Malagasy language

Austronesian language of Madagascar

Malagasy

malagasy / مَلَغَسِ
Native to| Madagascar
Mayotte
Ethnicity| Malagasy

Native speakers

| 25 million (2015)[1]

Language family

Austronesian

* Malayo-Polynesian
* Western Indonesian
* Barito
* East Barito
* Malagasy

Writing system

| Latin script (Malagasy alphabet)
Sorabe alphabet (Historically)
Malagasy Braille
Official status

Official language in

|  Madagascar
Language codes
ISO 639-1| `mg`
ISO 639-2| `mlg`
ISO 639-3| `mlg` – inclusive code
Individual codes:
`xmv` – Antankarana
`bhr` – Bara
`buc` – Bushi
`msh` – Masikoro
`bmm` – Northern Betsimisaraka
`plt` – Plateau Malagasy
`skg` – Sakalava
`bzc` – Southern Betsimisaraka
`tdx` – Tandroy-Mafahaly
`txy` – Tanosy
`tkg` – Tesaka
`xmw` – Tsimihety
Glottolog| `mala1537`
Linguasphere| `31-LDA-a`
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
A woman speaking Malagasy

Malagasy (/mæləˈɡæsi/ mal-ə-GASS-ee;[2] Malagasy pronunciation: [malaˈɡasʲ]) is an Austronesian language and dialect continuum spoken in Madagascar. The standard variety, called Official Malagasy, is an official language of Madagascar alongside French. Malagasy is the westernmost Malayo-Polynesian language, originating in Madagascar with the settlement of Austronesian peoples from the Sunda islands (about 7,300 kilometres or 4,500 miles away) around the 5th century AD. The Malagasy language is one of the Barito languages and is most closely related to the Ma'anyan language, still spoken on Borneo. Malagasy also includes numerous Malay loanwords,[3] from the time of the early Austronesian settlement and trading between Madagascar and the Sunda Islands.[4] After c. 1000 AD, Malagasy incorporated numerous Bantu and Arabic loanwords brought over by traders and new settlers.

Malagasy is spoken by around 25 million people in Madagascar and the Comoros. Most people in Madagascar speak it as a first language, as do some people of Malagasy descent elsewhere. Malagasy is divided across its twelve dialects between two main dialect groups; Eastern and Western. The central plateau of the island, where the capital Antananarivo and the old heartland of the Merina Kingdom is located, speaks the Merina dialect. The Merina dialect is the basis of Standard Malagasy, which is used by the government and media in Madagascar. Standard Malagasy is one of two official languages of Madagascar alongside French, in the 2010 constitution of the Fourth Republic of Madagascar.

Malagasy is written in the Latin script introduced by Western missionaries in the early 19th century. Previously, the Sorabe script was used, a local development of the Arabic script.

## Classification[edit]

The Malagasy language is the westernmost member of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family,[5] a grouping that includes languages from Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and the Pacific Islands. In fact, Malagasy's relation with other Austronesian languages had already been noted by early scholars, such as the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland in 1708.[6][7]

Among all Austronesian languages, Dahl (1951) demonstrated that Malagasy and Ma'anyan – an East Barito language spoken in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia on the island of Borneo – were particularly closely related.[8] The language also has apparent influence from early Old Malay. Furthermore, there appears to be a Bantu influence or substratum in Malagasy phonotactics (Dahl 1988).

Later, Adelaar (1995) suggested that the vocabulary of Malagasy also contains many words that are of South Sulawesi origin.[9] Further evidence for this suggestion was presented by Blench (2018).[10]

Decimal numbers  | 1  | 2  | 3  | 4  | 5  | 6  | 7  | 8  | 9  | 10

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Proto-Austronesian, circa 4000 BC  | *isa  | *duSa  | *telu  | *Sepat  | *lima  | *enem  | *pitu  | *walu  | *Siwa  | *puluq
Malagasy  | iray/isa  | roa  | telo  | efatra  | dimy  | enina  | fito  | valo  | sivy  | folo
Ma'anyan | isa  | rueh  | telo  | epat  | dime  | enem  | pitu  | balu  | su'ey  | sapulu
Kadazan | iso  | duvo  | tohu  | apat  | himo  | onom  | tu'u  | vahu  | sizam  | hopod
Dusun | iso  | duo  | tolu  | apat  | limo  | onom  | turu  | walu  | siam  | hopod
Waray-Waray | usá  | duhá  | tuló  | upát  | limá  | unóm  | pitó  | waló  | siyám  | napúlo
Tagalog | isá  | dalawá  | tatló  | ápat  | limá  | ánim  | pitó  | waló  | siyám  | sampu
Hiligaynon | isa  | duha  | tatlu  | apat  | lima  | anum  | pito  | walu  | siyam  | pulo
Kinaray-a | sara  | darwa  | tatlo  | apat  | lima  | anəm  | pito  | walo  | siyam  | pulû
Ilocano | maysá  | dua  | talló  | uppát  | limá  | inném  | pitó  | waló  | siam  | sangapúlo
Chamorro | maisa/håcha  | hugua  | tulu  | fatfat  | lima  | gunum  | fiti  | guålu  | sigua  | månot/fulu
Malay
(incl. Indonesian and Malaysian) | satu  | dua  | tiga  | empat  | lima  | enam  | tujuh  | (de)lapan  | sembilan  | sepuluh
Sundanese | hiji  | dua  | tilu  | opat  | lima  | genep  | tujuh  | dalapan  | salapan  | sapuluh
Javanese | siji  | loro  | telu  | papat  | limå  | nem  | pitu  | wålu  | sångå  | sepuluh
Tetum | ida  | rua  | tolu  | haat  | lima  | neen  | hitu  | ualu  | sia  | sanulu
Fijian | dua  | rua  | tolu  | vā  | lima  | ono  | vitu  | walu  | ciwa  | tini, -sagavulu
Tongan | taha  | ua  | tolu  | fā  | nima  | ono  | fitu  | valu  | hiva  | -fulu
Samoan | tasi  | lua  | tolu  | fa  | lima  | ono  | fitu  | valu  | iva  | sefulu

## Etymology[edit]

Malagasy is the demonym of Madagascar, from which it is taken to refer to the people of Madagascar in addition to their language.

## History[edit]

Malagasy Bible

Madagascar was first settled by Austronesian peoples from Maritime Southeast Asia from the Sunda Islands (Malay archipelago).[11] As for their route, one possibility is that the Indonesian Austronesian came directly across the Indian Ocean from Java to Madagascar. It is likely that they went through the Maldives, where evidence of old Indonesian boat design and fishing technology persists until the present.[12] The migrations continued along the first millennium, as confirmed by linguistic researchers who showed the close relationship between the Malagasy language and Old Malay and Old Javanese languages of this period.[13][14] The Malagasy language originates from the Southeast Barito languages, and the Ma'anyan language is its closest relative, with numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords.[4][15] It is known that Ma'anyan people were brought as labourers and slaves by Malay and Javanese people in their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by c. 50–500 AD.[16][17] Later, c. 1000, the original Austronesian settlers mixed with Bantus and Arabs, amongst others.[18] There is evidence that the predecessors of the Malagasy dialects first arrived in the southern stretch of the east coast of Madagascar.[19]

Malagasy has a tradition of oratory arts and poetic histories and legends. The most well-known is the national epic, Ibonia, about a Malagasy folk hero of the same name.[20]

## Geographic distribution[edit]

Malagasy is the principal language spoken on the island of Madagascar. It is also spoken by Malagasy communities on neighboring Indian Ocean islands such as Réunion, Mayotte and Mauritius. Expatriate Malagasy communities speaking the language also exist in Europe and North America.

## Legal status[edit]

The Merina dialect of Malagasy is considered the national language of Madagascar. It is one of two official languages alongside French in the 2010 constitution put in place the Fourth Republic. Previously, under the 2007 constitution, Malagasy was one of three official languages alongside French and English. Malagasy is the language of instruction in all public schools through grade five for all subjects, and remains the language of instruction through high school for the subjects of history and Malagasy language.

## Dialects[edit]

Map of the Malagasy dialects on Madagascar

There are two principal dialects of Malagasy; Eastern (including Merina) and Western (including Sakalava), with the isogloss running down the spine of the island, the south being western, and the central plateau and much of the north (apart from the very tip) being eastern. Ethnologue encodes 12 variants of Malagasy as distinct languages. They have about a 70% similarity in lexicon with the Merina dialect.

### Eastern Malagasy[edit]

The Eastern dialects are:

* Northern Betsimisaraka Malagasy (1,270,000 speakers) – spoken by the Betsimisaraka on the northeastern coast of the island
* Southern Betsimisaraka Malagasy (2,000,000 speakers) – spoken by the Betsimisaraka in the North of the region Vatovavy Fito Vinany.
* Plateau (Merina) Malagasy (10,893,000 speakers) – spoken in the centre of the island and includes southeastern dialects like Antemoro and Antefasy.[21]
* Tanosy Malagasy (639,000 speakers) – spoken by the Antanosy people in the south of the island
* Tesaka Malagasy (1,130,000 speakers) – spoken by the Antaisaka people in the southeast of the island.[22]

### Western Malagasy[edit]

The Western dialects are:

* Antankarana Malagasy (156,000 speakers) – spoken by the Antankarana in the northern tip of the island
* Bara Malagasy (724,000 speakers) – spoken by the Bara people in the south of the island
* Masikoro Malagasy (550,000 speakers) – spoken by the Masikoro in the southwest of the island
* Sakalava Malagasy (1,210,000 speakers) – spoken by the Sakalava people on the western coast of the island
* Tandroy-Mahafaly Malagasy (1,300,000 speakers) – spoken by the Antandroy and the Mahafaly people on the southern tip of the island
* Tsimihety Malagasy (1,615,000 speakers) – spoken by the Tsimihety people.[22]

Additionally, the Bushi dialect (41,700 speakers) is spoken on the French overseas territory of Mayotte,[23] which is part of the Comoro island chain situated northwest of Madagascar.

### Region specific variations[edit]

The two main dialects of Malagasy are easily distinguished by several phonological features.

Sakalava lost final nasal consonants, whereas Merina added a voiceless [ə̥]:

* *tañan 'hand' → Sakalava [ˈtaŋa] **tan̈a, Merina [ˈtananə̥] tanana

Final *t became -[tse] in the one but -[ʈʂə̥] in the other:

* *kulit 'skin' → Sakalava [ˈhulitse] **holitse, Merina [ˈhudiʈʂə̥] hoditra

Sakalava retains ancestral *li and *ti, whereas in Merina these become [di] (as in huditra 'skin' above) and [tsi]:

* *putiq 'white' → Sakalava [ˈfuti] **foty, Merina [ˈfutsi] fotsy

However, these last changes started in Borneo before the Malagasy arrived in Madagascar.

## Writing system[edit]

Sorabe Malagasy Arabic script Malagasy version of the Book of Mormon, in Latin script with the letter ô

The language has a written literature going back presumably to the 15th century. When the French established Fort-Dauphin in the 17th century, they found an Arabico-Malagasy script in use, known as Sorabe ("large writings"). This Arabic-derived Sorabe alphabet was mainly used for astrological and magical texts. The oldest known manuscript in that script is a short Malagasy-Dutch vocabulary from the early 17th century, which was first published in 1908 by Gabriel Ferrand[24] though the script must have been introduced into the southeast area of Madagascar in the 15th century.[18]

The first bilingual renderings of religious texts are those by Étienne de Flacourt,[25] who also published the first dictionary of the language.[26] Radama I, the first literate representative of the Merina monarchy, though extensively versed in the Arabico-Malagasy tradition,[27] opted in 1823 for a Latin system derived by David Jones and invited the Protestant London Missionary Society to establish schools and churches. The first book to be printed in Malagasy using Latin characters was the Bible, which was translated into Malagasy in 1835 by British Protestant missionaries working in the highlands area of Madagascar.[28]

The current Malagasy alphabet consists of 21 letters: a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, v, y, z. The orthography maps rather straightforwardly to the phonemic inventory. The letters i and y both represent the /i/ sound (y is used word-finally, and i elsewhere), while o is pronounced /u/. The affricates /ʈʂ/ and /ɖʐ/ are written tr and dr, respectively, while /ts/ and /dz/ are written ts and j. The letter h is often silent. All other letters have essentially their IPA values. The letters c, q, u, w and x are all not used in native Malagasy words.

Mp and occasionally nt may begin a word, but they are pronounced /p, t/.

@ is used informally as a short form for amin'ny, which is a preposition followed by the definite form, meaning for instance with the.

Sorabe alphabet with corresponding Latin Letters[29] Isolated  | Final  | Medial  | Initial  | IPA | Modern
Latin

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ا | ـا | ا | /ʔ/ | \-
ب | ـب | ـبـ | بـ | /b, ᵐb/ | b / mb
ت | ـة | ـتـ | تـ | /ts, ⁿts/ | ts / nts
ج | ـج | ـجـ | جـ | /dz, ⁿdz/ | j / nj
ر | ـر | ر | /r/ | r
رّ | ـرّ | رّ | /ɖʳ, ᶯɖʳ, ʈʳ, ᶯʈʳ/ | dr / ndr / tr / ntr
س | ـس | ـسـ | سـ | /s/ | s
ط | ـط | ـطـ | طـ | /t, ⁿt/ | t / nt
ع | ـع | ـعـ | عـ | /ŋ/ | n̈
غ | ـغ | ـغـ | غـ | /g, ᵑɡ/ | g / ng
ٯ | ـٯ | ـڧـ | ڧـ | /f/ | f
ٯّ | ـٯّ | ـڧّـ | ڧّـ | /p, ᵐp/ | p / mp
ك | ـك | ـكـ | كـ | /k, ᵑk/ | k / nk
ل | ـل | ـلـ | لـ | /l/ | l
م | ـم | ـمـ | مـ | /m/ | m
ن | ـن | ـنـ | نـ | /n/ | n
و | ـو | و | /v/ | v
ه | ـه | ـهـ | هـ | /h/ | h
ي | ـي | ـيـ | يـ | /z/ | z

### Diacritics[edit]

Diacritics are not obligatory in standard Malagasy, except in the case where its absence leads to an ambiguity: tanàna ("city") must have the diacritic to discriminate itself from tanana ("hand"). They may however be used in the following ways:

* ◌̀ (grave accent) shows the stressed syllable in a word. It is frequently used for disambiguation. For instance in tanàna (town) and tanana (hand), where the word that is an exception to the usual pronunciation rules (tanàna) gets an accent. Using the accent on the word that follows the pronunciation rules (tànana) is less common, mainly in dictionaries.[clarification needed] (This is very similar to the usage of the grave accent in Italian.)
* ◌́ (acute accent) may be used in
* very old dictionaries, along with grave accent
* dialects such as Bara
* French (Tuléar) and French-spelled (Antsirabé) names. Malagasy versions are Toliara or Toliary and Antsirabe.
* ◌̂ (circumflex) is used as follows:
* ô shows that the letter is pronounced /o/ and not /u/, in Malagasified foreign words (hôpitaly) and dialects (Tôlan̈aro). In standard Malagasy, ao or oa (as in mivoaka) is used instead.
* sometimes the single-letter words a and e are written â and ê but it does not change the pronunciation
* ◌̈ (diaeresis) is used with n̈ in dialects for a velar nasal /ŋ/. Examples are place names such as Tôlan̈aro, Antsiran̈ana, Iharan̈a, Anantson̈o. This can be seen in maps from FTM, the national institute of geodesy and cartography.
* ◌̃ (tilde) is used in ñ sometimes, perhaps when the writer cannot produce an n̈ (although ng is also used in such cases). In Ellis' Bara dialect dictionary, it is used for velar nasal /ŋ/ as well as palatal nasal /ɲ/.

## Phonology[edit]

### Vowels[edit]

| Front | Central | Back

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Close | i ⟨i, y⟩ |  | u ⟨o⟩
Mid | e ⟨e⟩ |  | o ⟨ô, ao, oa⟩
Open |  | a ⟨a⟩ |

After a stressed syllable, as at the end of most words and in the final two syllables of some, /a, u, i/ are reduced to [ə, ʷ, ʲ]. (/i/ is spelled ⟨y⟩ in such cases, though in monosyllabic words like ny and vy, ⟨y⟩ is pronounced as a full [i].) Final /a/, and sometimes final syllables, are devoiced at the end of an utterance. /e/ and /o/ are never reduced or devoiced. The large number of reduced vowels, and their effect on neighbouring consonants, give Malagasy a phonological quality not unlike that of Portuguese.

/o/ is marginal in Merina dialect, found in interjections and loan words, though it is also found in place names from other dialectical areas. /ai, au/ are diphthongs [ai̯, au̯] in careful speech, [e, o] or [ɛ, ɔ] in more casual speech. /ai/, whichever way it is pronounced, affects following /k, ɡ/ as /i/ does.

### Consonants[edit]

| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Velar | Glottal

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Nasal | m ⟨m⟩ |  | n ⟨n⟩ |  | ŋ ⟨n̈⟩ |
Plosive
and
affricate | voiceless | plain | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩ | ts ⟨ts⟩ | ʈʳ ⟨tr⟩ | k ⟨k⟩ |
prenasal | ᵐp ⟨mp⟩ | ⁿt ⟨nt⟩ | ⁿts ⟨nts⟩ | ᶯʈʳ ⟨ntr⟩ | ᵑk ⟨nk⟩ |
voiced | plain | b ⟨b⟩ | d ⟨d⟩ | dz ⟨j⟩ | ɖʳ ⟨dr⟩ | ɡ ⟨g⟩ |
prenasal | ᵐb ⟨mb⟩ | ⁿd ⟨nd⟩ | ⁿdz ⟨nj⟩ | ᶯɖʳ ⟨ndr⟩ | ᵑɡ ⟨ng⟩ |
Fricative | voiceless | f ⟨f⟩ |  | s ⟨s⟩ |  |  | h ⟨h⟩
voiced | v ⟨v⟩ |  | z ⟨z⟩ |  |  |
Lateral |  |  | l ⟨l⟩ |  |  |
Trill |  |  | r ⟨r⟩ |  |  |

The alveolars /s ts z dz l/ are slightly palatalized. /ts, dz, s, z/ vary between [ts, dz, s, z] and [tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ], and are especially likely to be the latter when followed by unstressed /i/: Thus French malgache [malɡaʃ] 'Malagasy'. The velars /k ɡ ᵑk ᵑɡ h/ are palatalized after /i/ (e.g. alika /alikʲa/ 'dog'). /h/ is frequently elided in casual speech.

The reported postalveolar trilled affricates /ʈʳ ᶯʈʳ ɖʳ ᶯɖʳ/ are sometimes simple stops, [ʈ ᶯʈ ɖ ᶯɖ], but they often have a rhotic release, [ʈɽ̊˔ ᶯʈɽ̊˔ ɖɽ˔ ᶯɖɽ˔]. It is not clear if they are actually trilled, or are simply non-sibilant affricates [ʈɻ̊˔ ᶯʈɻ̊˔ ɖɻ˔ ᶯɖɻ˔]. However, in another Austronesian language with a claimed trilled affricate, Fijian, trilling occurs but is rare, and the primary distinguishing feature is that it is postalveolar.[30] The Malagasy sounds are frequently transcribed [ʈʂ ᶯʈʂ ɖʐ ᶯɖʐ], and that is the convention used in this article.

In reduplication, compounding, possessive and verbal constructions, as well as after nasals, fricatives and liquids, 'spirants' become stops, as follows:

Malagasy sandhi  voiced | voiceless

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spirant | stop | spirant | stop
v | b | f | p
l | d |  |
z | dz | s | ts
r | ɖʳ (ɖʐ) |  |
|  | h | k

### Stress[edit]

Here, stressed syllables are indicated by grave diacritics ⟨à⟩, although these diacritics are normally not used.

Words are generally accented on the penultimate syllable, unless the word ends in ka, tra and often na, in which case they are stressed on the antepenultimate syllable. Secondary stresses exist in even-numbered syllables from the last stressed syllable, when the word has more than four syllables (fàmantàranàndro [ˌfamˌtarˈnandʐʷ] "watch, clock"). Neither prefixation nor suffixation affect the placement of stress.

In many dialects, unstressed vowels (except /e/) are devoiced, and in some cases almost completely elided; thus fanòrona is pronounced [fə̥ˈnurnə̥].

## Grammar[edit]

### Word order[edit]

Malagasy has a verb–object–subject (VOS) word order:

Mamaky

reads

boky

book

the

mpianatra

student

Mamaky boky ny mpianatra

reads book the student

"The student reads the book"

Nividy

bought

ronono

milk

for

an'ny

the

zaza

child

the

vehivavy

woman

Nividy ronono ho an'ny zaza ny vehivavy

bought milk for the child the woman

"The woman bought milk for the child"

Within phrases, Malagasy order is typical of head-initial languages: Malagasy has prepositions rather than postpositions (ho an'ny zaza "for the child"). Determiners precede the noun, while quantifiers, modifying adjective phrases, and relative clauses follow the noun (ny boky "the book(s)", ny boky mena "the red book(s)", ny boky rehetra "all the books", ny boky novakin'ny mpianatra "the book(s) read by the student(s)").

Somewhat unusually, demonstrative determiners are repeated both before and after the noun ity boky ity "this book" (lit. "this book this").

### Verbs[edit]

Verbs have syntactically three productive "voice" forms according to the thematic role they play in the sentence: the basic "agent focus" forms of the majority of Malagasy verbs, the derived "patient focus" forms used in "passive" constructions, and the derived "goal focus" forms used in constructions with focus on instrumentality. Thus

* (1) Manasa ny tanako amin'ny savony aho. ("I am washing my hands with soap.")
* (2) Sasako amin'ny savony ny tanako. ("My hands are washed with soap by me.")
* (3) Anasako ny tanako ny savony. ("It is with soap that my hands are washed by me.")

all mean "I wash my hands with soap" though focus is determined in each case by the sentence initial verb form and the sentence final (noun) argument: manasa "wash" and aho "I" in (1), sasako "wash" and ny tanako "my hands" in (2), anasako "wash" and ny savony "soap" in (3). There is no equivalent to the English preposition with in (3).

Verbs inflect for past, present, and future tense, where tense is marked by prefixes (e.g. mividy "buy", nividy "bought", hividy "will buy").

### Nouns and pronouns[edit]

Malagasy has no grammatical gender, and nouns do not inflect for number. However, pronouns and demonstratives have distinct singular and plural forms (cf. io boky io "that book", ireto boky ireto "these books").

There is a complex series of demonstrative pronouns, depending on the speaker's familiarity with the referent.[31]

The following set of pronouns are the pronouns found in Standard Malagasy. Note: the nominative first person singular pronoun is divided between a long and short form; the long form occurs before a verb (focalized or topicalized subjects) and the short form after a verb. The genitive first and second person pronouns are also divided between long and short forms; the long form occurs if the root ends with anything but [na], [ka*] or [tra]; if the stem ends with [na], the long form also occurs but [na] is deleted; and if the stem ends with [ka*] or [tra], the final vowel of the root is deleted and the short form occurs.[32]

| Nominative  | Genitive  | Accusative

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1st person  | singular  | izaho/aho  | -ko/-o  | ahy
plural  | exclusive  | izahay  | -nay/-ay  | anay
inclusive  | isika  | -ntsika/-tsika  | antsika
2nd person  | singular  | ianao  | -nao/-ao  | anao
plural  | ianareo  | -nareo/-areo  | anareo
3rd person  | singular  | izy  | -ny  | antsy
singular  | izy (ireo)  | -ny  | azy (ireo)

### Deixis[edit]

Malagasy has a complex system of deixis (these, those, here, there, etc.), with seven degrees of distance as well as evidentiality across all seven. The evidential dimension is prototypically visible vs. non-visible referents; however, the non-visible forms may be used for visible referents which are only vaguely identified or have unclear boundaries, whereas the visible forms are used for non-visible referents when these are topical to the conversation.[33]

Malagasy deixis  | proximal | medial | distal

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Adverbs
(here, there) | NVIS | atỳ | àto | ào | àtsy | àny | aròa* | arỳ
VIS | etỳ | èto | èo | ètsy | èny | eròa | erỳ
Pronouns
(this, that)
(these, those) | NVIS | izatỳ* | izàto* | izào | izàtsy* | izàny | izaròa* | izarỳ*
VIS | itỳ | ìto | ìo | ìtsy | ìny | iròa* | irỳ
VIS.PL | irèto | irèo | irètsy | irèny | ireròa* | irerỳ*

Notes:

* Diacritics in deixis are not mandatory in Malagasy.
* Deixis marked by a * are rarely used.

## Vocabulary[edit]

Malagasy shares much of its basic vocabulary with the Ma'anyan language, a language from the region of the Barito River in southern Borneo. The Malagasy language also includes some borrowings from Arabic and Bantu languages (especially the Sabaki branch, from which most notably Swahili derives), and more recently from French and English.

The following samples are of the Merina dialect or Standard Malagasy, which is spoken in the capital of Madagascar and in the central highlands or "plateau", home of the Merina people.[34][35] It is generally understood throughout the island.

English  | Malagasy  | IPA

|
|

English  | Anglisy | ãŋˈɡliʂ
Yes  | Eny | ˈʲenj
No  | Tsia, (before a verb) Tsy | tsi, tsʲ
Hello! / How are you?  | Manao ahoana! | manaˈʷonə̥/manaˈonə̥
Hello! (rural areas)  | Salama! | saˈlamə̥
I'm fine, thank you.  | Tsara fa misaotra. | ˈtsarə̥ fa mʲˈsoːtʂə̥
Goodbye!  | Veloma! | veˈlumə̥
Please  | Azafady | azaˈfadʲ
Thank you  | Misaotra | mʲˈsoːtʂa
You're welcome  | Tsisy fisaorana. | tsʲ ˈmisʲ fʲˈsoːranə̥
Excuse me  | Azafady (with arm and hand pointing to the ground)  | azaˈfadʲ
Sorry  | Miala tsiny | mjala ˈtsinʲ
Who?  | Iza? | ˈiːza/ˈiza
What?  | Inona? | inːa
When?  | Rahoviana?, (past tense) Oviana | roːˈvinə̥/rawˈvinə̥
Where?  | Aiza?, (past tense) Taiza | ajzə̥
Why?  | Fa maninona? | fa maninːə̥
How?  | Ahoana? | aˈʷonə̥
How many?  | Firy? | ˈfirʲ
How much?  | Ohatrinona? | ʷoˈtʂinːə̥
What's your name?  | Iza ny anaranao? | iza njanaraˈnaw
For  | Ho an'ny / Ho an'i | wanːi
Because  | Satria | saˈtʂi
I don't understand.  | Tsy mazava, Tsy azoko. | tsʲ mazavə̥
Yes, I understand.  | Eny, mazava, Eny, azoko | ʲenʲ mazavə̥
Help!  | Vonjeo! | vunˈdzew
Go away!  | Mandehana! | man di anə
Can you help me please?  | Afaka manampy ahy ve ianao azafady? | afaka manapʲ a ve enaw azafadʲ
Where are the toilets?  | Aiza ny efitrano fivoahana?, Aiza ny V.C.?, Aiza ny toilet? | ajza njefitʂanʷ fiˈvwaːnə̥
Do you speak English?  | Mahay teny anglisy ve ianao? | miˈtenʲ ãŋˈɡliʂ ve eˈnaw
I do not speak Malagasy.  | Tsy mahay teny malagasy aho. | tsʲ maaj tenʲ malaˈɡasʲ a
I do not speak French.  | Tsy mahay teny frantsay aho. | tsʲ maaj tenʲ frantsaj a
I am thirsty.  | Mangetaheta aho. | maŋɡetaˈeta
I am hungry.  | Noana aho. | noːna
I am sick.  | Marary aho. |
I am tired.  | Vizaka aho, Reraka aho | ˈvizaka, rerakau
I need to pee.  | Poritra aho, Ny olombelona tsy akoho | purtʂa
I would like to go to Antsirabe.  | Te hankany Antsirabe aho. | tiku ankanʲ anjantsirabe
That's expensive!  | Lafo be izany! | lafʷˈbe zanʲ
I'm hungry for some rice.  | Noana vary aho. | noːna varja
What can I do for you?  | Inona no azoko atao ho anao? | inːa ɲazʷkwataʷ wanaw
I like...  | Tiako... | tikʷ
I love you.  | Tiako ianao. | tikwenaʷ
| Numbers  |
one  | isa/iray | isə̥
two  | roa | ru
three  | telo | telʷ
four  | efatra | ˈefatʂə̥
five  | dimy | ˈdimʲ
six  | enina | enː
seven  | fito | fitʷ
eight  | valo | valʷ
nine  | sivy | sivʲ
ten  | folo | fulʷ
eleven  | iraika ambin'ny folo | rajkʲambefulʷ
twelve  | roa ambin'ny folo | rumbefulʷ
twenty  | roapolo | ropulʷ
thirty  | telopolo | telopulʷ
forty  | efapolo | efapulʷ
fifty  | dimampolo | dimapulʷ
sixty  | enim-polo | empulʷ
seventy  | fitopolo | fitupulʷ
eighty  | valopolo | valupulʷ
ninety  | sivifolo | sivfulʷ
one hundred  | zato | zatʷ
two hundred  | roan-jato | rondzatʷ
one thousand  | arivo | arivʷ
ten thousand  | iray alina | rajal
one hundred thousand  | iray hetsy | rajetsʲ
one million  | iray tapitrisa | rajtaptʂisə̥
one billion  | iray lavitrisa | rajlavtʂisə̥
3,568,942  | roa amby efapolo sy sivin-jato sy valo arivo sy enina alina sy dimy hetsy sy telo tapitrisa | rumbefapulʷ sʲsivdzatʷ sʲvalorivʷ sʲenːal sʲdimjetsʲ sʲtelutapitʂisə̥

In his 1915 book A naturalist in Madagascar, naturalist James Sibree published the following table of Malagasy terms used to refer to times of day and night:[36]

English  | Malagasy  | Time of day (approximate)

|
|

Centre of night  | Mamaton’ alina | 12:00 AM; midnight
Halving of night  | Misasaka alina
Frog croaking  | Maenno sahona | 2:00 AM
Cock-crowing  | Maneno akaho | 3:00 AM
Morning also night  | Maraina alina koa | 4:00 AM
Crow croaking  | Maneno goaika | 5:00 AM
Bright horizon  | Manga vodilanitra | 5:15 AM
Reddish East  | Mangoan’ atsinanana
Glimmer of day  | Mangiran-dratsy
Colors of cattle can be seen  | Ahitan-tsoratr’ omby | 5:30 AM
Dusk  | Mazava ratsy
Diligent people awake  | Mifoha lo-maozoto
Early morning  | Maraina koa
Sunrise  | Vaky masoandro | 6:00 AM
Daybreak  | Vaky andro
Piakandro
Broad daylight  | Antoandro be nanahary
Efa bana ny andro
Dew-falls  | Mihintsana ando | 6:15 AM
Cattle go out (to pasture)  | Mivoaka omby
Leaves are dry (from dew)  | Maim-bohon-dravina | 6:30 AM
Hoar-frost disappears  | Afa-dranom-panala | 6:45 AM
The day chills the mouth  | Manara vava nya ndro
Advance of the day  | Misandratra andro | 8:00 AM
Over (at a right angle with) the purlin  | Mitatao haratra | 9:00 AM
Over the ridge of the roof  | Mitatao vovonana | 12:00 PM; noon
Peeping-in of the day  | Mitsidika andro | 1:00 PM
Day less one step  | Latsaka iray dia ny andro
Slipping of the day  | Solafak’ andro | 1:00 PM - 2:00 PM
2:00 PM
Decline of the day  | Tafalatsaka ny andro
Mihilana ny andro
At the rice-pounding place  | Am-pitotoam-bary
At the house post  | Mby amin’ ny andry ny andro
At the place of tying the calf  | Am-pamatoran-janak’ omby | 3:00 PM
At the sheep or poultry pen  | Mby am-pisoko ny andro | 4:00 PM
The cow newly calved comes home  | Mody omby tera-bao | 4:30
Sun touching (i.e. the eastern wall)  | Tafapaka ny andro | 5:00
Cattle come home  | Mody omby | 5:30
Sunset flush  | Mena masoandro | 5:45
Sunset (lit. “Sun dead”)  | Maty masoandro | 6:00
Fowls come in  | Miditra akoho | 6:15
Dusk; twilight  | Somambisamby | 6:30
Edge of rice-cooking pan obscure  | Maizim-bava-vilany | 6:45
People begin to cook rice  | Manokom-bary olona | 7:00
People eat rice  | Homan-bary olona | 8:00
Finished eating  | Tapi-mihinana | 8:30
People go to sleep  | Mandry olona | 9:00
Everyone in bed  | Tapi-mandry olona | 9:30
Gun-fire  | Mipoa-tafondro | 10:00

## Lexicography[edit]

Malagasy lexicon (1773) (Collection BULAC Paris)

The first dictionary of the language is Étienne de Flacourt's Dictionnaire de la langue de Madagascar published in 1658 though earlier glossaries written in Arabico-Malagasy script exist. A later Vocabulaire Anglais-Malagasy was published in 1729. An 892-page Malagasy–English dictionary was published by James Richardson of the London Missionary Society in 1885, available as a reprint; however, this dictionary includes archaic terminology and definitions. Whereas later works have been of lesser size, several have been updated to reflect the evolution and progress of the language, including a more modern, bilingual frequency dictionary based on a corpus of over 5 million Malagasy words.[34]

* Winterton, M. et al.: Malagasy–English, English–Malagasy Dictionary / Diksionera Malagasy–Anglisy, Anglisy–Malagasy. Raleigh, North Carolina. USA: Lulu Press 2011, 548 p.
* Richardson: A New Malagasy–English Dictionary. Farnborough, England: Gregg Press 1967, 892 p. ISBN 0-576-11607-6 (Original edition, Antananarivo: The London Missionary Society, 1885).
* Diksionera Malagasy–Englisy. Antananarivo: Trano Printy Loterana 1973, 103 p.
* An Elementary English–Malagasy Dictionary. Antananarivo: Trano Printy Loterana 1969, 118 p.
* English–Malagasy Phrase Book. Antananarivo: Editions Madprint 1973, 199 p. (Les Guides de Poche de Madagasikara.)
* Paginton, K: English–Malagasy Vocabulary. Antananarivo: Trano Printy Loterana 1970, 192 p.
* Bergenholtz, H. et al.: Rakibolana Malagasy–Alemana. Antananarivo: Leximal/Moers: aragon. 1991.
* Bergenholtz, H. et al.: Rakibolana Alemana–Malagasy. Antananarivo: Tsipika/Moers: aragon. 1994.
* Rakibolana Malagasy. Fianarantsoa: Régis RAJEMISOA – RAOLISON 1995, 1061 p.

## See also[edit]

* Madagascar portal
* Languages portal

* Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo
* Languages of Madagascar

## References[edit]

1. ^ Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin
2. ^ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student’s Handbook, Edinburgh
3. ^ Blench, Roger (2009), Remapping the Austronesian expansion (PDF), p. 8. In Evans, Bethwyn (2009). Discovering History Through Language: Papers in Honour of Malcolm Ross. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 9780858836051.
4. ^ a b Otto Chr. Dahl, Malgache et Maanjan: une comparaison linguistique, Egede-Instituttet Avhandlinger, no. 3 (Oslo: Egede-Instituttet, 1951), p. 13.
5. ^ Malagasy's family tree on Ethnologue
6. ^ Blench, Roger (2007). "New Palaeozoogeographical Evidence for the Settlement of Madagascar" (PDF). Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 42 (1): 69–82. doi:10.1080/00672700709480451. S2CID 59022942. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21.
7. ^ Relandus, Hadrianus (1708). Dissertationum Miscellanearum, Pars Tertia et Ultima (in Latin). Trajecti ad Rhenum: Gulielmi Broedelet. pp. 137–138. "Haec omnia satis evincunt (quod in initio hujus dissertationis monuimus) longe lateque diffundi usum linguae Malaïcae, quae non tantum in Chersoneso Malaeorum & insulis Sumatra, Java, Bomeo, Moluccis sed & aliis magis ad orientem sitis usurpatur. Quibus cum si conferamus illud quod linguae Insulae Madagascar plurima vocabula Malaïca sint permixta, magis adhuc stupebimus linguam unam, qualis Malaïca est, vestigia sua reliquisse in tam dissitis terrarum spatiis qualia sunt insula Madagascar ad litus Africae & insula Cocos in mari inter Asiam & Americam interjecto. Lubet hic laterculum addere vocum Madagascaricarum, ut dicta nostra confirmemus."
8. ^ Dahl, Otto Christian (1951), Malgache et Maanyan: Une comparaison linguistique, Avhandlinger utgitt av Instituttet 3 (in French), Oslo: Egede Instituttet
9. ^ Adelaar, Alexander (1995). "Asian Roots of the Malagasy: A Linguistic Perspective". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 151 (3): 325–356. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003036. JSTOR 27864676.
10. ^ Blench, Roger (2018), Interdisciplinary Approaches to Stratifying the Peopling of Madagascar (PDF) - via www.rogerblench.info
11. ^ Ricaut, François-X; Razafindrazaka, Harilanto; Cox, Murray P; Dugoujon, Jean-M; Guitard, Evelyne; Sambo, Clement; Mormina, Maru; Mirazon-Lahr, Marta; Ludes, Bertrand; Crubézy, Eric (2009). "A new deep branch of eurasian mtDNA macrohaplogroup M reveals additional complexity regarding the settlement of Madagascar". BMC Genomics. 10 (1): 605. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-10-605. PMC 2808327. PMID 20003445.
12. ^ P. Y. Manguin. Pre-modern Southeast Asian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: The Maldive Connection. ‘New Directions in Maritime History Conference’ Fremantle. December 1993.
13. ^ Adelaar, K. Alexander; Himmelmann, Nikolaus, eds. (2005). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-1286-1.
14. ^ Simon, Pierre R. (2006). Fitenin-drazana. L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-296-01108-3.
15. ^ There are also some Sulawesi loanwords, which Adelaar attributes to contact prior to the migration to Madagascar: See K. Alexander Adelaar, “The Indonesian Migrations to Madagascar: Making Sense of the Multidisciplinary Evidence”, in Truman Simanjuntak, Ingrid Harriet Eileen Pojoh and Muhammad Hisyam (eds.), Austronesian Diaspora and the Ethnogeneses of People in Indonesian Archipelago, (Jakarta: Indonesian Institute of Sciences, 2006), pp. 8–9.
16. ^ Dewar, Robert E.; Wright, Henry T. (1993). "The culture history of Madagascar". Journal of World Prehistory. 7 (4): 417–466. doi:10.1007/bf00997802. hdl:2027.42/45256. S2CID 21753825.
17. ^ Burney DA, Burney LP, Godfrey LR, Jungers WL, Goodman SM, Wright HT, Jull AJ (August 2004). "A chronology for late prehistoric Madagascar". Journal of Human Evolution. 47 (1–2): 25–63. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.05.005. PMID 15288523.
18. ^ a b Ferrand, Gabriel (1905), "Les migrations musulmanes et juives à Madagascar", Revue de l'histoire des religions, Paris
19. ^ Serva, Maurizio; Petroni, Filippo; Volchenkov, Dima; Wichmann, Søren (2011). "Malagasy Dialects and the Peopling of Madagascar". Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 9 (66): 54–67. arXiv:1102.2180. doi:10.1098/rsif.2011.0228. PMC 3223632. PMID 21632612.
20. ^ "La traduction de la Bible malgache encore révisée" [The translation of the Malagasy Bible is still being revised]. haisoratra.org (in French). 3 May 2007. Archived from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved 2008-03-20.
21. ^ "Antanosy in Madagascar". Joshua Project.
22. ^ a b "Madagascar". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2017-06-17.
23. ^ "Bushi". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2017-06-23.
24. ^ Ferrand, Gabriel (1908). "Un vocabulaire malgache-hollandais." Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië 61.673-677. The manuscript is now in the Arabico-Malagasy collection of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.
25. ^ Flacourt, Étienne de (1657). Le Petit Catéchisme madécasse-français.Paris;(1661). Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar.Paris, pp.197–202.
26. ^ Flacourt, Étienne de (1658). Dictionnaire de la langue de Madagascar. Paris.
27. ^ Berthier, H.J. (1934). De l'usage de l'arabico=malgache en Imérina au début du XIXe siècle: Le cahier d'écriture de Radama Ier. Tananarive.
28. ^ The translation is due to David Griffith of the London Missionary Society, with corrections in 1865–1866."Haisoratra :: La traduction de la Bible malgache encore révisée". Archived from the original on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2008-03-20.
29. ^ FERRAND, Gabriel. (1906) Un Texte Arabico-Malgache Du XVIe siècle Transcrit, Traduit Et annoté D'apres Les MSS. 7 Et 8 De La bibliothèque Nationale Par M.G. Ferrand.. http://ia800309.us.archive.org/29/items/untextearabicoma00pariuoft/untextearabicoma00pariuoft.pdf
30. ^ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 131\. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
31. ^ "The Austronesian Languages: Malagasy" (PDF).
32. ^ Zribi-Hertz, Anne; Mbolatianavalona, Liliane (1999). "Towards a Modular Theory of Linguistic Deficiency: Evidence from Malagasy Personal Pronouns". Natural Language & Linguistic Theory. 17: 171–172. doi:10.1023/A:1006072823421. S2CID 169890842. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
33. ^ Janie Rasoloson and Carl Rubino, 2005, "Malagasy", in Adelaar & Himmelmann, eds, The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar
34. ^ a b [1] Winterton, Matthew et al. (2011). Malagasy–English, English–Malagasy Dictionary / Diksionera Malagasy–Anglisy, Anglisy–Malagasy. Lulu Press.
35. ^ Rasoloson, Janie (2001). Malagasy–English / English–Malagasy: Dictionary and Phrasebook. Hippocrene Books.
36. ^ Sibree, James (1915). A naturalist in Madagascar: a record of observation, experiences, and impressions made during a period of over fifty years' intimate association with the natives and study of the animal & vegetable life of the island. London: Seeley, Service & Co., Limited. pp. 93–94.

## Sources[edit]

* Biddulph, Joseph (1997). An Introduction to Malagasy. Pontypridd, Cymru. ISBN 978-1-897999-15-8.
* Houlder, John Alden, Ohabolana, ou proverbes malgaches. Imprimerie Luthérienne, Tananarive 1960.
* Hurles, Matthew E.; et al. (2005). "The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages". American Journal of Human Genetics. 76 (5): 894–901. doi:10.1086/430051. PMC 1199379. PMID 15793703.
* Ricaut et al. (2009) "A new deep branch of eurasian mtDNA macrohaplogroup M reveals additional complexity regarding the settlement of Madagascar", BMC Genomics.

## External links[edit]

Malagasy edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Malagasy language.

Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for Malagasy.

* Malagasy-English, English–Malagasy bilingual frequency dictionary
* Large audio database of Malagasy words with recorded pronunciation
* Searchable Malagasy–French–English Dictionary/Translator
* Malagasy–English Dictionary
* Malagasy–French dictionary
* Malagasy Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
* Malagasy Vocabulary List (from the World Loanword Database)
* La Bible Malgache en texte intégral – the complete text of the 1865 Malagasy Bible
* List of references on Malagasy language (with links to online resources).
* Oxford University: Malagasy Language
* Paper on Malagasy clause structure

* v
* t
* e

Greater North Borneo

| North Borneo *|

| Northeast Sabah *|

* Ida'an
* Bonggi
* Molbog ?

|

Southwest Sabah *|

| Greater
Dusunic *|

| Bisaya–Lotud|

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|

Dusunic|

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Murutic *|

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|

Iban–Malayan|

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|

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Rejang ?|

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Moklenic ?|

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* v
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Austronesian languages

Formosan languages

| Rukaic|

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|

Tsouic|

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Northern|

| Atayalic|

* Atayal
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|

Northwest
Formosan|

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East|

| Kavalanic|

* Basay †
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|

Ami|

* Amis
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Siraiyac|

* Siraya †
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Southern ?|

* Puyuma
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Malayo–Polynesian

Western branches of Malayo–Polynesian

| Philippine
(linkage) ?|

| Batanic (Bashiic)|

* Itbayat
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|

Northern Luzon|

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Philippine|

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|

Central Philippine|

| Tagalogic|

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|

Bikol|

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Bisayan|

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* Bantayanon
* Baybay
* Butuanon
* Caluyanon
* Capiznon
* Cebuano
* Boholano
* Old Cebuano †
* Cuyonon
* Hiligaynon
* Kabalian
* Karay-a
* Karolanos
* Magahat
* Masbateño
* Northern Sorsogon
* Onhan
* Porohanon
* Ratagnon
* Romblomanon
* Southern Sorsogon
* Sulod
* Surigaonon
* Tausug
* Waray

Mansakan|

* Davawenyo
* Kalagan
* Kamayo
* Mamanwa
* Mandaya
* Mansaka

(unclassified)|

* Ata †

Palawanic|

* Aborlan Tagbanwa
* Batak
* Central Tagbanwa
* Palawano
* Taaw't Bato

Subanen|

* Western Subanon

Danao|

* Iranun
* Maguindanao
* Maranao

Manobo|

* Agusan
* Ata Manobo
* Binukid
* Cotabato Manobo
* Higaonon
* Ilianen
* Kagayanen
* Kamigin
* Matigsalug
* Obo
* Sarangani
* Tagabawa
* Western Bukidnon

Gorontalo–Mongondow|

* Bintauna
* Bolango
* Buol
* Gorontalo
* Kaidipang
* Lolak
* Mongondow
* Ponosakan
* Suwawa

Kalamian|

* Agutaynen
* Calamian Tagbanwa

Bilic|

* Blaan
* Tboli
* Teduray

Sangiric|

* Bantik
* Ratahan
* Sangirese
* Talaud

Minahasan|

* Tombulu
* Tondano
* Tonsawang
* Tonsea
* Tontemboan

Other branches|

* Ati
* Klata
* Umiray Dumaget

Manide–Alabat|

* Inagta Alabat
* Manide

Greater Barito *|

| Barito|

* Malagasy
* Bushi
* Deyah
* Malang
* Witu
* Balangan
* Ma'anyan
* Paku
* Lawangan
* Kohin
* Dohoi
* Siang
* Bakumpai
* Ngaju
* Ampanang
* Tunjung

Sama–Bajaw|

* Abaknon
* Bajaw
* Mapun
* Pangutaran Sama
* Sama
* West Coast Bajaw
* Yakan

Basap *

Greater
North Borneo *|

| North Borneo *|

| Northeast Sabah *|

* Ida'an
* Bonggi
* Molbog ?

|

Southwest Sabah *|

| Greater
Dusunic *|

| Bisaya–Lotud|

* Brunei Bisaya
* Lotud

|

Dusunic|

* Kadazandusun
* Central Dusun
* Coastal Kadazan
* Kuijau
* Eastern Kadazan
* Kota Marudu Talantang
* Rungus / Momogun
* Klias River Kadazan

Paitanic|

* Tombonuwo
* Kinabatangan
* Abai Sungai
* Serudung

Greater
Murutic *|

* Tatana ?
* Papar

Murutic|

* Tagol
* Timugon
* Keningau
* Selungai
* Sembakung
* Baukan
* Okolod
* Paluan
* Ganaʼ
* Kalabakan
* Nonukan Tidong
* Sesayap Tidong

North Sarawak *|

* Kenyah / Bakung
* Sebob
* Tutoh
* Umaʼ Lasan
* Wahau Kenyah
* Penan ?
* Kelabit
* Lengilu
* Lundayeh
* Sa'ban
* Tring
* Berawan
* Belait
* Kiput
* Narom
* Tutong
* Bintulu

Central Sarawak|

* Kajaman
* Lahanan
* Sekapan
* Daro-Matu
* Kanowit–Tanjong
* Melanau
* Bukitan
* Punan Batu
* Sian
* Ukit
* Burusu
* Bah-Biau Punan
* Sajau
* Punan Merap
* Bukat
* Seru †
* Lelak †

Kayanic|

* Kayan
* Bahau
* Modang
* Segai
* Hovongan
* Aoheng
* Aput
* Punan
* Krio Dayak
* Murik

Land Dayak|

* Bakatiʼ
* Sara
* Laraʼ
* Bukar–Sadong
* Biatah
* Tringgus
* Jagoi
* Jangkang
* Kembayan
* Semandang
* Ribun
* Benyaduʼ
* Sanggau

Malayo–Chamic *|

| Aceh–Chamic|

* Acehnese
* Cham dialects
* Chru
* Haroi
* Jarai
* Rade
* Roglai
* Tsat

|

Iban–Malayan|

| Ibanic|

* Iban
* Keninjal ?
* Mualang
* Remun
* Seberuang

|

* Malay
* Malaysian
* Indonesian
* Minangkabau
* Brunei/Kedayan Malay
* Bamayo
* Banjar
* Berau Malay
* Bangka Malay
* Bengkulu
* Col
* Duanoʼ
* Haji
* Jambi Malay
* Jakun
* Kedah Malay
* Kendayan / Selako ?
* Kutai Malay
* Kaur
* Kerinci
* Kelantan-Pattani Malay
* Kubu
* Orang Laut
* Lubu
* Musi
* Negeri Sembilan Malay
* Orang Kanaq
* Orang Seletar
* Pahang Malay
* Pekal
* Perak Malay
* Pontianak Malay
* Reman Malay
* Sarawak Malay
* Temuan
* Terengganu Malay
* Urak Lawoi'

Sundanese|

* Sundanese
* Old Sundanese †
* Baduy
* Bantenese
* Cirebonese

Rejang ?|

* Rejang

Moklenic ?|

* Moken
* Moklen

Sumatran *|

| Northwest Sumatra
–Barrier Islands|

* Enggano ?
* Gayo
* Mentawai
* Nias
* Sikule
* Simeulue

Batak|

* Alas
* Angkola
* Dairi
* Karo
* Simalungun
* Toba
* Mandailing

* Nasal ?

Lampungic|

* Lampung
* Lampung Nyo
* Lampung Api
* Komering

Javanese|

* Javanese
* Kawi / Old Javanese †
* Banyumasan
* Osing
* Tenggerese

Madurese|

* Madurese
* Kangean

Bali–Sasak
–Sumbawa|

* Balinese
* Sasak
* Sumbawa

Celebic|

| Bungku–Tolaki|

* Bahonsuai
* Bungku
* Kodeoha
* Kulisusu
* Moronene
* Mori Bawah
* Mori Atas
* Padoe
* Rahambuu
* Tolaki
* Tomadino
* Waru
* Wawonii

|

Muna–Buton|

* Bonerate
* Busoa
* Cia-Cia
* Kaimbulawa
* Kumbewaha
* Lasalimu
* Liabuku
* Muna
* Pancana
* Tukang Besi

Saluan–Banggai|

* Andio
* Balantak
* Banggai
* Batui
* Bobongko
* Saluan

Tomini–Tolitoli *|

* Balaesang
* Boano ?
* Dampelas
* Dondo
* Lauje
* Pendau
* Taje
* Tajio
* Tomini
* Totoli ?

Kaili–Wolio *|

| Kaili–Pamona|

* Kaili
* Mbelala
* Moma
* Pamona
* Rampi
* Sarudu
* Sedoa
* Topoiyo
* Uma

Wotu–Wolio|

* Kalao
* Kamaru
* Laiyolo
* Ledo Kaili *
* Wolio
* Wotu

South Sulawesi|

| Bugis|

* Buginese
* Campalagian
* Embaloh ?
* Taman

|

Makassar|

* Makassarese
* Bentong
* Coastal Konjo
* Highland Konjo
* Selayar

Seko–Badaic *|

| Seko|

* Budong-Budong
* Panasuan
* Seko Padang
* Seko Tengah

|

Badaic ?|

* Bada
* Behoa
* Napu

Northern|

* Mamuju
* Mandar

Massenrempulu|

* Duri
* Enrekang
* Maiwa
* Malimpung

Pitu Ulunna Salu|

* Aralle-Tabulahan
* Bambam
* Dakka
* Pannei
* Ulumandaʼ

Toraja|

* Kalumpang
* Mamasa
* Pattae'
* Lawa
* Talondoʼ ?
* Toraja-Saʼdan

* Lemolang

Isolates|

* Chamorro
* Palauan

Central Malayo-Polynesian languages

| Bima|

* Bima

|

Sumba–Flores|

| Sumba–Hawu|

| Savu|

* Hawu
* Dhao

|

Sumba|

* Kambera
* Mamboru
* Anakalangu
* Wanukaka
* Pondok
* Baliledo
* Wejewa
* Lamboya
* Kodi
* Gaura

Western Flores|

* Komodo
* Manggarai
* Riung
* Rembong
* Rajong
* Kepoʼ
* Wae Rana
* Palu'e
* Ende
* Lio
* Nagé-Kéo
* Ngadha
* Rongga
* Soʼa

Flores–Lembata|

* Sika
* Kedang

Lamaholot|

* Lamaholot
* Alorese
* Lamatuka
* Lewo Eleng
* Levuka
* South Lembata
* Lamalera
* Lewotobi
* Adonara
* Ile Ape
* Mingar

Selaru|

* Selaru
* Seluwasan

Kei–Tanimbar ?|

* Kei
* Fordata
* Yamdena
* Onin
* Sekar
* Uruangnirin

Aru|

* Barakai
* Batuley
* Dobel
* Karey
* Koba
* Kola
* Lola
* Lorang
* Manombai
* Mariri
* Tarangan
* Ujir

Timoric *|

* Helong
* Tetum
* Uab Meto
* Amarasi

Central Timor *|

* Kemak
* Tukudede
* Mambai
* Bekais

Wetar–Galoli ?|

* Wetar
* Galoli

Kawaimina|

* Kairui
* Waimoa
* Midiki
* Naueti ?
* Habun ?

Luangic–Kisaric ?|

* Romang
* Kisar
* Leti
* Luang
* Makuva

Rote–Meto *|

* Bilba
* Dengka
* Lole
* Ringgou
* Dela-Oenale
* Termanu
* Tii

Babar|

* Idalaka
* West Damar
* Dawera-Daweloor
* North Babar
* Dai
* Masela
* Serili
* Southeast Babar
* Emplawas
* Imroing
* Telaʼa

Southwest Maluku|

* East Damar
* Teun
* Nila
* Serua

Kowiai ?|

* Kowiai

Central Maluku *|

* Teor-Kur

West|

* Ambelau
* Buru
* Lisela
* Hukumina †
* Moksela †
* Sula
* Mangole
* Taliabo

East|

* Banda
* Bati
* Geser
* Watubela
* Bobot
* Masiwang
* Hoti †
* Benggoi
* Salas
* Liana

Nunusaku|

* Kayeli †
* Nuaulu
* Huaulu
* Manusela
* Wemale
* Yalahatan

Piru Bay ?|

* Asilulu
* Luhu
* Manipa
* Wakasihu
* Boano
* Sepa-Teluti
* Paulohi
* Kaibobo
* Hitu
* Tulehu
* Laha
* Seit-Kaitetu
* Kamarian †
* Haruku
* Amahai
* Nusa Laut
* Saparua
* Latu

Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages

| SHWNG|

* Tandia †
* Mor
* Waropen
* Warembori ?
* Yoke ?

Halmahera Sea|

| Ambel–Biga|

* Ambel
* Biga

|

Maya–Matbat|

* Ma'ya
* Matbat

Maden|

* Maden
* Fiawat

As|

* As

South Halmahera|

* Gane
* Taba
* Buli
* Maba
* Patani
* Sawai
* Gebe

Cenderawasih|

| Biakic|

* Biak
* Dusner †
* Meoswar
* Roon

|

Yapen|

* Ambai
* Ansus
* Marau
* Wamesa
* Wooi
* Munggui
* Papuma
* Pom
* Serui-Laut
* Kurudu
* Wabo

Southwest|

* Yaur
* Yerisiam
* Umar

Oceanic|

| Admiralty|

* Yapese ?

Eastern|

* Manus
* Baluan-Pam
* Lenkau
* Lou
* Nauna
* Penchal

Western|

* Northern Kaniet †
* Southern Kaniet †
* Seimat
* Wuvulu
* Aua

Saint Matthias|

* Mussau-Emira
* Tenis

Temotu|

| Utupua|

* Amba
* Asumboa
* Tanimbili

|

Vanikoro|

* Teanu
* Lovono
* Tanema

Reefs–Santa Cruz|

* Äiwoo
* Engdewu / Nanggu
* Natügu / Santa Cruz
* Nalögo
* Noipx

Southeast
Solomonic|

| Gela–Guadalcanal|

* Bugotu
* Gela
* Lengo
* Birao
* Ghari
* Malango
* Talise

|

Malaita–
San Cristobal|

* Longgu
* Sa'a
* Arosi
* Fagani
* Bauro
* Kahua
* Owa
* Marau Wawa ? †
* Toʼabaita
* Baelelea
* Baeggu
* Fataleka
* Lau
* Kwara'ae
* Wala
* Gula'alaa
* Kwaio
* Dori'o
* ꞋAreꞌare
* Oroha

Western
Oceanic|

| Meso–
Melanesian|

| Willaumez|

* Bola
* Bulu
* Meramera
* Nakanai

|

Bali-Vitu|

* Bali
* Vitu

New Ireland–
Northwest
Solomonic|

| Tungag–Nalik|

* Kara
* Laxudumau
* Nalik
* Tiang
* Tigak
* Tungag

|

Tabar|

* Lihir
* Madara
* Notsi

Madak|

* Barok
* Lavatbura–Lamusong
* Madak

St. George|

* Bilur
* Fanamaket
* Guramalum †
* Kandas
* Konomala
* Label
* Lungalunga
* Niwer Mil
* Patpatar
* Ramoaaina
* Siar
* Sursurunga
* Tangga
* Tolai

Northwest
Solomonic|

* Babatana
* Bannoni
* Blablanga
* Cheke Holo
* Gao
* Ghanongga
* Hahon
* Hakö
* Halia
* Hoava
* Kazukuru †
* Kokota
* Kusaghe
* Laghu †
* Lungga
* Marovo
* Mono-Alu
* Nduke
* Nehan
* Papapana
* Petats
* Piva
* Ririo
* Roviana
* Saposa
* Simbo
* Solos
* Teop
* Tinputz
* Torau
* Ughele
* Uruava †
* Vaghua
* Vangunu
* Varisi
* Zabana
* Zazao

* Tomoip

North
New Guinea|

| Sarmi–
Jayapura ?|

* Anus
* Bonggo
* Kayupulau
* Liki
* Masimasi
* Ormu
* Podena
* Kaptiau
* Sobei
* Tarpia
* Tobati
* Wakde
* Yamna

|

Schouten|

* Arop-Sissano
* Sera
* Sissano
* Ulau-Suain
* Tumleo
* Yakamul
* Kaiep
* Kairiru
* Terebu
* Biem
* Kis
* Manam
* Medebur
* Sepa
* Wogeo

Huon Gulf|

* Bukawa
* Kela
* Yabem
* Aribwatsa †
* Aribwaung
* Adzera
* Dangal
* Duwet
* Labu
* Maralango
* Mari
* Musom
* Nafi
* Silisili
* Wampar
* Wampur
* Hote
* Iwal
* Kapin
* Kumalu
* Mangga Buang
* Mapos Buang
* Mumeng
* Piu
* Vehes
* Yamap
* Numbami

Ngero–Vitiaz|

* Bariai
* Gitua
* Kove
* Lusi
* Malalamai
* Mutu
* Awad Bing
* Bilibil
* Gedaged
* Marik
* Matukar
* Mindiri
* Takia
* Wab
* Lamogai
* Mouk-Aria
* Aigon
* Karore
* Kaulong †
* Miu
* Sengseng
* Aiklep
* Akolet
* Apalik
* Avau
* Bebeli
* Gimi
* Lesing-Gelimi
* Mangseng
* Solong
* Lote
* Mamusi
* Mengen
* Arop-Lukep
* Karnai
* Malasanga
* Mur Pano
* Mato
* Ronji
* Amara
* Maleu
* Mbula
* Sio
* Tami

Papuan Tip|

| Nuclear|

* ʼAuhelawa
* Buhutu
* Bwanabwana
* Oya'oya
* Saliba
* Suau
* Unubahe
* Wagawaga
* Bwaidoka
* Diodio
* Iamalele
* Iduna
* Koluwawa
* Maiadomu
* Bunama
* Boselewa
* Dobu
* Duau
* Galeya
* Molima
* Mwatebu
* Sewa Bay
* Dawawa
* Kakabai
* Are
* Arifama-Miniafia
* Doga
* Gapapaiwa
* Ghayavi
* Kaninuwa
* Ubir
* Gweda
* Haigwai
* Maiwala
* Minaveha
* Taupota
* Tawala
* Yakaikeke
* Anuki
* Gumawana

|

Kilivila–Misima|

* Budibud
* Kilivila
* Misima
* Muyuw

Nimoa–Sudest|

* Nimoa
* Sudest

Southern
Oceanic|

| North
Vanuatu|

| Torres–Banks|

* Dorig
* Hiw
* Koro
* Lakon
* Lehali
* Lemerig
* Lo-Toga
* Löyöp
* Mota
* Mwerlap
* Mwesen
* Mwotlap
* Nume
* Olrat
* Vera’a
* Volow
* Vurës

|

Maewo–Ambae–
North Pentecost|

* Baetora
* Duidui
* Northeast Ambae
* Raga
* Sun̄wadaga
* Sun̄wadia

South Pentecost|

* Apma
* Sa
* Ske
* Sowa †

Espiritu Santo|

* Akei
* Aore †
* Araki
* Cape Cumberland
* Nokuku
* Kiai
* M̈av̈ea
* Merei-Tiale
* Mores
* Sakao
* Shark Bay
* Tamambo
* Tangoa
* Tasiriki
* Tolomako
* Tutuba
* Wusi

Nuclear
Southern
Oceanic|

| Central
Vanuatu|

* North Efate
* Nafsan
* Efatese
* Eton
* Lelepa
* Makura
* Daakaka
* Dalkalaen
* Lonwolwol
* Paamese
* Port Vato
* Southeast Ambrym

| Epi|

* Baki
* Bierebo
* Bieria
* Lamen
* Lewo
* Maii

|

Malakula|

* Aulua
* Avava
* Aveteian
* Axamb
* Big Nambas
* Botovro
* Burmbar
* Bwenelang
* Larëvat
* Lendamboi
* Litzlitz
* Malfaxal
* Malua Bay
* Maskelynes
* Nahavaq
* Nasarian
* Nasvang
* Nāti
* Navwien
* Nese
* Neve'ei
* Neverver
* Ninde
* Nisvai
* Nitita
* Port Sandwich
* Rerep
* Sörsörian
* Tape
* Tirax
* Unua
* Northeast Malakula
* Vao
* Vivti
* Rutan
* Alovas
* Najit
* Njav

South Vanuatu|

| Erromango|

* Erromanga / Sie
* Sorung †
* Ura
* Utaha / Ifo †

|

Tanna|

* Kwamera / South Tanna
* Lenakel / West Tanna
* North Tanna
* Southwest Tanna
* Whitesands / East Tanna

* Aneityum

Loyalties–
New Caledonia|

| Loyalty Islands|

* Drehu
* Iaai
* Nengone

|

New Caledonian|

| Southern|

* Ajië
* Arhâ
* Arhö
* Ndrumbea
* Neku
* Numèè
* Orowe
* Tîrî
* Xârâcùù
* Xârâgurè
* Zire †

|

Northern|

* Bwatoo
* Caac
* Cèmuhî
* Fwâi
* Haeke
* Haveke
* Hmwaveke
* Jawe
* Kumak
* Nemi
* Nyâlayu
* Paicî
* Pije
* Pwaamei
* Pwapwâ
* Vamale
* Waamwang †
* Yuanga

Micronesian|

* Nauruan

Nuclear
Micronesian|

* Gilbertese
* Kosraean
* Marshallese

Chuukic–
Pohnpeic|

| Chuukic|

* Carolinian
* Chuukese
* Mapia †
* Mortlockese
* Namonuito
* Pááfang
* Puluwatese
* Satawalese
* Sonsorol
* Tanapag
* Tobian
* Ulithian
* Woleaian

|

Pohnpeic|

* Mokilese
* Ngatikese
* Pingelapese
* Pohnpeian

Central
Pacific|

| West|

* Namosi-Naitasiri-Serua
* Rotuman
* Western Fijian

|

East|

* Fijian
* Gone Dau
* Lauan
* Lomaiviti

Polynesian|

| Nuclear
Polynesian|

* Kapingamarangi
* Nuguria
* Nukumanu
* Nukuoro
* Ontong Java
* Sikaiana
* Takuu
* Tuvaluan

Samoic|

* Niuatoputapu †
* Samoan
* Tokelauan

Eastern|

* Austral
* Cook Islands Māori
* Hawaiian
* Mangareva
* Māori
* Moriori †
* Marquesan
* Penrhyn
* Rakahanga-Manihiki
* Rapa
* Rapa Nui
* Tahitian
* Tuamotuan

Futunic|

* Anuta
* Emae
* Futuna-Aniwa / West Futunan
* Futunan / East Futunan
* Mele-Fila
* Pukapukan
* Rennellese
* Tikopia
* Wallisian / East Uvean
* West Uvean

Tongic|

* Niuafoʻou ?
* Niuean
* Tongan

* * indicates proposed status
* ? indicates classification dispute
* † indicates extinct status

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Madagascar

Official languages|

* French
* Malagasy

Foreign languages|

* English

Sign languages|

* Malagasy Sign Language

* v
* t
* e

Languages of the Comoros

Official languages|

* Comorian
* French
* Arabic

Non-official languages|

* Bushi
* Malagasy
* Maore

Immigrant languages|

* English
* French
* Punjabi
* Spanish
* German
* Italian
* Hindi
* Hebrew
* Arabic
* Chinese
* Portuguese
* Japanese
* Russian
* Danish
* Dutch

Authority control databases

National|

* Spain
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* Germany
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Other|

* IdRef

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