Maastrichtian

Sixth and last age of the Late Cretaceous

For other uses, see Maastrichtian (disambiguation).

Maastrichtian

72.1 ± 0.2 – 66.0 Ma

PreꞒ

Opening of the western Indian Ocean in the Maastrichtian

Chronology

−140 --

−130 --

−120 --

−110 --

−100 --

−90 --

−80 --

−70 --

Mesozoic

Cretaceous

Early

Late

Tithonian

Berriasian

Valanginian

Hauterivian

Barremian

Aptian

Albian

Cenomanian

Turonian

Coniacian

Santonian

Campanian

Maastrichtian

Danian

| | <-|

K-Pg mass
extinction

|

Subdivision of the Cretaceous according to the ICS, as of 2024.[1]
Vertical axis scale: Millions of years ago

Etymology
Name formality| Formal
Usage information
Celestial body| Earth
Regional usage| Global (ICS)
Time scale(s) used| ICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unit| Age
Stratigraphic unit| Stage
Time span formality| Formal
Lower boundary definition| Mean of 12 biostratigraphic criteria
Lower boundary GSSP| Grande Carrière quarry, Landes, France
43°40′46″N 1°06′48″W﻿ / ﻿43.6795°N 1.1133°W﻿ / 43.6795; -1.1133
Lower GSSP ratified| February 2001[2]
Upper boundary definition| Iridium enriched layer associated with a major meteorite impact and subsequent K-Pg extinction event.
Upper boundary GSSP| El Kef Section, El Kef, Tunisia
36°09′13″N 8°38′55″E﻿ / ﻿36.1537°N 8.6486°E﻿ / 36.1537; 8.6486
Upper GSSP ratified| 1991

The Maastrichtian ( /mɑːˈstrɪktiən/ mahss-TRIK-tee-ən) is, in the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) geologic timescale, the latest age (uppermost stage) of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or Upper Cretaceous Series, the Cretaceous Period or System, and of the Mesozoic Era or Erathem. It spanned the interval from 72.2 to 66 million years ago. The Maastrichtian was preceded by the Campanian and succeeded by the Danian (part of the Paleogene and Paleocene).[3] It is named after the city of Maastricht, the capital and largest city of the Limburg province in the Netherlands.

The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (formerly known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event)[a] occurred at the end of this age.[3] In this mass extinction, many commonly recognized groups such as non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs, as well as many other lesser-known groups, died out. The cause of the extinction is most commonly linked to an asteroid about 10 to 15 kilometres (6.2 to 9.3 mi) wide[4][5] colliding with Earth, ending the Cretaceous.

## Stratigraphic definitions

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Rendzina soil on the Maastrichtian Chalk in Kozubów Landscape Park, Poland

### Definition

[edit]

The Maastrichtian was introduced into scientific literature by Belgian geologist André Hubert Dumont in 1849, after studying rock strata of the Chalk Group close to the Dutch city of Maastricht. These strata are now classified as the Maastricht Formation – both the formation and stage derive their names from the city.[6] The Maastricht Formation is known for its fossils from this age, most notably those of the giant sea reptile Mosasaurus, which in turn derives its name from the nearby river Maas (mosa being Latin for the river Maas).[7][8]

The base of the Maastrichtian Stage is at the first appearance of ammonite species Pachydiscus neubergicus. At the original type locality near Maastricht, the stratigraphic record was later found to be incomplete. A reference profile for the base was then appointed in a section along the Ardour river called Grande Carrière, close to the village of Tercis-les-Bains in southwestern France.[2][9] The top of the Maastrichtian Stage is defined to be at the iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), which is also characterised by the extinction of many groups of life.[10]

### Subdivision

[edit]

The Maastrichtian is commonly subdivided into two substages (Upper and Lower) and three ammonite biozones. The biozones are (from young to old):[11]

* zone of Anapachydiscus terminus
* zone of Anapachydiscus fresvillensis
* zone of Pachydiscus neubergicus till Pachydiscus epiplectus

The Maastrichtian is roughly coeval with the Lancian North American Land Mammal Age.

## Palaeogeography

[edit]

The breakup of Pangaea was nearly complete in the Maastrichtian, with Australia beginning to break away from Antarctica and Madagascar breaking away from India. However, Arabia had not yet rifted away from Africa. North America was separated from Europe by rift basins, but sea floor spreading had not yet commenced between the two continents.[12]

The Pacific Plate was rapidly growing in size as the surrounding oceanic plates were consumed by subduction, and the Pacific-Izanagi Ridge was rapidly approaching Asia.[13]

Eruption of the Deccan Traps large igneous province began during the Maastrichtian, at around 67 million years ago. This is thought to be a consequence of India drifting over the Réunion hotspot.[14]

## Climate

[edit]

During the Maastrichtian, the global climate began to shift from the warm and humid climate of the Mesozoic to the colder and more arid climate of the Cenozoic.[14] Variation of climate with latitude also became greater. This was likely caused by a major reorganization of oceanic circulation that took place at the boundary between the early and late Maastrichtian. This reorganization was triggered by the breach of tectonic barriers in the South Atlantic, permitting deep ocean water to begin circulating from the nascent North Atlantic to the south. This initiated thermohaline circulation similar to that of the modern oceans. At the same time, the Laramide orogeny drained the Western Interior Seaway of North America, further contributing to global cooling.[15] Nonetheless, the latest Maastrichtian featured a sharp, pronounced warming,[16][17] which was caused by the activity of the Deccan Traps.[18]

South-central Alaska had a mean annual temperature of 7.42 ± 1.2 °C, a warm monthly mean temperature of 17.08 ± 1.6 °C, and a cold monthly mean temperature of − 2.31 ± 1.9 °C.[19][20]

## Paleontology

[edit]

Fossil of Hemipneustes leymeriei

See also: List of vertebrate fauna of the Maastrichtian stage

Dinosaurs remained the dominant large terrestrial animals throughout the Maastrichtian, though mammals with internal organs similar to modern mammals were also present. Both ammonites and pterosaurs were in serious decline during the Maastrichtian.[21]

### Dinosaurs

[edit]

#### Birds

[edit]

Several archaic clades of birds, such as Enantiornithes, Ichthyornithes, and Hesperornithes, persisted to the latest Maastrichtian but became extinct during the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event.[22]

### Pterosaurs

[edit]

Traditionally, pterosaur faunas of the Maastrichtian were assumed to be dominated by azhdarchids, with other pterosaur groups having become extinct earlier on. However, more recent findings suggest a fairly composite pterosaur diversity: at least six ("Nyctosaurus" lamegoi, a Mexican humerus, a Jordan humerus and several taxa from Morocco) nyctosaurs date to this period, as do a few pteranodontids, and Navajodactylus, tentatively assigned to Azhdarchidae, lacks any synapomorphies of the group.[23][24] This seems to underscore a higher diversity of terminal Cretaceous pterosaurs than previously thought.[25][26][27]

Maastrichtian landscape

### Flora

[edit]

The radiation of angiosperms (flowering plants) was well under way in the Maastrichtian. From 50% to 80% of all genera of land plants were angiosperms, though gymnosperms and ferns still covered larger areas of the land surface.[28]

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ This designation has as a part of it a term, 'Tertiary', that is now discouraged as a formal geochronological unit by the International Commission on Stratigraphy.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "International Chronostratigraphic Chart" (PDF). International Commission on Stratigraphy. December 2024. Retrieved January 11, 2025.
2. ^ a b Odin, Gilles S.; Michèle A. Lamaurelle (2001). "The global Campanian-Maastrichtian stage boundary". Episodes. 24 (4): 229–238\. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i4/002.
3. ^ a b Ogg, James G.; Gradstein, Felix M.; Smith, A.G. (2004). A geologic time scale 2004. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78142-6. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
4. ^ Sleep, Norman H.; Lowe, Donald R. (9 April 2014). "Scientists reconstruct ancient impact that dwarfs dinosaur-extinction blast". American Geophysical Union. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
5. ^ Amos, Jonathan (15 May 2017). "Dinosaur asteroid hit 'worst possible place'". BBC News Online. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
6. ^ Jagt, J.W.M; Jagt-Yazykova, E.A. (2012). "Stratigraphy of the type Maastrichtian – a synthesis". Scripta Geologica. 08: 5–32. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
7. ^ Hallie P. Street (2016). A re-assessment of the genus Mosasaurus (Squamata: Mosasauridae) (PDF) (PhD). University of Alberta. doi:10.7939/R31N7XZ1K.
8. ^ Mike Everhart (May 14, 2010). "Mosasaurus hoffmanni-The First Discovery of a Mosasaur?". Oceans of Kansas. Archived from the original on September 4, 2019. Retrieved November 6, 2019.
9. ^ Odin, G.S. (2001). "Chapter E5c Numerical age calibration of the Campanian-Maastrichtian succession at Tercis les Bains (landes, france) and in the Bottaccione Gorge (Italy)". Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy. 19: 775–782\. Bibcode:2001DvPSt..19..775O. doi:10.1016/S0920-5446(01)80068-6. ISBN 9780444506474.
10. ^ Ogg, Gradstein & Smith 2004, p. 345.
11. ^ Ward, Peter D.; Kennedy, W. James (1993). "Maastrichtian Ammonites from the Biscay Region (France, Spain)". Memoir (The Paleontological Society). 34 (S34): 1–58\. Bibcode:1993JPal...67S...1W. doi:10.1017/S0022336000062223. JSTOR 1315613. S2CID 181450798.
12. ^ Torsvik, Trond H.; Cocks, L. Robin M. (2017). Earth history and palaeogeography. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 220, 222, 230. ISBN 9781107105324.
13. ^ Torsvik & Cocks 2017, p. 220.
14. ^ a b Torsvik & Cocks 2017, p. 234.
15. ^ Frank, Tracy D.; Arthur, Michael A. (April 1999). "Tectonic forcings of Maastrichtian ocean-climate evolution". Paleoceanography. 14 (2): 103–117\. Bibcode:1999PalOc..14..103F. doi:10.1029/1998PA900017. S2CID 30926910.
16. ^ Olsson, R. K. (1 July 2001). "Paleobiogeography of Pseudotextularia Elegans During the Latest Maastrichtian Global Warming Event". The Journal of Foraminiferal Research. 31 (3): 275–282\. Bibcode:2001JForR..31..275O. doi:10.2113/31.3.275. ISSN 0096-1191. Retrieved 25 October 2024 - via GeoScienceWorld.
17. ^ Abramovich, Sigal; Keller, Gerta (July 2003). "Planktonic foraminiferal response to the latest Maastrichtian abrupt warm event: a case study from South Atlantic DSDP Site 525A". Marine Micropaleontology. 48 (3–4): 225–249\. Bibcode:2003MarMP..48..225A. doi:10.1016/S0377-8398(03)00021-5. Retrieved 25 October 2024 - via Elsevier Science Direct.3–4&rft.pages=225-249&rft.date=2003-07&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/S0377-8398(03)00021-5&rft_id=info:bibcode/2003MarMP..48..225A&rft.aulast=Abramovich&rft.aufirst=Sigal&rft.au=Keller,+Gerta&rft_id=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377839803000215&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Maastrichtian" class="Z3988">
18. ^ Woelders, L.; Vellekoop, J.; Kroon, D.; Smit, J.; Casadío, S.; Prámparo, M. B.; Dinarès-Turell, J.; Peterse, F.; Sluijs, A.; Lenaerts, J. T. M.; Speijer, R. P. (30 March 2017). "Latest Cretaceous climatic and environmental change in the South Atlantic region: LATEST CRETACEOUS CHANGE SOUTH ATLANTIC". Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology. 32 (5): 466–483\. doi:10.1002/2016PA003007. hdl:11336/66879. Retrieved 7 November 2024.
19. ^ Tomsich, Carla Susanne; McCarthy, Paul J.; Fowell, Sarah J.; Sunderlin, David (15 September 2010). "Paleofloristic and paleoenvironmental information from a Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) flora of the lower Cantwell Formation near Sable Mountain, Denali National Park, Alaska". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 295 (3–4): 389–408\. Bibcode:2010PPP...295..389T. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.02.023. Retrieved 1 November 2024 - via Elsevier Science Direct.3–4&rft.pages=389-408&rft.date=2010-09-15&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.02.023&rft_id=info:bibcode/2010PPP...295..389T&rft.aulast=Tomsich&rft.aufirst=Carla+Susanne&rft.au=McCarthy,+Paul+J.&rft.au=Fowell,+Sarah+J.&rft.au=Sunderlin,+David&rft_id=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018210000957&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Maastrichtian" class="Z3988">
20. ^ Fiorillo, Anthony R.; McCarthy, Paul J.; Hasiotis, Stephen T. (1 January 2016). "Crayfish burrows from the latest Cretaceous lower Cantwell Formation (Denali National Park, Alaska): Their morphology and paleoclimatic significance". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 441: 352–359\. Bibcode:2016PPP...441..352F. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.05.019. Retrieved 1 November 2024 - via Elsevier Science Direct.
21. ^ Torsvik & Cocks 2017, p. 238, 239.
22. ^ Longrich, Nicholas R.; Tokaryk, Tim; Field, Daniel J. (13 September 2011). "Mass extinction of birds at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (37): 15253–15257\. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10815253L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1110395108. PMC 3174646. PMID 21914849.
23. ^ Wilton, Mark P. (2013). Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691150613.
24. ^ Barrett, P. M., Butler, R. J., Edwards, N. P., & Milner, A. R. (2008). Pterosaur distribution in time and space: an atlas. Zitteliana: 61–107.[1].
25. ^ Carroll, N. REASSIGNMENT OF MONTANAZHDARCHO MINOR AS A NON-AZHDARCHID MEMBER OF THE AZHDARCHOIDEA, SVP 2015.
26. ^ Agnolin, Federico L.; Varricchio, David (2012). "Systematic reinterpretation of Piksi barbarulna Varricchio, 2002 from the Two Medicine Formation (Upper Cretaceous) of Western USA (Montana) as a pterosaur rather than a bird". Geodiversitas. 34 (4): 883–894\. doi:10.5252/g2012n4a10. S2CID 56002643.
27. ^ Longrich, Nicholas R.; Martill, David M.; Andres, Brian (2018). "Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs from North Africa and mass extinction of Pterosauria at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary". PLOS Biology. 16 (3): e2001663. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2001663. PMC 5849296. PMID 29534059.
28. ^ Torsvik & Cocks 2017, p. 238.

## External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maastrichtian.

* GeoWhen Database – Maastrichtian
* ghK Classification – Maastrichtian
* Late Cretaceous timescale, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
* Stratigraphic chart of the Late Cretaceous, at the website of Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy
* Maastrichtian Microfossils: 60+ images of Foraminifera

* v
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Cretaceous Period

| Lower/Early Cretaceous| Upper/Late Cretaceous

|

* Berriasian
* Valanginian
* Hauterivian
* Barremian
* Aptian
* Albian

* Cenomanian
* Turonian
* Coniacian
* Santonian
* Campanian
* Maastrichtian

* v
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Geological history of Earth

Cenozoic Era
(present–66.0 Ma)|

| Quaternary (present–2.58 Ma)|

* Holocene (present–11.7 ka)
* Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)

|

Neogene (2.58–23.0 Ma)|

* Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)
* Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)

Paleogene (23.0–66.0 Ma)|

* Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)
* Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)
* Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)

Mesozoic Era
(66.0–252 Ma)|

| Cretaceous (66.0–145 Ma)|

* Late (66.0–100 Ma)
* Early (100–145 Ma)

|

Jurassic (145–201 Ma)|

* Late (145–164 Ma)
* Middle (164–174 Ma)
* Early (174–201 Ma)

Triassic (201–252 Ma)|

* Late (201–237 Ma)
* Middle (237–247 Ma)
* Early (247–252 Ma)

Paleozoic Era
(252–539 Ma)|

| Permian (252–299 Ma)|

* Lopingian (252–260 Ma)
* Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)
* Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)

|

Carboniferous (299–359 Ma)|

* Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)
* Mississippian (323–359 Ma)

Devonian (359–419 Ma)|

* Late (359–383 Ma)
* Middle (383–393 Ma)
* Early (393–419 Ma)

Silurian (419–444 Ma)|

* Pridoli (419–423 Ma)
* Ludlow (423–427 Ma)
* Wenlock (427–433 Ma)
* Llandovery (433–444 Ma)

Ordovician (444–485 Ma)|

* Late (444–458 Ma)
* Middle (458–470 Ma)
* Early (470–485 Ma)

Cambrian (485–539 Ma)|

* Furongian (485–497 Ma)
* Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)
* Series 2 (509–521 Ma)
* Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)

Proterozoic Eon
(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)|

| Neoproterozoic (539 Ma–1 Ga)|

* Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)
* Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)
* Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)

|

Mesoproterozoic (1–1.6 Ga)|

* Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)
* Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)
* Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)

Paleoproterozoic (1.6–2.5 Ga)|

* Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)
* Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)
* Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)
* Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)

Archean Eon (2.5–4 Ga)|

* Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)
* Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)
* Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)
* Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)

Hadean Eon (4–4.6 Ga)|

ka = kiloannum (thousand years ago); Ma = megaannum (million years ago); Ga = gigaannum (billion years ago).
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