List of wars involving Germany

This article is about German wars from 962. For wars involving East Francia, see List of wars involving Francia. For Prussia, see Wars and battles involving Prussia.

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This is a list of wars involving Germany from 962. It includes the Holy Roman Empire, Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, Nazi Germany, the German Democratic Republic (DDR, "East Germany") and the present Federal Republic of Germany (BRD, until German reunification in 1990 known as "West Germany").

* before 962 List of wars involving Francia

Victory of Germany (and allies)
Defeat of Germany (and allies)
Another result*

*e.g. result unknown or indecisive/inconclusive, result of internal conflict inside Germany, status quo ante bellum, or a treaty or peace without a clear result.

## Holy Roman Empire (962–1806)

[edit]

Main article: List of wars involving the Holy Roman Empire

Conflict  | Combatant 1  | Combatant 2  | Result  | Emperor/King

|
|
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Otto I's raid on Poland

(963)

|  Holy Roman Empire |  Duchy of Poland | Victory | Otto I
Rebellion of Harald Bluetooth |  Holy Roman Empire
Norwegian Rebels |  Kingdom of Denmark
Kingdom of Norway | Victory | Otto II
Olaf tryggvason's raid on Saksland |  Norwegian vikings |  Holy Roman Empire | Defeat | Otto II
Franco-German War of 978-980 |  Holy Roman Empire | West Francia | Defeat | Otto II
Otto II's raid on Poland

(979)

|  Holy Roman Empire |  Civitas Schinesghe | Defeat | Otto II
Slavic revolt of 983 |  Holy Roman Empire | Wends

Lutici

Obotrite

| Defeat | Otto II
Polish-Saxon Invasion of Veleti

(985)

|  Duchy of Poland
Holy Roman Empire | Veleti | Victory | Otto III
Polish–Bohemian War (990) |  Duchy of Poland
Holy Roman Empire |  Duchy of Bohemia | Victory | Otto III
Polish-German invasion of Veleti

(992)

|  Duchy of Poland
Holy Roman Empire | Veleti | Victory | Otto III
Polish-German invasion of Obotrites

(995)

|  Duchy of Poland
Holy Roman Empire | Obotrites | Victory | Otto III
German–Polish War (1003–1018) |  Holy Roman Empire |  Duchy of Poland | Defeat (Peace of Bautzen)

* Poland is granted control over Lusatia and Upper Lusatia

| Henry II
Bolesław I's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis

(1015–1019)

|  Duchy of Poland

Kingdom of Hungary
Holy Roman Empire
Pechenegs

| Kievan Rus | Victory

* Temporary victory for Sviatopolk and Boleslaw
* Polish sack of Kiev

| Henry II
German–Polish War (1028–1031) | Holy Roman Empire |  Kingdom of Poland
Kingdom of Hungary (1029–1031)  | Victory | Conrad II
Emperor Conrad II's military campaign against Hungary

(1030–1031)

| Holy Roman Empire |  Kingdom of Hungary (1029–1031)  | Defeat

* The Hungarians occupied Vienna

| Conrad II
German-Hungarian Wars

(1042–1043)

| Holy Roman Empire |  Kingdom of Hungary (1029–1031)  | Victory | Henry III
Henry III's military campaign against Hungary (1044) |  Holy Roman Empire

Peter Orseolo and his allies

|  The army of King Samuel Aba | Victory

* Defeat of Samuel Aba, restoration of Peter

| Henry III

War between King Peter and Prince Andrew (1046)

|  King Peter's army

Holy Roman Empire

|  Prince Andrew's army

Kievan Rus'

| Defeat | Henry III
Emperor Henry III's military campaigns against Hungary

(1051–1052)

|  Holy Roman Empire

Duchy of Bohemia

| Kingdom of Hungary | Defeat | Henry III
German-Hungarian border War

(1056–1058)

|  Holy Roman Empire | Kingdom of Hungary |

Stalemate

* Treaty of Marchfeld

| Henry IV
Civil War between King Andrew I and his brother, Prince Bela

(1060)

|  King Andrew I's army

Holy Roman Empire

|  Prince Béla's army

Kingdom of Poland

| Defeat | Henry IV
German invasion of Hungary (1063) |  Holy Roman Empire

* Duchy of Bavaria

|  Kingdom of Hungary | Victory

* Death of Béla I
* Ascension of Solomon to the Hungarian throne

| Henry IV
Saxon revolt of 1073–1075 |  Holy Roman Empire |  Duchy of Saxony | Victory

* Rebellion suppressed

| Henry IV
Saxon revolt of 1077–1088 |  Holy Roman Empire | German rebels

* Duchy of Saxony
* Duchy of Bavaria
* County of Luxembourg

| Victory | Henry IV
German-Flemish war |  Holy Roman Empire | County of Flanders | Status quo ante bellum | Henry V
Henry V's expedition to Poland

(1109)

|  Holy Roman Empire
Duchy of Bohemia |  Kingdom of Poland | Defeat | Henry V
War of Bohemian Succession (1125–1140) |  Holy Roman Empire |  Duchy of Bohemia | Defeat | Lothair III
Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines

* (1125–1186)
* (1216–1392)

| Ghibellines'

* Holy Roman Empire

1st phase

*     * Holy Roman Empire

* * *

2nd phase

*     * Staufen (Empire)
* Pro-Staufen Sicily
* March of Treviso
* County of Urbino
* Pro-Ghibelline Florence
* Pro-Ghibelline Milan led by Della Torre
* Pro-Ghibelline Milan led by Visconti
* Republic of Siena
* Republic of Lucca
* Republic of Pisa
* Duchy of Modena
* Republic of Massa
* Pro-Ghibelline Montferrat
* Pavia
* Commune of Terni
* Asti
* Todi
* Santa Fiora
* Variable Italian city-states
* Crown of Aragon
* Empire of Nicaea[1]

| Guelphs'

* Holy See (Papacy)

1st phase

*     * Lombard League

* * *

2nd phase

*     * Welfen (Empire)
* Pro-Angevin Sicily
* Papal States
* Pro-Guelph Florence
* Pro-Guelph Milan led by Della Torre
* Pro-Guelph Milan led by Visconti
* House of Della Torre
* Commune of Bologna
* Republic of Siena
* Republic of Lucca
* Republic of Genoa
* March of Ferrara
* Republic of Massa
* Pro-Guelph Montferrat
* County of Savoy
* Republic of Ancona
* Patriarchate of Aquileia
* Lodi
* Perugia
* Mantua
* Orvieto
* Variable Italian city-states

1st phase:Peace of Constance (1186) 2nd phase:Stalemate (1392)

* Decline of free communes;rise of signorie
* Diffusion of Black Death
* Extinction of Hohenstaufen dynasty
* Conquest of the Kingdom of Sicily by Charles of Anjou
* Interregnum after Frederick II's death
* Weakening of Imperial Authority over Italy

| Frederick I

Barbarossa

Frederick II

Henry VII

Louis IV

Wendish Crusade (1147) |

Crusaders

*     * Holy Roman Empire
* Bishopric of Havelberg
* March of Meissen
* March of Brandenburg
* Duchy of Saxony
* Archbishopric of Bremen
* Archbishopric of Mainz
* Bishopric of Halberstadt
* County of Holstein
* Bishopric of Münster
* Bishopric of Olmütz
* Bishopric of Brandenburg
* Bishopric of Merseburg
* Jutland-Kingdom of Denmark
* Zealand/Scania-Kingdom of Denmark
* Kingdom of Poland

Wends

*     * Obotrite Confederacy
* Obotrites
* Wagrians
* Liutizian Confederacy
Wendish allies:
* Duchy of Pomerania

| Victory

* March of Brandenburg reconquers Havelberg, County of Holstein expels its Wends

| Conrad III of Germany
Second Crusade

(1147–1150)

|  Holy Roman Empire

Other Crusaders

| Emirate of Damascus

other Muslim and Pagan entities in East Central Europe, Iberia and the Near East.

| Indecisive

* Victories in East Central Europe and Iberia. Defeat in the Holy Land.

| Conrad III of Germany
Frederick I's expedition to Głogów

(1157)

|  Holy Roman Empire
Duchy of Bohemia |  Kingdom of Poland
Cumania
Old Prussians | Victory | Frederick I Barbarossa
Third Crusade

(1189–1192)

|  Holy Roman Empire

Other Crusaders

| Ayyubids | Victory | Frederick I Barbarossa
Henry VI's conquest of Sicily

(1194)

|  Holy Roman Empire |  Kingdom of Sicily | Victory

* Kingdom of Sicily added to Henry VI's Personal Union[2]

| Henry VI
Crusade of 1197 |  Holy Roman Empire |  Ayyubid Sultanate | Victory

* Beirut restored to the Kingdom of Jerusalem

| Henry VI
Fourth Crusade

(1202–1204)

| Crusaders from:

Kingdom of France

*     * County of Blois
* County of Brienne
* County of Champagne
* County of Flanders
* County of Saint-Pol

Holy Roman Empire

*     * March of Montferrat
* County of Hainaut

| In Europe:

* Byzantine Empire
* Kingdom of Hungary
* Kingdom of Croatia

Holy Land:

* Ayyubid Sultanate

| Victory | Otto IV
Prussian Crusade

(1217–1274)

|  Holy Roman Empire

Other Crusaders

| Baltic pagans:'

* Prussians
* Bartians
* Galindians
* Natangians
* Nadruvians
* Pomesanians
* Pogesanians
* Sambians
* Warmians
* Yotvingians (Sudovians)
* Skalvians

Allies of Prussians:

* Grand Duchy of Lithuania
* Duchy of Pomerania

| Victory

* Teutonic Knights gain control of Prussia

| Frederick II
Anglo-French War (1213–1214) |  Angevin Empire

* Kingdom of England
* County of Anjou
* Duchy of Normandy
* Duchy of Aquitaine

Holy Roman Empire

County of Flanders County of Boulogne

|  Kingdom of France | Defeat

* Collapse of the Angevin Empire

| Otto IV
Fifth Crusade

(1217–1221)

| Crusaders:

* Holy Roman Empire
* Kingdom of Portugal
* Kingdom of Hungary
* Kingdom of France

Levant:

* Kingdom of Jerusalem
* Kingdom of Cyprus
* Latin Empire

Military orders:

* Knights Templar
* Teutonic Order
* Knights Hospitaller

| Muslim forces:

* Ayyubids

| Defeat | Frederick II
Sixth Crusade

(1227–1229)

|  Holy Roman Empire

including in Personal Union:

* Kingdom of Sicily
* Kingdom of Jerusalem

| Ayyubids | Victory

* Crusaders gains Jerusalem back

| Frederick II
War of the Lombards

(1228–1243)

|  Holy Roman Empire
Pro-Imperial faction in the Kingdom of Jerusalem

* Tyre
* Jerusalem

Principality of Antioch and County of Tripoli
Republic of Pisa
Knights Hospitaller
Teutonic Knights

|  Kingdom of Cyprus
Anti-Imperial faction in the Kingdom of Jerusalem

* Acre
* Beirut
* Arsuf
* Caesarea

Republic of Genoa
Knights Templar
Papacy

| Defeat | Frederick II
Mongol incursions in the Holy Roman Empire

(1241–1242)

|  Holy Roman Empire |  Golden Horde | Victory | Frederick II
Great Interregnum[3]

(1245/50–1273/5)

|  Hohenstaufen party

* Frederick II (1245–50)
* Conrad IV (1245–54)
* Alfonso X of Castile (1257–75)
* Rudolf of Habsburg (1273–5)

|  Welf party

* Henry of Thuringia (1246–7)
* William II of Holland (1247–56)
* Richard of Cornwall (1257–72)
* Ottokar II of Bohemia

| Compromise

* Unanimous election of Rudolf of Habsburg in 1273
* Alfonso X of Castile renounced claim in 1275

Hussite Wars

(1419–1434)

| Catholic Church, Crusades and Loyalists:

Holy Roman Empire

| Bohemian Wars:

Hussite Movement

| Indecisive

* Eventual defeat for Radical Hussites, Victory for Moderate Hussites and Catholics

| Sigismund
Austrian–Hungarian War (1477–1488) |  Holy Roman Empire |  Kingdom of Hungary | Defeat

* The Black Army captures Vienna

| Frederick III
Austrian–Hungarian War (1490–1491)  |  Holy Roman Empire |  Kingdom of Hungary | Victory

* Treaty of Pressburg (1491)

| Frederick III
Italian War of 1494–1498 | 1494:
Kingdom of Naples

* * *

1495:
League of Venice
Papal States
Republic of Venice
Kingdom of Naples
Kingdoms of Spain
Duchy of Milan
Holy Roman Empire
Republic of Florence

England (1496–98)
Margraviate of Mantua
Republic of Genoa

|  Kingdom of France

* Swiss mercenaries

Duchy of Milan (before 1495)
Duchy of Ferrara (officially neutral)

| Victory | Maximilian I
Swabian War

(1499)

|  Holy Roman Empire

Swabian League

|  Old Swiss Confederacy

Three Leagues of the Grisons

| Defeat

* Peace of Basel
* Swiss Confederacy exempt from the resolutions of the Imperial Diet of Worms

| Maximilian I
Italian War of 1521–1526 |  Holy Roman Empire
Spain
England
Papal States (1521–1523 and 1525–1526) |  France

* Swiss mercenaries

Republic of Venice
Papal States (1524–1525)
Marquisate of Saluzzo

| Victory

* Capture of Francis I of France at the Battle of Pavia

| Charles V
Knights' War

(1522–1523)

|  Holy Roman Empire

* Trier
* Palatinate

|  Brotherly Conventention of Knight's  | Victory | Charles V
German Peasants' War

(1524–1525)

|  Holy Roman Empire
Swabian League | Peasant army  | Victory

* Rebellion suppressed

| Charles V
War of the League of Cognac

(1526-1530)

| Pro-Habsburg:

* Holy Roman Empire
* Spain
* Duchy of Ferrara
* Republic of Genoa (1528–1530)
* Duchy of Mantua (1528–1530)
* Papal States (1530)

| League of Cognac:

* Kingdom of France
* Swiss mercenaries
* Papal States (1526–1529)

* Swiss Guards

* Republic of Venice
* Republic of Florence
* Kingdom of England
* Republic of Genoa (1526–1528)
* Kingdom of Navarre
* Duchy of Milan

| Victory

* Treaty of Cambrai (1529)
* End of the Florentine Republic (1530)
* Transformation of Florence into an hereditary monarchy by Pope Clement VII (1532)

| Charles V
Little War in Hungary |  Holy Roman Empire

* Archduchy of Austria
* Kingdom of Bohemia
* Duchy of Styria
* Duchy of Carniola

Royal Hungary
Kingdom of Croatia
Spain
Papal States

|  Ottoman Empire
John Szapolyai's Hungarian kingdom
Kingdom of France | Defeat | Charles V
Conquest of Tunis (1535) |  Spanish Empire

* Kingdom of Naples
* Kingdom of Sicily

Holy Roman Empire

* Republic of Genoa
* County of Flanders

Kingdom of Portugal
Papal States
Knights of Malta

|  Ottoman Empire | Victory

* Sack of Tunis
* Muley Hassan of the Hafsid dynasty restored as client ruler of Tunis and Spanish-Imperial tributary.

| Charles V
Italian War of 1542–1546 |  Holy Roman Empire
Saxony
Brandenburg
Spain
England |  France
Ottoman Empire

* Regency of Algiers

Jülich-Cleves-Berg
Denmark-Norway (1542–1543)

| Inconclusive | Charles V
Schmalkaldic War

(1546–1547)

|  Holy Roman Empire

* Habsburg Austria
* Electorate of Saxony
* Bohemian Crown

Habsburg Spain
Habsburg Hungary

* * *

Supported by:
Papal States | Schmalkaldic League:

* Electorate of Saxony
* Hesse
* Electoral Palatinate
* Bremen
* Lübeck
* Brunswick-Lüneburg
* Württemberg
* Pomerania-Wolgast
* Anhalt-Köthen
* Brandenburg-Küstrin
* Lesser German states

* * *

Supported by:
England

| Victory

* Capitulation of Wittenberg
* Schmalkadic League dissolved
* Saxon electoral dignity passed to the Albertine House of Wettin

| Charles V
Italian War of 1551–1559 |

* Holy Roman Empire
* Spanish Empire
* Papal States (1551–1552)
* Duchy of Mantua
* Kingdom of England (1557–1559)
* Republic of Florence
* Duchy of Savoy
* Republic of Genoa
* Knights Hospitaller

* Kingdom of France
* Swiss mercenaries
* Ottoman Empire
* Duchy of Parma (1551–1552)
* Republic of Siena (1552–1555/9)
* Papal States (1556–1557)

| Victory

* Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis

| Charles V
Second Schmalkaldic War

(March–August 1552)

| Imperial–Habsburg forces

Holy Roman Empire

* Habsburg Austria

| Protestant princes

* Electoral Saxony
* Hesse
* Prussia
* Brandenburg-Kulmbach

Supported by:

* France

| Protestant victory

* Peace of Passau (1552)
* Peace of Augsburg (1555)[3]
* Three Bishoprics annexed by the Kingdom of France

| Charles V
Long Turkish War

(1593–1606)

* Holy Roman Empire
* Transylvania
* Kingdom of Hungary
* Papal States
* Spain

|  Ottoman Empire | Inconclusive

* Peace of Zsitvatorok

| Rudolph II
War of the Jülich Succession

(1609–1614)

| 1609–1610:
Holy Roman Empire
Principality of Strasbourg
Prince-Bishopric of Liège
Catholic League | 1609–1610:
Margraviate of Brandenburg
Palatinate-Neuburg
United Provinces
Kingdom of France
Protestant Union | Treaty of Xanten | Rudolph II

Matthias

War of the Montferrat Succession

(1613-1617)

| Supporting the Duke of Mantua:
Duchy of Mantua
Montferrat
Tuscany (1613)
Spanish Empire
France (1613–14)
Holy Roman Empire
Kingdom of Naples
Genoa | Supporting the Duke of Savoy:
Duchy of Savoy
Montferrat
Tuscany (1613)
France (1615–17)
Venice | Victory

* Peace of Asti
* Savoy renounces its claims to Montferrat

| Matthias
Uskok War

(1615–1617)

|  Holy Roman Empire
Kingdom of Croatia
Spain |  Republic of Venice
Dutch Republic
England | Treaty of Madrid (1617)

* Many Uskok pirates executed or exiled; Austrian garrison installed to check Uskoks.

| Matthias
Thirty Years' War

(1618–1648)

| Imperial alliance prior to 1635[a]

* Habsburg Monarchy
* Spanish Empire
* Bavaria
* Catholic League

Post–1635 Peace of Prague

* Holy Roman Empire
* Spanish Empire
* Denmark–Norway

| Anti-Imperial alliance prior to 1635[b]

* Kingdom of Bohemia
* Sweden
* Palatinate
* Savoy
* Transylvania
* Dutch Republic
* Denmark–Norway
* Heilbronn League
* Hesse-Kassel
* Brandenburg-Prussia
* Saxony

Post–1635 Peace of Prague

* France
* Sweden
* Dutch Republic
* Hesse-Kassel

| Defeat

* Peace of Prague (1635)
* Peace of Westphalia (1648):
* Peace of Münster (January 1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic
* Treaty of Osnabrück (IPO; October 1648) between Sweden and the Holy Roman Empire
* Treaty of Münster (October 1648) (IPM; October 1648) between France and the Holy Roman Empire

Consequences

* France annexes Décapole, and Sundgau[4]
* Sweden gains Wismar, Wolin, Western Pomerania, and Bremen-Verden[5]
* Brandenburg-Prussia obtains Eastern Pomerania[5]
* Spain recognises sovereignty of the Dutch Republic
* Old Swiss Confederacy gains independence from the Holy Roman Empire

| Ferdinand III
Upper Austrian peasant war of 1626 |  Holy Roman Empire
Bavaria | Austrian Rebels  | Victory | Adam Von Herberstorff
Austro-Turkish War

(1663–1664)

| League of the Rhine:

Kingdom of France
Holy Roman Empire

* Electorate of Saxony
* Brandenburg-Prussia
* Electorate of Bavaria
* Baden-Baden
* Swabia

Piedmont-Savoy
Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Croatia
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

|  Ottoman Empire | Peace of Vasvár | Leopold I
Franco-Dutch War

(1672–1678)

* Dutch Republic
* Holy Roman Empire (from 1673)
* Spain (from 1673)
* Brandenburg-Prussia (from 1673)
* Lorraine (from 1673)
* Denmark–Norway (from 1674)
* England (1678)

* France
* England (1672–74)
* Münster (1672–1674)
* Cologne (1672–1674)
* Swedish Empire (from 1674)

| Treaty of Nijmegen

* Major French territorial gains
* France occupies Lorraine, Freiburg and Kehl

| Leopold I
War of the Reunions

(1683–1684)

|  Spain
Co-belligerent:
Holy Roman Empire
Genoa |  France | Defeat

* Truce of Ratisbon

| Leopold I
Great Turkish War

(1683–1699)

|  Holy Roman Empire

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

Tsardom of Russia

Republic of Venice

Spanish Empire

|  Ottoman Empire
| Victory

* Treaty of Karlowitz
* The Habsburg monarchy wins lands in Hungary, the Principality of Transylvania and the Balkans.
* Poland-Lithuania captures Podolia.
* Russia captures the port of Azov.
* Venice captures Morea and inner Dalmatia.

| Leopold I
Nine Years War

(1688–1697)

| Grand Alliance:
Dutch Republic
England
Scotland
Holy Roman Empire
Spanish Empire
Savoyard state |

* France

| Victory

* Treaty of Ryswick

| Leopold I
War of the Spanish Succession

(1701–1714)

* Pro-Habsburg Spain

* * *

* Holy Roman Empire
* England (until 1707)
* Scotland (until 1707)
* Great Britain (from 1707)
* Ireland
* Dutch Republic
* Prussia (from 1702)
* Portugal (from 1702)
* Savoy (from 1703)

* Pro-Bourbon Spain

* * *

* France
* Bavaria
* Savoy (until 1703)
* Portugal (until 1702)
* Cologne (until 1702)
* Liège (until 1702)
* Kuruc (1703–1711)

Indecisive

* Treaties of Utrecht (1713), Rastatt (1714) and Baden (1714)
* Philip is recognized as King of Spain, but once more renounces any claim to the throne of France
* Austria gains the crowns of Naples and Sardinia as well as the duchy of Milan and the Spanish Netherlands
* Savoy gains the crown of Sicily which is soon to be exchanged with Sardinia

| Leopold I

Joseph I Charles VI

Rákóczi's War of Independence

(1703–1711)

Holy Roman Empire:

* Austria
* Prussia
* Margraviate of Baden
* Serbs from the Military Frontier
* Transylvanian Saxons
* Kingdom of Croatia
* Royalists
* Danish Auxiliary Corps

Foreign mercenaries:

* Swiss
* Germans
* Italians
* Spaniards

* Kuruc (Kingdom of Hungary)
* Principality of Transylvania
* Kingdom of France

Minorities:

* Hungarian Slovenes
* Slovaks
* Rusyns
* Zipser Saxons
* Hungarian Germans
* Croats from Hungary
* Šokac and Bunjevac people
* Romanians in Hungary
* pro-Hungarian Serbs

Foreign mercenaries and volunteers:

* Poles
* Wallachians
* Crimean Tatars
* Swedes
* Ottoman Turks
* Germans
* Lithuanians
* Moldavians
* Bulgarians
* Lipka Tatars
* Ruthenians

| Victory | Leopold I

Joseph I Charles VI

War of the Polish Succession

(1733–1735)

* Poland loyal to Augustus III
* Russia
* Habsburg Monarchy
* Holy Roman Empire (from 1734)
* Saxony
* Prussia

* Poland loyal to Stanislaus I
* France
* Spain
* Savoy-Sardinia
* Duchy of Parma

| Treaty of Vienna

* Augustus III ascends the throne
* Bourbon and Habsburg territorial gains

| Charles VI
Liège Revolution

(1789–1791)

|  Prince-Bishops of Liège

Holy Roman Empire

* Habsburg monarchy

Supported by: Prussia (1789–1790)

|  Liège rebels

Republic of Liège (1789–1791)
France (from 1792)

Supported by: Prussia (from July 1790)[6]

| Defeat

* Foundation of Liège Republic (1789);

reversion to Prince-Bishopric(1791); annexation by France (1795)

| Leopold II
War of the First Coalition
(mostly the Low Countries theatre)

(1792–1797)

| First Coalition:
Dutch Republic
Holy Roman Empire

* Habsburg monarchy (Austria)
* Kingdom of Prussia
* Electorate of Hanover
* Hesse-Kassel (until 1795)

Great Britain
Spanish Empire (1793–95)

* Kingdom of Naples (until 1796)
* Kingdom of Portugal
* Kingdom of Prussia (until 1795)
* Kingdom of Sardinia (until 1796)
* Army of Condé

|  Kingdom of the French (1792)
French First Republic (from 1792)

* Republic of Bouillon (1794–95)
* Batavian Republic (from 1795)
* Ligurian Republic (from 1795)
* Cisrhenian Republic (1797)
* Cisalpine Republic (1797)
* other sister republics

Spanish Empire (1796–97)

* Polish Legions (from 1797)

| Defeat

* French monarchy abolished, republicanism spread across Europe
* All southern Low Countries and Left Bank of the Rhine annexed by France (1795)
* Treaty of The Hague (1795)
* Batavian Republic established as a French sister republic
* Peace of Basel (1795)
* Prussia and Hesse-Kassel withdraw from Coalition
* Spain allies with France (ending the War of the Pyrenees)
* Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)
* Habsburg monarchy accepts the loss of the Austrian Netherlands

| Francis II

## Confederation of the Rhine (1806–1813)

[edit]

Conflict  | Combatant 1  | Combatant 2  | Result  | Protector

|
|
|
|

War of the Fourth Coalition

(1806-1807)

|  France

* Confederation of the Rhine
* Etruria
* Holland
* Italy
* Naples
* Saxony
(from 11 Dec 1806)
* Polish Legions
* Swiss Confederation

Spain

* * *

Polish rebels

| Fourth Coalition:'

* Prussia
* Russia
* United Kingdom
* Saxony
(until 11 Dec 1806)
* Sweden
* Sicily

| Victory

* Treaties of Tilsit
* Treaty of Posen
* Franco Russian alliance
* Creation of the Continental System
* Hostilities resume later in 1807 with the commencement of the Peninsular War and expand and expand[clarification needed] in 1809 with the formation of a Fifth Coalition against France

| Napoleon I
Peninsular War

(1808-1814)

France

* Napoleonic Spain
* Kingdom of Italy
* Confederation of the Rhine
* Duchy of Warsaw
* Kingdom of Holland[c]

* * *

Denmark-Norway (Evacuation of La Romana's division)

* Spain
* Portugal
* United Kingdom

Defeat

* Treaty of Paris
* Collapse of the First French Empire
* Revolts break out in America

| Napoleon I
War of the Fifth Coalition

(1809)

|  France

* Confederation of the Rhine
* Bavaria
* Saxony
* Westphalia
* Württemberg
* Duchy of Warsaw
* Italy
* Naples
* Holland
* Russia

| Fifth Coalition:

* Austria
* United Kingdom[d]
* Portugal[d]
* Spain[d]
* Sardinia[d]
* Sicily[d]

Rebel groups

* Black Brunswickers[e]
* Tyrol[f]
* Gottscheers[g]
* Italian rebels[h]

Victory

* Treaty of Schönbrunn
* Illyrian Provinces to France
* Salzburg to Bavaria
* Parts of Bohemia to Saxony
* West Galicia to Duchy of Warsaw
* East Galicia to Russia

| Napoleon I
French Invasion of Russia

(1812)

|  France'

* Poland
* Duchy of Warsaw
* Lithuania
* Italy
* Naples
* Rhine Confederation
* Saxony
* Bavaria
* Westphalia
* Württemberg
* Hesse
* Berg
* Baden
* Switzerland
* Spain[7]

French allies:
Austria
Prussia
Denmark-Norway[8][9]

|  Russia | Defeat | Napoleon I
War of the Sixth Coalition

(1813-1814)

| Original coalition

* Russia
* Prussia
* Spain
* United Kingdom
* Hanover
* Mecklenburg-Schwerin
* Portugal
* Sardinia
* Sicily
* Sweden

After the Armistice of Pläswitz

* Austria
* Bavaria

After the Battle of Leipzig

* Baden
* Liechtenstein
* Saxony
* Württemberg

After 20 November 1813

Netherlands

After January 1814

Denmark

|  France

* Duchy of Warsaw[i]
* Italy
* Naples

Until January 1814

* Confederation of the Rhine (many member states defected after Battle of Leipzig)
* Denmark–Norway

* * *

Co-belligerent:

United States (War of 1812 only)

| Victory

* Treaty of Kiel
* Treaty of Fontainebleau
* Treaty of Paris

Confederation of the Rhine dissolved

German states and Austria unite to form the German Confederation

Netherlands gains independence

Norway ceded to The King of Sweden

| Napoleon I

## German Confederation (1815–1866)

[edit]

Conflict  | Combatant 1  | Combatant 2  | Result  | Head of the Presiding Power

|
|
|
|

War of the Seventh Coalition

(1815)

* United Kingdom
* Prussia
* Russia[10]
* Netherlands
* Austria
* Bourbon Restoration
* Brunswick
* Denmark (no combat)[11]
* Hanover
* Liechtenstein
* Nassau
* Sardinia[10]
* Sicily[10]
* Switzerland[12]
* Tuscany
* Württemberg

* France
* Naples

| Victory

* Second Treaty of Paris
* End of the Napoleonic Wars
* Second exile of Napoleon (to the island of Saint Helena) and second Bourbon Restoration
* Beginning of the Concert of Europe

| Francis I
German revolutions of 1848–1849 |  German Confederation

* Kingdom of Saxony
* Kingdom of Prussia
* Austrian Empire

| German Empire (1848–1849)

German Revolutionaries

| Victory

* Establishment of German state and introduction of liberal constitution
* Dissolution of German Confederation

| Ferdinand I

Archduke John of Austria

Frederick William IV

First Schleswig War (Part of the revolutions of 1848) |  German Confederation

* Schleswig
* Holstein
* Prussia
* Kingdom of Saxony
* Kingdom of Hanover
* Mecklenburg-Schwerin

|  Denmark

* * *

Supported by:
Russian Empire
United Kingdom
Sweden-Norway
France | Defeat

* Denmark retains control of Schleswig-Holstein

| Ferdinand I of Austria

Franz Joseph I of Austria

Second Schleswig War

(1864)

|  Kingdom of Prussia
Austrian Empire |  Kingdom of Denmark | Victory

* Denmark losses Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg to Prussia and Austria

| Otto von Bismarck
Austro-Prussian War

(1866)

|  Austrian-led German Confederation states

* Austria
* Bavaria
* Saxony
* Hanover
* Württemberg
* Hesse-Kassel
* Baden
* Hesse-Darmstadt
* Nassau
* Saxe-Meiningen
* Reuss-Greiz
* Schaumburg-Lippe
* Frankfurt
* Liechtenstein

| Prussian-led German states

* Prussia
* Saxe-Lauenburg
* Mecklenburg-Schwerin
* Brunswick
* Saxe-Coburg & Gotha
* Saxe-Altenburg
* Mecklenburg-Strelitz
* Oldenburg
* Anhalt
* Schwarzburg
* Waldeck
* Lippe
* Lübeck
* Bremen
* Hamburg

Italy

| Victory

* Dissolution of the German Confederation
* Formation of the North German Confederation, later the German Empire
* Formation of Austria-Hungary

| Francis Joseph I

## North German Confederation (1867–1870/71)

[edit]

Conflict  | Combatant 1  | Combatant 2  | Result  | Chancellor

|
|
|
|

Franco-Prussian War

(1870–1871)

Before 18 January 1871:
North German Confederation

* Prussia
* Saxony
* Hesse[13]
* and 19 smaller states

Bavaria
Württemberg
Baden

* * *

After 18 January 1871:
German Empire |  Before 4 September 1870:
French Empire

* * *

After 4 September 1870:
French Republic[j]

* Foreign volunteers

| German victory

* End of the Second French Empire
* Unification of Germany and establishment of the German Empire
* German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine

| Wilhelm I

## Post-unification (1871–present)

[edit]

### German Empire (1871–1918)

[edit]

Conflict | Combatant 1 | Combatant 2 | Result | Reichskanzler (Imperial chancellor) | German losses

|
|
|
|
|

Nauruan Civil War
(1878-1888)  | Supporters of King Aweida
Germany | Anti-Aweida Rebels  | Victory

* Nauru is annexed as part of German New Guinea

Otto von Bismarck

First Samoan Civil War
(1886-1894)  |  Supporters of Laupepa
Germany |  Supporters of Mata'afa | Compromise

* Malietoa Laupepa restored to power

16 dead[14][full citation needed]

Abushiri Revolt
(1888-1889)  |  Germany
United Kingdom | Arab Rebels led by al-Harthi | Victory

* Rebellion put down

Hehe Rebellion
(1891-1898)  |  Germany | Hehe | Victory

* Rebellion put down

Leo von Caprivi

Bafut Wars
(1891-1907)  |  Germany | Fondom of Bafut | Victory

* Exile of the Fon of Bafut

Battle of Adibo
(1896)  |  Germany | Dagbaŋ  | Victory |

Second Samoan Civil War
(1898-1899)  |  Supporters of Mata'afa
Germany |  Supporters of Tanumafili I
United States
United Kingdom | Compromise

* Tripartite Convention

Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst

Boxer Rebellion
(1899-1901)  |

Eight-Nation Alliance
British Empire
Russia
Japan
France
Germany
United States
Italy
Austria-Hungary

* * *

* Netherlands
* Spain
* Belgium

* * *

Mutual Defence Pact of Southeast China (after 1900)

* Boxer movement
* Qing dynasty (after 1900)

| Eight-Nation Alliance victory

* Signing of the Boxer Protocol
* Provisions for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing

Adamawa Wars
(1899-1907)  |  Germany
United Kingdom |  Sokoto Caliphate
Mahdist rebels  | Victory

* German rule in Kamerun solidified

Venezuelan Crisis
(1902-1903)  |  United Kingdom
Germany
Italy |  Venezuela | Compromise

* Venezuelan debt dispute resolved

Bernhard von Bülow

Kavango Uprising[15]
(1903)  |  German Empire | Kavango rebels  | Victory

* Uprising suppressed

Herero Wars
(1904-1908)  |  Germany | Herero
Namaqua | Victory

* Herero and Namaqua genocide

1,541 dead[16]

Maji Maji Rebellion
(1905-1908)  |  Germany | Qadiriyya Brotherhood
Matumbi
Ngoni
Yao | Victory

* Rebellion put down

397 dead[17]

Sokehs Rebellion
(1910-1911)  |  Germany | Sokehs tribe  | Victory

* Rebellion put down

Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg

World War I
(1914-1918)  |  Germany
Austria-Hungary
Ottoman Empire
Bulgaria |  France
United Kingdom
Russia (withdrew)
United States
Italy
Canada
Australia
New Zealand
India
South Africa
Serbia
Montenegro
Belgium
Romania
Greece
Portugal
Brazil
Nepal
Japan
China
Siam
Hejaz | Defeat

* Victory of Germany and its allies on the Eastern Front, leading to an armistice between Russia and the Central Powers and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
* Armistice of 11 November 1918, Paris Peace Conference
* Communist Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War, formation of the Soviet Union in 1922
* Establishment of the Weimar Republic
* Rise of the United States
* Transfer of German colonies and territories to other countries, partition of the Ottoman Empire, dissolution of Austria-Hungary
* Turkish War of Independence
* Creation of the League of Nations

2,198,420 to
2,800,720 dead[18]

Finnish Civil War

(1918)

* Finnish Whites
* German Empire[19]
* Foreign volunteers:
* Swedish Brigade
* Estonian volunteers
* Polish Legion in Finland
* White Army

* Finnish Reds
* Soviet Russia

| Victory

* Establishment of the Kingdom of Finland
* German hegemony until November 1918
* Division in Finnish society
* Collapse of the Finnish Reds

Georg von Hertling

450–500 killed in action

Ukrainian War of Independence

(1917–1921)

Ukrainian State

South Russia

Germany

Poland

* Russian SFSR
* UNRR
* URR
* Ukrainian SSR

| Defeat

(The Bolsheviks were forced out of Ukraine as long as Germany was stationed there)

Hermann von Eichhorn

### Weimar Republic (1918–1933)

[edit]

Conflict  | Combatant 1  | Combatant 2  | Result  | Reichskanzler  | German losses

|
|
|
|
|

German Revolution
(1918-1919)  |  Germany |  Revolutionaries | Government victory

* Establishment of the Weimar Republic

Friedrich Ebert

Greater Poland Uprising
(1918-1919)  |  Germany |  POW | Defeat

* Poland gains Greater Poland

Lithuanian–Soviet War

(1918–1919)

* Lithuania
* Saxon Volunteers

* Russian SFSR
* Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR

| Victory |

Friedrich Ebert
(1918–1919)
Philipp Scheidemann
(1919)
Gustav Bauer
(1919)

First Silesian Uprising
(1919)  |  Weimar Republic |  POW-GS | Victory

* German forces crush uprising

Gustav Bauer

Kapp Putsch

(1920)

|  Weimar Republic

* Striking workers

|  Putschists

* Marinebrigade Ehrhardt

| Government victory

* Collapse of the Putsch
* General strike in opposition of the Putsch
* Order restored and elections held
* Amnesty for Putschists
* Ruhr uprising

Friedrich Ebert

Ruhr Uprising
(1920)  |  Weimar Republic |  Ruhr Red Army | Government victory

* Uprising crushed

Friedrich Ebert

1,600+
(Both combatants)

Second Silesian Uprising
(1920)  |  Weimar Republic |  POW-GS | League of Nations ceasefire

* Order restored by Allied intervention

Constantin Fehrenbach

March Action

(1921)

|  Weimar Republic |  Communist Party
Communist Workers Party | Government victory |

Constantin Fehrenbach

31 police officers dead

Third Silesian Uprising
(1921)  |  Weimar Republic |  POW-GS | League of Nations ceasefire

* Parts of Upper Silesia ceded to Poland

Joseph Wirth

Hamburg Uprising

(1923)

|  Weimar Republic |  Communist Party of Germany | Government victory |

Friedrich Ebert

17 dead, 61 civilians dead

Beer Hall Putsch

(1923)

|  Weimar Republic

* Bavarian State Police
* Reichswehr

|  Kampfbund

* Nazi Party
* Sturmabteilung
* Stoßtrupp-Hitler
* Bund Reichskriegsflagge
* Freikorps Oberland

| Government victory |

Friedrich Ebert

4 police officers dead, 1 civilian dead

### Nazi Germany (1933–1945)

[edit]

Conflict | Combatant 1 | Combatant 2 | Result | Führer | German losses

|
|
|
|
|

German involvement in the Spanish Civil War
(1936-1939)  |  Spanish Nationalists
Italy
Germany
Portugal |  Spanish Republicans
International Brigades | Victory

* End of the Second Spanish Republic

Adolf Hitler

~300 killed[20]

Sudeten German uprising

|  Sudeten Germans

* SdP sympathisers
* Freikorps
* Grüne Korps

Supported by:
Germany

* Schutzstaffel
* Sturmabteilung
* Abwehr

|  Czechoslovakia

* Czechoslovak Army
* State Defence Guard
* Republikanische Wehr

| Defeat |

ca.200

Invasion of Czechoslovakia
(1939)  |  Germany
Hungary
Poland |  Czechoslovakia | Victory

* German occupation of Czechoslovakia

21 killed and wounded[21]

World War II
(1939-1945)  |  Germany
Japan
Italy
Hungary
Romania
Bulgaria

Finland
Thailand

|  Soviet Union
United States
United Kingdom
China
France
Poland
Canada
Australia
New Zealand
India
South Africa
Yugoslavia
Greece
Denmark
Norway
Netherlands
Belgium
Luxembourg
Ethiopia
Brazil
Mexico
Colombia
Cuba
Nepal
Philippines
Mongolia | Defeat

* Collapse of Nazi Germany and its allies. Allied occupation of Germany and Japan as well as Austria and Korea. Germany loses its pre-war and wartime territorial gains, as well as the eastern territories. Remaining German territory is placed under Allied occupation until 1949, when West and East Germany are established.
* Economy and facility of Germany suffers heavy loss
* Flight and expulsion of Germans from various territories in Central and Eastern Europe, including from Germany's eastern territories
* Creation of the United Nations and rise of internationalism

6,900,000 to
7,400,000 dead[22]

### East Germany (1949–1990)

[edit]

Conflict  | Combatant 1  | Combatant 2  | Result  | Leadership of East Germany  | German losses

|
|
|
|
|

East German uprising of 1953
(1953)  |

East Germany
Soviet Union

Demonstrators

| Victory |

Walter Ulbricht

5 police killed

### Federal Republic of Germany (1991–present)

[edit]

Conflict  | Combatant 1  | Combatant 2  | Result  | Bundeskanzler (Federal Chancellor)  | German losses

|
|
|
|
|

Gulf War

(1990–1991)

* United States
* United Kingdom
* France
* Saudi Arabia
* Egypt
* Kuwait

* * *

Coalition:

* Afghan mujahideen[23]
* Argentina
* Australia
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Belgium
* Canada
* Czechoslovakia
* Denmark
* Germany
* Greece
* Honduras
* Hungary
* Italy
* Japan
* Luxembourg
* Morocco
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* Niger
* Norway
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Poland
* Portugal
* Qatar
* Romania
* Senegal
* Sierra Leone
* Singapore
* South Korea
* Spain
* Sweden
* Syria
* Turkey
* United Arab Emirates

|  Iraq →  Iraq |

Victory

Helmut Kohl

Operation Deliberate Force
(1995)  |  NATO

* Belgium
* Canada
* Denmark
* France
* Germany
* Italy
* Luxembourg
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Portugal
* Spain
* Turkey
* United Kingdom
* United States

* * *

* United Nations Protection Force

|  Republika Srpska | Victory

* Dayton Accords

Helmut Kohl

None

Operation Allied Force
(1999)  |  NATO

* Belgium
* Canada
* Denmark
* France
* Germany
* Italy
* Luxembourg
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Portugal
* Spain
* Turkey
* United Kingdom
* United States

|  FR Yugoslavia | Compromise

* Kumanovo Treaty
* Yugoslav security forces pull out of Kosovo
* United Nations Resolution 1244

Gerhard Schröder

None

War in Afghanistan
(2001-2021)  |  Afghanistan
ISAF

* United States
* United Kingdom
* Canada
* Australia
* New Zealand
* Germany
* France
* Italy
* Czech Republic
* Netherlands
* Turkey
* Romania
* Georgia
* South Korea
* Poland
* Denmark
* Sweden
* Norway
* Others

|  Taliban
al-Qaeda | Taliban victory

* Fall of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan in 2001
* Establishment of new Afghan government
* Fall of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, reestablishment of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan on 16 August 2021
* War in North-West Pakistan

Gerhard Schröder
(2001–2005)
Angela Merkel
(2005–2021)

59 dead[24]

War on ISIL
(2015-present)  |  Iraq
Iraqi Kurdistan
Syrian Kurdistan
CJTF–OIR

* United States
* United Kingdom
* Canada
* France
* Germany
* Turkey
* Saudi Arabia
* Qatar
* Jordan
* Bahrain
* United Arab Emirates
* Morocco
* Australia
* Netherlands
* Belgium
* Denmark
* Norway

|  ISIL

* * *

al-Qaeda | Ongoing

* Airstrikes on ISIL and al-Qaeda affiliates positions in Iraq and Syria
* Islamic terrorism in Europe

Angela Merkel
(2015–2021)
Olaf Scholz
(2021–2025)
Friedrich Merz
(2025–present)

See below[k]

Mali War
(2017–2023)  |  Mali
MINUSMA

* France
* ECOWAS
* Chad
* Germany
* Netherlands
* Sweden

|  al-Qaeda | Compromise

* The Foreign Minister of Mali requested that the United Nations terminate MINUSMA due to what he called its "failure" to stabilize the situation there on 16 June 2023
* MINUSMA was officially terminated on 30 June 2023.
* Dissolution of United Nations peacekeeping mission on 31 December 2023
* Withdrawal of all contributing MINUSMA nations and retreat of their troops within 6 months

2 dead[25]

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ States that allied at some point between 1618 and 1635
2. ^ States that fought against the Emperor at some point between 1618 and 1635
3. ^ The Dutch Brigade
4. ^ a b c d e Mikaberidze 2020, p. 309 states that the contributions of coalition members aside from Austria were "rather nominal". Englund 2004, p. 345 writes that "the only real coalition to be mounted in this nominal fifth war of that name was the coalition France created against unhappy Austria; it included the key German States and Italy."
5. ^ in rebellion against the Confederation of the Rhine
6. ^ in rebellion against Bavaria
7. ^ in rebellion against France in Illyria
8. ^ in rebellion against the Kingdom of Italy
9. ^ Duchy of Warsaw as a state was in effect fully occupied by Russian and Prussian forces by May 1813, although most Poles remained loyal to Napoleon.
10. ^ Under the Government of National Defense.
11. ^ No German soldiers have been killed by ISIS, however, many German civilians have been killed in terror attacks claimed by ISIS. For details, see Islamic terrorism in Europe

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Angelov, Dimiter (2019). The Byzantine Hellene: The Life of Emperor Theodore Laskaris and Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. p.89.
2. ^ Byrne, Philippa (19 March 2023). "Translating German Emperors: A Staufen–Sicilian Synthesis under Henry VI?". The German Quarterly. 96 (2): 163–179\. doi:10.1111/gequ.12333 - via CrossRef.
3. ^ a b "Duitsland §6. Geschiedenis". Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins (in Dutch). Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 2002.
4. ^ Croxton 2013, pp. 225–226.
5. ^ a b Heitz & Rischer 1995, p. 232.
6. ^ Clark, Samuel (1995). State and Status: The Rise of the State and Aristocratic Power in Western Europe. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 65\. ISBN 9780773512269.
7. ^ Zamoyski 2004, p. 87.
8. ^ Christian Wilhelm von Faber du Faur, Campagne de Russie 1812: d'après le journal illustré d'un témoin oculaire, éditions Flammarion, 1812, 319 pages, p. 313.
9. ^ Eugène Labaume, Relation circonstanciée de la Campagne de Russie en 1812 Archived 2023-01-07 at the Wayback Machine, éditions Panckoucke-Magimel, 1815, pp. 453–54.
10. ^ a b c Chandler 1981, p. 181.
11. ^ Hofschroer 2006, pp. 82, 83.
12. ^ Hervé de Weck: Franche-Comté expedition in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, 8 May 2007.
13. ^ The northern parts and the Army of the Grand Duchy of Hesse were part of the North German Confederation G
14. ^ Hempestall & Mochida, p. 54
15. ^ "Uprisings against the German/South African Colonial Power". klausdierks.com.
16. ^ Bridgman, Jon M. (1966) Revolt of the Hereros University of California Press. p. 164 (KIA: 676, MIA:76, WIA: 907, died from disease: 689, civilians: 100)
17. ^ Gellately, Robert; Ben Kiernan (2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective. Published by Cambridge University Press. p. 161. ISBN 0-521-52750-3.
18. ^ See World War I casualties
19. ^ Including conspirative co-operation between Germany and Russian Bolsheviks 1914–1918, Pipes 1996, pp. 113–149, Lackman 2009, pp. 48–57, McMeekin 2017, pp. 125–136
20. ^ Thomas, Hugh (2003) [1961, 1987, 2001]. The Spanish Civil War. London: Penguin. p. 634\. ISBN 0-14-101161-0. OCLC 248799351.
21. ^ Boje o československé hranice v roce 1939
22. ^ See World War II casualties
23. ^ "DESERT SHIELD AND DESERT STORM A CHRONOLOGY AND TROOP LIST FOR THE 1990–1991 PERSIAN GULF CRISIS" (PDF). apps.dtic.mil. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
24. ^ "Germany honors soldiers who fought in Afghanistan mission". dw.com. 13 October 2021. Retrieved 5 December 2021.
25. ^ "German military helicopter crashes in Mali, two peacekeepers killed". Reuters. 26 July 2017 - via www.reuters.com.

## Sources

[edit]

* Chandler, David (1981) [1980]. Waterloo: The Hundred Days. Osprey Publishing.
* Croxton, Derek (2013). The Last Christian Peace: The Congress of Westphalia as A Baroque Event. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-33332-2.
* Englund, Steven (2004). Napoleon : a Political Life. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-87142-4. OCLC 1085212315.
* Heitz, Gerhard; Rischer, Henning (1995). Geschichte in Daten. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern; History in data; Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (in German). Koehler&Amelang. ISBN 3-7338-0195-4.
* Hofschroer, Peter (2006). 1815 The Waterloo Campaign: Wellington, his German allies and the Battles of Ligny and Quatre Bras. Vol. 1\. Greenhill Books.
* Lackman, Matti (2009), Jääkäriliike. In: Haapala, P. & Hoppu, T. (eds.) Sisällissodan pikkujättiläinen, Helsinki: WSOY, pp. 48–57, ISBN 978-951-0-35452-0
* McMeekin, Sean (2017). The Russian Revolution: A New History. London: Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-78125-902-3.
* Mikaberidze, Alexander (2020). The Napoleonic Wars: A Global History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-995106-2.
* Pipes, Richard (1996). A Concise History of the Russian Revolution. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-74544-0.
* Tuchman, Barbara W. (1978). A Distant Mirror: the Calamitous 14th Century. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-345-28394-5.
* Zamoyski, Adam (2004). Moscow 1812: Napoleon's Fatal March. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-712375-9. Retrieved 17 April 2021.

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Lists of wars involving European countries

Sovereign states|

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