hku.hk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2022. Britannica Educational Publishing (2010). The Culture of China. Britannica Educational Publishing. pp. 176–. ISBN 978-1-61530-183-6. Archived from the original on 2019-12-07. Retrieved 2019-01-26. Kathleen Kuiper (2010). The Culture of China. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 176–. ISBN 978-1-61530-140-9. Archived from the original on 2019-12-24. Retrieved 2019-01-26. Britannica Educational Publishing (1 April 2010). The Culture of China. Britannica Educational Publishing. pp. 176–. ISBN 978-1-61530-183-6. Archived from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2019. Suzanne G. Valenstein (1988). A Handbook of Chinese Ceramics. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 187–. ISBN 978-0-8109-1170-3. Archived from the original on 2019-12-27. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
116. ^ Susan Naquin (16 December 2000). Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400-1900. University of California Press. pp. 213–. ISBN 978-0-520-92345-4. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
117. ^ Association for Asian Studies. Ming Biographical History Project Committee; Luther Carrington Goodrich; 房兆楹 (1976). Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. Columbia University Press. pp. 309–. ISBN 978-0-231-03801-0. Archived from the original on 2016-09-02. Retrieved 2016-09-22.
118. ^ B. J. ter Haar (2006). Telling Stories: Witchcraft And Scapegoating in Chinese History. BRILL. pp. 4–. ISBN 90-04-14844-2. Archived from the original on 2020-09-19. Retrieved 2019-01-26.
119. ^ Frank Trentmann (22 March 2012). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Consumption. OUP Oxford. pp. 47–. ISBN 978-0-19-162435-3. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
120. ^ John W. Dardess (2012). Ming China, 1368-1644: A Concise History of a Resilient Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 47–. ISBN 978-1-4422-0491-1. Archived from the original on 2019-12-28. Retrieved 2016-09-22.
121. ^ Peter C Perdue (30 June 2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Harvard University Press. pp. 64–. ISBN 978-0-674-04202-5. Archived from the original on 25 December 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
122. ^ Frederick W. Mote (2003). Imperial China 900-1800. Harvard University Press. pp. 657–. ISBN 978-0-674-01212-7. Archived from the original on 2019-04-08. Retrieved 2016-09-22.
123. ^ a b John K. Fairbank and Têng Ssu-yü: On the Ch'ing Tributary System, in: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 6, no. 2 (1941), p. 193ff
124. ^ Noda, Jin (2016). The Kazakh Khanates Between the Russian and Qing Empires: Central Eurasian International Relations During the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. BRILL. p. 142\. ISBN 9789004314474.
125. ^ LIN, HSIAO-TING (2009-09-09). "The Tributary System in China's Historical Imagination: China and Hunza, ca. 1760–1960". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 19 (4): 489–507\. doi:10.1017/s1356186309990071. ISSN 1356-1863. S2CID 154623203.
126. ^ Kang, Jae-un (2006). The land of scholars: two thousand years of Korean Confucianism. Homa & Sekey Books. ISBN 1-931907-30-7. Archived from the original on 2021-09-26. Retrieved 2020-10-18. "Joseon requested to send a tribute "thrice each year" or "four times per year" instead and achieved it."
127. ^ Robinson, Martin; Bender, Andrew; Whyte, Rob (2004). Korea. Lonely Planet. p. 22. ISBN 1-74059-449-5. "The tribute taken to Beijing three or four times a year during most of the Joseon period provides an interesting insight into Korean products at this time."
128. ^ van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1794; see also 1798 English translation: An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1974 and 1795, Vol. I. Archived 2009-02-15 at the Wayback Machine
129. ^ de Guignes, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph (1808). Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France.
130. ^ Geoffrey C. Gunn (1 August 2011). History Without Borders: The Making of an Asian World Region, 1000-1800. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 94–. ISBN 978-988-8083-34-3. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
131. ^ Thackeray, Frank W.; Findling, John E., eds. (2012). Events that formed the modern world : from the European Renaissance through the War on Terror. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 200\. ISBN 978-1598849011. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2020-10-18.
132. ^ Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1991). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period : (1644 - 1912) (Repr. ed.). Taipei: SMC Publ. p. 217\. ISBN 9789576380662.
133. ^ Hummel, Arthur W. Sr., ed. (1943). "Dorgon" . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office. p. 217.
134. ^ Library of Congress. Orientalia Division (1943). Hummel, Arthur William (ed.). 清代名人傳略: 1644-1912 (reprint ed.). 經文書局. p. 217\. Archived from the original on 2016-10-22. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
135. ^ Wakeman, Frederic Jr. (1985). The great enterprise : the Manchu reconstruction of imperial order in seventeenth-century China (Book on demand. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 892. ISBN 9780520048041. "dorgon korean princess."
136. ^ Dawson, Raymond Stanley (1972). Imperial China (illustrated ed.). Hutchinson. p. 275\. ISBN 9780091084806. Archived from the original on 2016-10-22. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
137. ^ Dawson, Raymond Stanley (1976). Imperial China (illustrated ed.). Penguin. p. 306\. ISBN 9780140218992. Archived from the original on 2021-07-31. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
138. ^ 梨大史學會 (Korea) (1968). 梨大史苑, Volume 7. 梨大史學會. p. 105\. Archived from the original on 2016-10-22. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
139. ^ "The annals of the Joseon princesses. - The Gachon Herald". www.gachonherald.com. Archived from the original on 2021-07-23. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
140. ^ Kwan, Ling Li. Transl. by David (1995). Son of Heaven (1. ed.). Beijing: Chinese Literature Press. p. 217\. ISBN 9787507102888. Archived from the original on 2016-10-22. Retrieved 2016-05-02.

### Sources

[edit]

* This article incorporates text from The National Review, a publication from 1884, now in the public domain in the United States.
* This article incorporates text from The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information, Volume 15, by Hugh Chisholm, a publication from 1911, now in the public domain in the United States.
* This article incorporates text from China and her mysteries, by Alfred Stead, a publication from 1901, now in the public domain in the United States.
* This article incorporates text from China's intercourse with Korea from the XVth century to 1895, by William Woodville Rockhill, a publication from 1905, now in the public domain in the United States.
* This article incorporates text from Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources: Fragments Toward the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, Volume 2, by E. Bretschneider, a publication from 1888, now in the public domain in the United States.
* van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1795. Philadelphia: M.L.E. Moreau de Saint-Méry.
* _______________. (1798). An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1794 and 1795, Vol. I. London : R. Phillips.
* Fairbank, John K. "Tributary Trade and China's Relations with the West", The Far Eastern Quarterly (1942). Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 129–149.
* de Guignes, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph. (1808). Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France. Paris. OCLC 417277650.
* Kang, David C. (2010). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute. New York : Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231153188; OCLC 562768984.
* Kerr, George H. (1965). Okinawa, the History of an Island People. Rutland, Vermont: C.E. Tuttle Co. OCLC 39242121
* Kwak, Tae-Hwan and Seung-Ho Joo. (2003). The Korean peace process and the four powers. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754636533; OCLC 156055048
* Korea Herald. (2004) Korea now. Seoul: Korea Herald. ISSN 1739-225X; OCLC 43438924 Archived 2016-04-04 at the Wayback Machine.
* Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 48943301.
* Pratt, Keith L., Richard Rutt, and James Hoare. (1999). Korea : a historical and cultural dictionary, Richmond: Curzon Press. ISBN 9780700704637; ISBN 978-0-7007-0464-4; OCLC 245844259.
* Seth, Michael J. (2006). A concise history of Korea: from the neolithic period through the nineteenth century. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780742540040; OCLC 65407346.
* Wang, Zhenping. (2005). Ambassadors from the islands of immortals: China-Japan relations in the Han-Tang period. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 9780824828714; OCLC 260081991.

## External links

[edit]

* Perpetual Happiness, The Ming Emperor Yongle pp. 178-180.
* Ming occupation of Vietnam and Lam Son insurrection

Portals:

* China
* History
* Politics