Low-carbon diet

Diet to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Not to be confused with Low-carbohydrate diet.

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Vegetables are low-carbon compared to meats.

A low-carbon diet is any diet that results in lower greenhouse gas emissions.[1][2] Choosing a low carbon diet is one facet of developing sustainable diets which increase the long-term sustainability of humanity. Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating a plant-based diet, and in particular little or no beef and dairy.[3] Low-carbon diets differ around the world in taste, style, and the frequency they are eaten. Asian countries like India and China feature vegetarian and vegan meals as staples in their diets. In contrast, Europe and North America rely on animal products for their Western diets.[4]

It is estimated that the food system is responsible for a quarter to a third of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions.[5] More fossil fuels are required for the production of animal-based foods like meat and dairy and have a higher carbon footprint.[6] Large amounts of land are required to raise livestock for beef and dairy products and methane emissions from cattle contribute to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. However, carbon emissions from transportation and packaging for plant-based diets are similar in scale to animal-based diets.[7] Local production can be much more energy intensive and inefficient compared to industrialized production.[8]

## Overall trends worldwide

[edit]

Meal with vegetarian sausages at a pub in London, UK

A 2014 study into the real-life diets of British people estimated their greenhouse gas footprints in terms of kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent per day:[9]

* 7.19 for high meat-eaters (≥100 g/day)
* 5.63 for medium meat-eaters (50–99 g/day)
* 4.67 for low meat-eaters (<50 g/day)
* 3.91 for fish-eaters
* 3.81 for vegetarians
* 2.89 for vegans

Vegan tacos from Mexico

While the fish-eaters had the lowest footprints out of all the meat-eaters, the vegetarians and vegans were the lowest overall. This is due to the contribution of greenhouse gases in the growth, processing, production, and transport of the plant-based food products eaten by vegetarians and vegans.[9]

A 2020 study found that Asia has the largest percentage of vegetarians at 19%. Close behind Asia is Africa/the Middle East with 16%. South and Central America have just 8% and North America has a mere 6%. This study found that Europe has the smallest percentage of vegetarians at only 5%.[4] There was not conclusive data on the percentage of vegetarians in Australia.

Vegetarian thali (plate) from India

Non-Western diets are built around unprocessed starches. In South America and Africa, the centerpiece of each meal is beans and grains. Peru, in South America, has potatoes as the foundation for their diet. In Asia, rice is a staple in every household no matter the income level. Meat is usually the centerpiece of meals in the Western diet, whereas animal products are often small parts of the meal (or act as condiments) in the non-Western diet.[10]

In India, the practice of the vegetarian diet is usually generational and simply follows the pattern expected of the family. Adherence can also be credited to certain religious groups and social groups. For example, Hindus do not eat beef because they believe that red meat from cattle is impure. Some of the vegetarian staples consumed are a mixture of whole grains along with nuts/seeds and legumes. Dairy is also included in the Indian vegetarian diet, with unique spices and seasonings per region. However, certain populations in India have begun eating meat due to the growing popularity of western diets.[11]

Classic vegetarian dish from China

Asia includes largely populated countries such as China and India, both of which have thriving Buddhist populations. In China, there are five main influences that contribute to Buddhists keeping vegetarian diets:[12]

1. Influence from Mahayana sutras
2. Influence of Chinese imperial authority/political figures who promote Buddhism
3. Influence of Confucianism
4. Influence of Taoism
5. Sociocultural influences like societal norms and lived environments

## Background on diet and greenhouse gas emissions

[edit]

Global greenhouse gas emissions from food production.

In the U.S., the food system emits four of the greenhouse gases associated with climate change: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons.[13] The burning of fossil fuels (such as oil and gasoline) to power vehicles that transport food for long distances by air, ship, truck and rail releases carbon dioxide, the primary gas responsible for global warming. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are emitted from mechanical refrigerating and freezing mechanisms – both staples in food shipment and storage.[14] Anthropogenic methane emission sources include agriculture (ruminants, manure management, wetland rice production), various other industries and landfills. Anthropogenic nitrous oxide sources include fertilizer, manure, crop residues and nitrogen-fixing crops production.[15] Methane and nitrous oxide are also emitted in large amounts from natural sources. The 100-year global warming potentials of methane and nitrous oxide are recently estimated at 25 and 298 carbon dioxide equivalents, respectively.[16]

Steinfeld et al. estimate that livestock production accounts for 18 percent of anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.[17] Of this amount, 34 percent is carbon dioxide emission from deforestation, principally in Central and South America, that they assigned to livestock production. However, deforestation associated with livestock production is not an issue in many regions. In the US, the land area occupied by forest increased between 1990 and 2009[18] and a net increase in forest land area was also reported in Canada.[19]

Of emissions they attribute to livestock production, Steinfeld et al. estimate that globally, methane accounts for 30.2 percent. Like other greenhouse gases, methane contributes to global warming when its atmospheric concentration rises. Although methane emission from agriculture and other anthropogenic sources has contributed substantially to past warming, it is of much less significance for current and recent warming. This is because there has been relatively little increase in atmospheric methane concentration in recent years[20][21][22][23] The anomalous increase in methane concentration in 2007, discussed by Rigby et al., has since been attributed principally to anomalous methane flux from natural wetlands, mostly in the tropics, rather than to anthropogenic sources.[24]

Livestock sources (including enteric fermentation and manure) account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.[15] This EPA estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC, with 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report used in estimating GHG emissions as carbon dioxide equivalents.

A 2016 study published in Nature Climate Change concludes that climate taxes on meat and milk would simultaneously produce substantial cuts in greenhouse gas emissions and lead to healthier diets. Such taxes would need to be designed with care: exempting and subsidising some food groups, selectively compensating for income loss, and using part of the revenue for health promotion. The study analyzed surcharges of 40% on beef and 20% on milk and their effects on consumption, climate emissions, and distribution. An optimum plan would reduce emissions by 1 billion tonnes per year – similar in amount to those from aviation globally.[25][26]

## High-carbon and low-carbon food choices

[edit]

Greenhouse impact across food categories: results from a 2017 review of 389 life-cycle assessments[27]

Certain foods require more fossil fuel inputs than others. Animal-based foods like meat and dairy have a much higher carbon footprint than plant-based foods.[6] Therefore, it is possible to go on a low-carbon diet and reduce one’s carbon footprint by choosing foods that need less fossil fuel and therefore emit less carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Further research finds that even "the lowest-impact animal products typically exceed those of vegetable substitutes".[28] For example, Ritchie explains that "producing 100 grams of protein from peas emits just 0.4 kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq). To get the same amount of protein from beef, emissions would be nearly 90 times higher, at 35 kgCO2eq."[6]

In June 2010, a report from United Nations Environment Programme declared that a global shift towards a vegan diet was needed to save the world from hunger, fuel shortages and climate change.[29] This will mean a huge shift in the diet of the average European, as 83% of their diets are made up of meat, dairy, and eggs.[30] As a major contributor to global carbon emissions, China introduced new dietary guidelines in 2016 which aim to cut meat consumption by 50% and thereby reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030.[31]

More families are choosing to implement vegan and vegetarian diets for adults and children alike. Cundiff and Harris write: "The American Dietetic Association (ADA) and Dietitians of Canada position paper officially recognizes that well-planned vegan and other vegetarian diets are appropriate for infancy and childhood."[32][33] However, European recommendations for children's diets do not include the vegan diet. They stand that there should be necessary "medical and dietetic supervision" in order for the safety of the vegan child to be kept in mind. It has been noted that "the more restrictive the diet and the younger the child, the greater the risk of nutritional deficiency."[34] The most common nutrients left out of the vegan child's diet are as follows:

* Protein (quality and quantity)
* Iron
* Zinc
* Selenium
* Calcium
* Riboflavin
* Vitamins A, D, and B12
* Essential fatty acids

## Industrial versus pastured livestock

[edit]

Insect food snack product. Insects could be an alternative protein source with a lower carbon footprint compared to animal-based protein.[35]

Beef and dairy cattle have extremely high levels of greenhouse gas emissions, due to methane emissions from enteric fermentation, and their very large land footprint. Feed is a significant contributor to emissions from animals raised in Confined Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) or factory farms, as corn or soybeans must be fertilized, irrigated, processed into animal feed, packaged and then transported to the CAFO. In 2005, CAFOs accounted for 74% of the world's poultry production, 50% of pork, 43% of beef, and 68% of eggs, according to the Worldwatch Institute. Proportions are significantly higher in developed countries, but are growing rapidly in developing countries, where demand is also growing fast.[36] However, in the US, only about 11% of soybean acres and 14% of corn acres are irrigated; in contrast, about 66% of vegetable acres and 79% of orchard acres are irrigated.[37][38] Soybean meal for livestock feed is commonly produced after extraction of soybean oil (used for cooking, food products, biodiesel, etc.,[39][40] so that only a fraction of processing is assignable to feed. Such examples illustrate that issues relating to irrigation, fertilization and processing for meat production should also be of concern with regard to production of other foods.

In one study, grass-fed cattle were estimated to account for 40% less greenhouse emissions than CAFO cattle[7] However, comparative effects on emissions can vary. In a US study, lower GHG emissions were associated with feedlot-finished beef production than with beef production on pasture and hay.[41] Similarly, a study in New Zealand concluded that environmental emissions per kilogram of beef produced can be reduced by incorporating feedlot finishing in a beef production system.[42] Another factor to be considered is the role of a healthy pastoral ecosystem in carbon sequestration.

Because CAFO production is highly centralized, the transport of animals to slaughter and then to distant retail outlets is a further source of greenhouse gas emissions.

In livestock production, emissions are reduced by feeding human-inedible materials that might otherwise by wasted. Elferink et al. state that "Currently, 70% of the feedstock used in the Dutch feed industry originates from the food processing industry."[43] Among several US examples is the feeding of distillers grains remaining from biofuel production. For the marketing year 2009/2010, the amount of dried distillers grains used as livestock feed (and residual) in the US amounted to 25.0 million tonnes.[44]

## Distance traveled and method of transit

[edit]

See also: Food miles

Take a Bite Out Of Climate Change flashcards

Carbon emissions from transport account for 11% of the total carbon emissions of food, of which the transportation from producer to consumer accounts for 4%.[45] However, "food miles" are a misleading measure; in many cases food imported from the other side of the world may have a lower carbon footprint than a locally produced equivalent, due to differences in farming methods. "Local food" campaigns may be motivated by protectionism rather than genuine environmentalism.[46]

When looking at total greenhouse gases (not just carbon dioxide), 83% of emissions come from the actual production of the food because of the methane released by livestock and the nitrous oxide due to fertilizer.[45]

The word locavore describes a person attempting to eat a diet consisting of foods harvested from within a 100-mile radius. Some studies have criticized the emphasis on local food, claiming that it romanticizes local production, but does not produce very much environmental benefit. Transportation accounts for a relatively small portion of overall energy consumption in food production, and locally produced food may be much more energy intensive than food produced in a better area. Additionally the emphasis on "inefficient" local producers over more efficient ones further away may be damaging.[8]

## Processing, packaging, and waste

[edit]

Highly processed foods (such as granola bars, snack chips, dessert treats, etc.) come in individual packaging, demanding high energy inputs and resulting in packaging waste. Although processed foods create much packaging waste, some studies suggest that there are pros: Food packaging is important for maintaining the freshness of food items throughout their transit journeys. Additionally, food packaging ensures the safety of the food products by keeping them clean and sanitary. Lastly, consumers get important information about what ingredients the food was made with by reading the food packaging.[47]

Bottled water is another example of a highly packaged food product that is considered a single-use plastic because most people discard it after they're done drinking the water. It is estimated that Americans throw away 40 million plastic water bottles every day, and bottled water is often shipped trans-continentally. Carbonated water must be chilled and kept under pressure during storage and transport so as to keep the carbon dioxide dissolved. This factor contributes greater energy usage for products shipped longer distances.

A 2023 study by Siddiqui S. A., et al.[48] evaluated the quality of biodegradable packaging versus conventional plastic packaging for the meat packaging industry in the European Union. Conventional plastic packaging is known for being very flexible and able to stretch greatly during processing, shipping, and handling. With easily customizable production and relatively low cost, plastic packaging is picked most often over glass, cardboard, and other sustainable packaging materials. This study researched which types of biodegradable packaging are the most heat-resistant as well, as plastic has tested superior in this aspect in the past. The future of sustainability with low-carbon production for food packaging rides on biodegradable packaging. Cellulose-based packaging was highly effective at controlling moisture within meat packages in the EU and was able to prevent oxygen from entering. Polyhydroxyalkanoates and polylactic acid (PLA) are examples of sustainable food packaging materials that are considered better than plastic, but could actually be harmful because they may contain chemical additives.

## See also

[edit]

* Agriculture and Agronomy portal
* Food portal

* Ethical eating
* Farm to fork
* List of diets
* Local food movement
* Sustainable food system
* The 100-Mile Diet
* Vertical farming
* Environmental vegetarianism

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Low-Carbon Diet | Cool California". coolcalifornia.arb.ca.gov. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
2. ^ Scarborough, Peter; Clark, Michael; Cobiac, Linda; Papier, Keren; Knuppel, Anika; Lynch, John; Harrington, Richard; Key, Tim; Springmann, Marco (2023). "Vegans, vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters in the UK show discrepant environmental impacts". Nature Food. 4 (7): 565–574\. doi:10.1038/s43016-023-00795-w. PMC 10365988. PMID 37474804.
3. ^ "FAO - News Article: Key facts and findings". www.fao.org. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
4. ^ a b Hargreaves, S. M.; Nakano, E. Y.; Zandonadi, R. P. (2020). "Brazilian vegetarian population—influence of type of diet, motivation and sociodemographic variables on quality of life measured by specific tool (VEGQOL)". Nutrients. 12 (5): 1406. doi:10.3390/nu12051406. PMC 7284834. PMID 32422862.
5. ^ "How much of global greenhouse gas emissions come from food?". Our World in Data. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
6. ^ a b c Ritchie, Hannah (2023). "Less meat is nearly always better than sustainable meat, to reduce your carbon footprint". Our World in Data.
7. ^ a b Brian Halweil and Danielle Nierenberg, 2008, Meat and Seafood: The Global Diet’s Most Costly Ingredients, in The Worldwatch Institute's State of the World 2008, p. 65
8. ^ a b Hiroku Shimozu; Pierre Desrochers (24 October 2008). "Yes We Have No Bananas: A Critique of the 'Food Miles' Perspective". Mercatus Policy Series (8). SSRN 1315986.
9. ^ a b Scarborough, Peter; Appleby, Paul N.; Mizdrak, Anja; Briggs, Adam D.M.; Travis, Ruth C.; Bradbury, Kathryn E.; Key, Timothy J. (July 2014). "Dietary greenhouse gas emissions of meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans in the UK". Climatic Change. 125 (2): 179–192\. Bibcode:2014ClCh..125..179S. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1169-1. PMC 4372775. PMID 25834298.
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13. ^ STAT saying that those four are emitted
14. ^ CFC STAT
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16. ^ IPCC. 2007. Fourth Assessment Report. The Scientific Basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Sec. 2.10.2.
17. ^ Steinfeld, H. et al. 2006, Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Livestock, Environment and Development, FAO.
18. ^ US EPA. 2011. Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990-2009. United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-11-005. 459 pp.
19. ^ Environment Canada. 2010. National Inventory Report 1990-2008. Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks in Canada. Part 1. 221 pp.
20. ^ Dlugokencky, E. J.; et al. (1998). "Continuing decline in the growth rate of the atmospheric methane burden". Nature. 393 (6684): 447–450\. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..447D. doi:10.1038/30934. S2CID 4390669.
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22. ^ IPCC. 2007. Fourth Assessment Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
23. ^ Rigby, M.; et al. (2008). "Renewed growth of atmospheric methane" (PDF). Geophys. Res. Lett. 35 (22): L22805. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3522805R. doi:10.1029/2008GL036037. hdl:1983/0b493e8e-0ef3-4d9f-9994-84ce0e4bc8f0. S2CID 18219105.
24. ^ Bousquet, P.; et al. (2011). "Source attribution of the changes in atmospheric methane for 2006-2008". Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11 (8): 3689–3700\. Bibcode:2011ACP....11.3689B. doi:10.5194/acp-11-3689-2011.
25. ^ Carrington, Damian (7 November 2016). "Tax meat and dairy to cut emissions and save lives, study urges". The Guardian. London, United Kingdom. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
26. ^ Springmann, Marco; Mason-D'Croz, Daniel; Robinson, Sherman; Wiebe, Keith; Godfray, H Charles J; Rayner, Mike; Scarborough, Peter (7 November 2016). "Mitigation potential and global health impacts from emissions pricing of food commodities". Nature Climate Change (1): 69. Bibcode:2017NatCC...7...69S. doi:10.1038/nclimate3155. ISSN 1758-678X. S2CID 88921469.
27. ^ Stephen Clune; Enda Crossin; Karli Verghese (1 January 2017). "Systematic review of greenhouse gas emissions for different fresh food categories" (PDF). Journal of Cleaner Production. 140 (2): 766–783\. Bibcode:2017JCPro.140..766C. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.082.
28. ^ Poore, J.; Nemecek, T. (2018). "Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers". Science. 360 (6392): 987–992\. Bibcode:2018Sci...360..987P. doi:10.1126/science.aaq0216. PMID 29853680. S2CID 206664954.
29. ^ Felicity Carus UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet, The Guardian, 2 June 2010
* Also see "Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production" Archived 10 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Brussels, 2 June 2010.
30. ^ Sandström, V. (2018). "The role of trade in the greenhouse gas footprints of EU diets". Global Food Security. 19: 48–55\. Bibcode:2018GlFS...19...48S. doi:10.1016/j.gfs.2018.08.007. S2CID 53370665.
31. ^ Milman, Oliver (20 June 2016). "China's plan to cut meat consumption by 50% cheered by climate campaigners". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 June 2016.
32. ^ Cundiff, David K.; Harris, William (2006). "Case report of 5 siblings: malnutrition? Rickets? DiGeorge syndrome? Developmental delay?". Nutrition Journal. 5: 1. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-5-1. PMC 1363354. PMID 16412249.
33. ^ American Dietetic Association (2003). "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (6): 748–765\. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. PMID 12778049.
34. ^ Kiely, M. E. (2021). "Risks and benefits of vegan and vegetarian diets in children". Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 80 (2): 159–164\. doi:10.1017/S002966512100001X. hdl:10468/11057. PMID 33504371. S2CID 231761415.
35. ^ Vauterin, A.; Steiner, B.; Sillman, J.; Kahiluoto, H. (20 October 2021). "The potential of insect protein to reduce food-based carbon footprints in Europe: The case of broiler meat production". Journal of Cleaner Production. 320: 128799. Bibcode:2021JCPro.32028799V. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128799. ISSN 0959-6526.
36. ^ Danielle Nierenberg, Lisa Mastny, 2005, Worldwatch Paper #171: Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry, p. 11-12
37. ^ USDA. 2009. 2007 Census of agriculture. United States summary and State Data. Vol. 1. Geographic Area Series. Part 51. AC-07-A-51. 639 pp. + appendices.
38. ^ USDA. 2009. 2007 Census of agriculture. Farm and ranch irrigation survey (2008). Volume 3. Special Studies. Part 1. AC-07-SS-1. 177 pp. + appendices.
39. ^ Soyatech: http://soyatech.com/soy_facts.htm Archived 23 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
40. ^ USDA. 2011. Agricultural Statistics 2010. 505 pp.
41. ^ Pelletier, N.; Pirog, R.; Rasmussen, R. (2010). "Comparative life cycle environmental impacts of three beef production strategies in the Upper Midwestern United States". Agric. Systems. 103 (6): 380–389\. Bibcode:2010AgSys.103..380P. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2010.03.009.
42. ^ White, T. A.; Snow, V. A.; King, W. M. (2010). "Intensification of New Zealand beef farming systems". Agric. Systems. 103 (1): 21–36\. Bibcode:2010AgSys.103...21W. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2009.08.003.
43. ^ Elferink, E. V., S. Nonhebel and H. C. Moll. 2008. Feeding livestock food residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat. J. Cleaner Prod. 16: 1227-1233
44. ^ Hoffman, L. and A. Baker. 2010. Market issues and prospects for U.S. distillers' grains supply, use, and price relationships. USDA FDS-10k-01).
45. ^ a b Bijal Trevedi (11 September 2008). "What Is Your Dinner Doing to the Climate". New Scientist.
46. ^ "Food politics: Voting with your trolley". The Economist. 7 December 2006. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
47. ^ Marsh, K.; Bugusu, B. (2007). "Food packaging—roles, materials, and environmental issues". Journal of Food Science. 72 (3): R39 – R55. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00301.x. PMID 17995809. S2CID 12127364.
48. ^ Siddiqui, S. A.; Sundarsingh, A.; Bahmid, N. A.; Nirmal, N.; Denayer, J. F.; Karimi, K. (2023). "A critical review on biodegradable food packaging for meat: Materials, sustainability, regulations, and perspectives in the EU". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 22 (5): 4147–4185\. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.13202. PMID 37350102. S2CID 259233666.

## Additional sources

[edit]

* Carlsson-Kanyama, Annika; Ekstrom, Marianne; Pipping Shanahan, Helena (2003). "Food and life cycle energy inputs: consequences of diet and ways to increase efficiency". Ecological Economics. 44 (2–3): 293–307\. Bibcode:2003EcoEc..44..293C. doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(02)00261-6.2–3&rft.pages=293-307&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/s0921-8009(02)00261-6&rft_id=info:bibcode/2003EcoEc..44..293C&rft.aulast=Carlsson-Kanyama&rft.aufirst=Annika&rft.au=Ekstrom,+Marianne&rft.au=Pipping+Shanahan,+Helena&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Low-carbon+diet" class="Z3988">
* Miguel Llanos, "Plastic bottles pile up as mountains of waste," (2005), MSNBC

## External links

[edit]

* Banana index at The Economist

* v
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* e

Human nutrition and healthy diets

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* Valter Longo
* Palaniappan Manickam
* John A. McDougall
* Tracye McQuirter
* Virginia Messina
* Gemma Newman
* Chidi Ngwaba
* Jack Norris
* Dean Ornish
* Robert Ostfeld
* Jane Plant
* Nathan Pritikin
* Megan Rossi
* Terry Shintani
* Sheil Shukla
* Tim Spector
* Mia Syn
* Ellsworth Wareham
* Kim A. Williams

|

Advocates and
cookbook authors|

* Eric Adams
* Pamela Anderson
* Nava Atlas
* Clarence Bass
* Mark Bittman
* Dawn Jackson Blatner
* Carleigh Bodrug
* Alfredo Bowman
* Brendan Brazier
* Dan Buettner
* James Cameron
* Suzy Amis Cameron
* Kris Carr
* Hannah Che
* Abbie Cornish
* Joe Cross
* Rosanna Davison
* Robert Downey Jr.
* Marta Dymek
* Rip Esselstyn
* Mike Fremont
* Kathy Freston
* Calum Harris
* Richa Hingle
* Daniel Humm
* Miles Kasiri
* Matthew Kenney
* Max La Manna
* John Mackey
* Richard Makin
* Mary McCartney
* Hetty Lui McKinnon
* Ella Mills
* Joanne Lee Molinaro
* Charity Morgan
* David H. Murdock
* Andrea Nguyen
* Toni Okamoto
* Darin Olien
* Steve Pilot
* John Robbins
* Ocean Robbins
* Derek Sarno
* Arnold Schwarzenegger
* Jessica Seinfeld
* Gene Stone
* Hannah Sunderani
* Deborah Szekely
* Jeeca Uy
* Nisha Vora
* Joe Yonan
* Robert O. Young

Films|

* Forks Over Knives (2011)
* PlantPure Nation (2015)
* What the Health (2017)
* The Game Changers (2018)

Books,
studies|

* Adventist Health Studies
* The China Study (2005)
* How Not to Die: Discover the Foods Scientifically Proven to Prevent and Reverse Disease (2015)
* The Longevity Diet (2018)

Organizations|

* Plant-Based Health Professionals UK
* Plant-Based Universities
* Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
* Pritikin Longevity Center

Key concepts|

* Dietary fiber
* Fermented foods
* Gut microbiota
* Gut microbiome
* Plant-based action plan
* Plant-based cat food

Nutrition|

* Vegan nutrition
* Vegetarian nutrition

Food|

* Beans
* Fruit
* Herbs and spices
* Legumes/Pulses
* Nuts
* Seeds
* Nutritional yeast
* Tempeh
* Tofu
* Vegetables
* Whole grains

Drink|

* Cacao
* Coffee
* Plant milk
* Tea

Related|

* James Beard Awards: Winners and Nominees
* List of vegan and plant-based media

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Veganism and vegetarianism

Perspectives|

| Veganism|

* Animal-free agriculture
* Black veganism
* Fruitarianism
* History
* Raw veganism
* Straight edge
* Hardline
* Nutrition
* Vegan organic agriculture
* Vegan school meal
* Vegan studies

|

Vegetarianism|

* Economic vegetarianism
* Environmental vegetarianism
* History (Romantic Era)
* Orthopathy
* Lacto vegetarianism
* Lacto-ovo vegetarianism
* Ovo vegetarianism
* Cuisine
* Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
* Ecofeminism
* Nutrition
* By country

Lists|

* Bibliography
* Vegetarians
* Vegans
* Fictional characters
* Festivals
* Organizations
* Vegan and plant-based media

Locations|

* Cheremshanka, Altai Republic
* Community of the Ark
* Haridwar
* New Vrindaban
* Palitana
* Pushkar
* Rishikesh
* Tirumala
* The Farm (Tennessee)

Ethics|

| Secular|

* Animal rights
* Animal welfare
* Anthropocentrism
* Carnism
* Deep ecology
* Environmental vegetarianism
* Ethics of eating meat
* Meat paradox
* Nonviolence
* Replaceability argument
* Sentientism
* Speciesism
* Tirukkuṟaḷ

|

Religious|

* Buddhism
* Christianity (Seventh-day Adventist Church)
* Hinduism
* Sattvic
* Ahimsa
* Islam
* Jainism
* Judaism
* Pythagoreanism
* Rastafari
* Sikhism
* Taoism

Food
and drink|

* List of vegetarian and vegan companies
* Dairy alternatives
* Coconut milk
* Plant cream
* Plant milk
* Soy yogurt
* Cheese
* Meat alternatives
* List of meat substitutes
* Bacon
* Burgers
* Duck
* Hot dogs
* Jambon
* Quorn
* Sausage roll
* Seitan
* Tempeh
* Tofu
* Tofurkey
* Gelatin substitutes
* Vegetarian mark
* Beer
* Wine

Groups
and events|

| Vegan|

* American Vegan Society
* Beauty Without Cruelty
* China Vegan Society
* Food Empowerment Project
* Go Vegan
* Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme
* Our Hen House
* Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
* Plamil Foods
* Vegan Awareness Foundation
* Vegan flag
* Vegan Outreach
* Vegan Prisoners Support Group
* The Vegan Society
* Veganmania
* Vegetarian Resource Group
* Veganuary
* Veganz
* World Vegan Day

|

Vegetarian|

* Alcott House
* Bible Christian Church
* Boston Vegetarian Society
* Christian Vegetarian Association
* Dutch Vegetarian Society
* Eden Gemeinnützige Obstbau-Siedlung
* European Vegetarian Union
* French Vegetarian Society
* Hare Krishna Food for Life
* International Vegetarian Union
* Jewish Veg
* Meat-free days
* Meatless Monday
* Friday fast
* North American Vegetarian Society
* Order of the Golden Age
* ProVeg Deutschland
* ProVeg International
* ProVeg Nederland
* Scottish Vegetarian Society
* Swissveg
* Toronto Vegetarian Association
* Vegetarian Federal Union
* Vegetarian Society
* Vegetarian Society (Singapore)
* Veggie Pride
* Viva! Health
* World Esperantist Vegetarian Association
* World Vegetarian Day

Films|

* The Animals Film (1981)
* Diet for a New America (1991)
* A Cow at My Table (1998)
* Meet Your Meat (2002)
* Post Punk Kitchen (2003–2005)
* Peaceable Kingdom (2004)
* Earthlings (2005)
* A Sacred Duty (2007)
* Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead (2010)
* Planeat (2010)
* Forks Over Knives (2011)
* Vegucated (2011)
* Live and Let Live (2013)
* Cowspiracy (2014)
* PlantPure Nation (2015)
* What the Health (2017)
* Carnage (2017)
* Dominion (2018)
* Eating You Alive (2018)
* The Game Changers (2018)
* Maa Ka Doodh (2023)
* You Are What You Eat: A Twin Experiment (2024)

Magazines
and journals|

* The Animals' Agenda
* Naked Food
* The Pleasure Boat
* Satya
* Vegan Journal
* The Vegetarian Magazine
* Vegetarian Times
* VegNews

Books
and reports|

* On Abstinence from Eating Animals (3rd century)
* Acetaria: A Discourse of Sallets (1699)
* The Fable of the Bees (1714)
* A Reasonable Plea for the Animal Creation (1746)
* Primitive Cookery (1767)
* The Cry of Nature (1791)
* An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty (1802)
* Vegetable Cookery (1812)
* A Vindication of Natural Diet (1813)
* Reasons for not Eating Animal Food (1814)
* Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes (1824)
* Nature's Own Book (1835)
* Fruits and Farinacea (1845)
* "The Vegetarian; or a Visit to Aunt Primitive" (1847)
* The Penny Domestic Assistant and Guide to Vegetarian Cookery (1850)
* The Ethics of Diet (1883)
* A Plea for Vegetarianism and Other Essays (1886)
* What is Vegetarianism? (1886)
* The First Step (1891)
* Shelley's Vegetarianism (1891)
* Behind the Scenes in Slaughter-Houses (1892)
* Why I Am a Vegetarian (1895)
* Figs or Pigs? (1896)
* Fifty Years of Food Reform (1898)
* The Logic of Vegetarianism (1899)
* Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian (1903)
* The Meat Fetish (1904)
* The Apsley Cookery Book
* The New Ethics (1907)
* A Fleshless Diet (1910)
* The Benefits of Vegetarianism (1927)
* Living the Good Life (1954)
* Ten Talents (1968)
* Diet for a Small Planet (1971)
* The Vegetarian Epicure (1972)
* Moosewood Collective Cookbooks (1973)
* The Farm Vegetarian Cookbook (1975)
* Laurel's Kitchen (1976)
* Moosewood Cookbook (1977)
* Fit for Life (1985)
* Diet for a New America (1987)
* The Sexual Politics of Meat (1990)
* Vegetarian Cooking for Everyone (1997)
* The China Study (2005)
* Skinny Bitch (2005)
* Livestock's Long Shadow (2006)
* The Bloodless Revolution (2006)
* Eating Animals (2009)
* Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows (2009)
* The Vegan Studies Project (2015)
* Animal (De)liberation (2016)
* The End of Animal Farming (2018)
* Vegetable Kingdom (2020)
* Making a Stand for Animals (2022)
* Meat Atlas (annual)

Restaurants|

| Active|

* Ben & Esther's Vegan Jewish Deli
* Cinnaholic
* Crossroads Kitchen
* Green Elephant Vegetarian Bistro
* Greens Restaurant
* Elizabeth's Gone Raw
* Hiltl Restaurant
* Little Pine
* Moosewood Restaurant
* Plant
* Purezza
* Slutty Vegan
* Souley Vegan
* The Sound Lounge
* Veggie Galaxy
* Veggie Grill

|

Former|

* Cranks
* Food for Thought
* InSpiral Lounge
* Lentil as Anything
* Minerva Café
* New Riverside Cafe
* Nix
* Penny Cafeteria
* Pink Peacock
* The Hollow Reed
* The Pitman Vegetarian Hotel

Related|

* Cultured meat
* Juice fasting
* Low-carbon
* Plant-based action plan
* Plant-based diet
* Planetary health
* Sustainable diet
* Vegaphobia
* Vegetarian and vegan dog diet
* Vegetarian and vegan symbolism

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