Malcolm X

American civil rights activist (1925–1965)

This article is about the person. For other uses, see Malcolm X (disambiguation).

"Malcolm Little" and "Malik Shabazz" redirect here. For other uses, see Malcolm Little (disambiguation) and Malik Shabazz (disambiguation).

Malcolm X

Malcolm X in 1964

Born|

Malcolm Little

(1925-05-19)May 19, 1925

Omaha, Nebraska, U.S.

Died| February 21, 1965(1965-02-21) (aged 39)

Manhattan, New York City, U.S.

Cause of death| Assassination by gunshots
Resting place| Ferncliff Cemetery
Other names| Malik el-Shabazz (Arabic: مَالِك ٱلشَّبَازّ, romanized: Mālik ash-Shabāzz)
Omowale (Yoruba: Omowale, lit. 'The son who has come back')
Occupations|

* Minister
* activist

Organizations|

* Nation of Islam
* Muslim Mosque, Inc.
* Organization of Afro-American Unity

Movement|

* Black nationalism
* Pan-Africanism
* Islamism

Spouse|

Betty Shabazz

(m. 1958)​

Children| 6, including Attallah, Qubilah, and Ilyasah
Parents|

* Earl Little (father)
* Louise Langdon (mother)

Relatives| Malcolm Shabazz (grandson)[1]
Signature

Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little, later el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965) was an African American revolutionary, Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a prominent figure during the civil rights movement until his assassination in 1965. A spokesman for the Nation of Islam (NOI) until 1964, after which he left the movement, he was a vocal advocate for Black empowerment and the promotion of Islam within the African American community. A controversial figure accused of preaching violence, Malcolm X is also a celebrated figure within African American and Muslim communities for his pursuit of racial justice.

Malcolm spent his adolescence living in a series of foster homes and with various relatives, after his father's death and his mother's hospitalization. He committed various crimes, being sentenced to eight to ten years in prison in 1946 for larceny and burglary. In prison, he joined the Nation of Islam, adopting the name Malcolm X to symbolize his unknown African ancestral surname while discarding "the white slavemaster name of 'Little'", and after his parole in 1952, he quickly became one of the organization's most influential leaders. He was the public face of the organization for 12 years, advocating Black empowerment and separation of Black and White Americans, as well as criticizing Martin Luther King Jr. and the mainstream civil rights movement for its emphasis on non-violence and racial integration. Malcolm X also expressed pride in some of the Nation's social welfare achievements, such as its free drug rehabilitation program. From the 1950s onward, Malcolm X was subjected to surveillance by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

In the 1960s, Malcolm X began to grow disillusioned with the Nation of Islam, as well as with its leader, Elijah Muhammad. He subsequently embraced Sunni Islam and the civil rights movement after completing the Hajj to Mecca and became known as "el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz", which roughly translates to "The Pilgrim Malcolm the Patriarch". After a brief period of travel across Africa, he publicly renounced the Nation of Islam and founded the Islamic Muslim Mosque, Inc. (MMI) and the Pan-African Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU). Throughout 1964, his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified, and he was repeatedly sent death threats. On February 21, 1965, he was assassinated in New York City. Three Nation members were charged with the murder and given indeterminate life sentences. In 2021, two of the convictions were vacated. Speculation about the assassination and whether it was conceived or aided by leading or additional members of the Nation, or with law enforcement agencies, has persisted for decades.

He was posthumously honored with Malcolm X Day, on which he is commemorated in various cities across the United States. Hundreds of streets and schools in the US have been renamed in his honor, while the Audubon Ballroom, the site of his assassination, was partly redeveloped in 2005 to accommodate the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. A posthumous autobiography, on which he collaborated with Alex Haley, was published in 1965.

## Early years

[edit]

### Childhood

[edit]

Malcolm Little was born May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, the fourth of seven children of Grenada-born Louise Little (née Langdon) and Georgia-born Earl Little.[2] Earl was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker, and he and Louise were admirers of Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey. Earl was a local leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and Louise served as secretary and "branch reporter", sending news of local UNIA activities to Negro World; they inculcated self-reliance and black pride in their children.[3][4][5] Malcolm X later said that White violence killed four of his father's brothers.[6]

Because of Ku Klux Klan threats, Earl's UNIA activities were said to be "spreading trouble"[7] and the family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee, and shortly thereafter to Lansing, Michigan.[8] There, the family was frequently harassed by the Black Legion, a White racist group Earl accused of burning their family home in 1929.[9]

When Malcolm was six, his father died in what has been officially ruled a streetcar accident, though his mother Louise believed Earl had been murdered by the Black Legion. Rumors that White racists were responsible for his father's death were widely circulated and were very disturbing to Malcolm X as a child. As an adult, he expressed conflicting beliefs on the question.[10] After a dispute with creditors, Louise received a life insurance benefit (nominally $1,000 ‍—‌about $21,000 in 2024)[A] in payments of $18 per month;[11] the issuer of another, larger policy refused to pay, claiming her husband Earl had killed himself.[12] To make ends meet, Louise rented out part of her garden, and her sons hunted game.[11]

During the 1930s, white Seventh-day Adventists witnessed to the Little family; later on, Louise Little and her son Wilfred were baptized into the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Malcolm said the Adventists were "the friendliest white people I had ever seen."[13]

In 1937, a man Louise had been dating‍—‌marriage had seemed a possibility‍—‌vanished from her life when she became pregnant with his child.[14] In late 1938, she had a nervous breakdown and was committed to Kalamazoo State Hospital. The children were separated and sent to foster homes. Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later.[15][16]

Malcolm attended West Junior High School in Lansing and then Mason High School in Mason, Michigan, but left high school in 1941, before graduating.[17] He excelled in junior high school but dropped out of high school after a White teacher told him that practicing law, his aspiration at the time, was "no realistic goal for a nigger."[18] Later, Malcolm X recalled feeling that the White world offered no place for a career-oriented Black man, regardless of talent.[18]

### Criminal career

[edit]

A Boston police mug shot of Malcolm taken in 1944, following his arrest for larceny[19]

From age 14 to 21, Malcolm held a variety of jobs while living with his half-sister Ella Little-Collins in Roxbury, a largely African American neighborhood of Boston.[20][21]

After a short time in Flint, Michigan, he moved to New York City's Harlem neighborhood in 1943, where he found employment on the New Haven Railroad and engaged in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering, robbery, and pimping.[22] According to biographer Bruce Perry, Malcolm also occasionally had sex with other men, usually for money, though this conjecture has been disputed by those who knew him.[23][24][B] He befriended John Elroy Sanford, a fellow dishwasher at Jimmy's Chicken Shack in Harlem who aspired to be a professional comedian. Both men had reddish hair, so Sanford was called "Chicago Red" after his hometown, and Malcolm was known as "Detroit Red". Years later, Sanford became famous as comedian and actor Redd Foxx.[32]

Summoned by the local draft board for military service in World War II in late 1943, he feigned mental disturbance by rambling and declaring: "I want to be sent down South. Organize them nigger soldiers ... steal us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers".[33][34][35] He was declared "mentally disqualified for military service".[33][34][35]

In late 1945, Malcolm returned to Boston, where he and four accomplices committed a series of burglaries targeting wealthy White families.[36] In 1946, he was arrested while picking up a stolen watch he had left at a shop for repairs,[37] and in February began serving a sentence of eight to ten years at Charlestown State Prison for larceny and breaking and entering.[38] In 1947, he was transferred to Concord Reformatory, where he served 15 months before transferring again to Norfolk Prison Colony.[39][40][41]

## Nation of Islam period

[edit]

Further information: Nation of Islam

### Prison

[edit]

> Between Mr. Muhammad's teachings, my cor­re­spond­ence, my vis­i­tors ... and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being impris­oned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life.

—Malcolm X[42]

When Malcolm was in prison, he met fellow convict John Bembry,[43] a self-educated man he would later describe as "the first man I had ever seen command total respect ... with words".[44] Under Bembry's influence, Malcolm developed a voracious appetite for reading.[45]

At this time, several of his siblings wrote to him about the Nation of Islam, a relatively new religious movement preaching Black self-reliance and, ultimately, the return of the African diaspora to Africa (which was then undergoing the process of independence), where they would be free from White American and European domination.[46] He showed scant interest at first, but after his brother Reginald wrote in 1948, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison",[47] he almost instantly quit smoking and began to refuse pork.[48]

Following a visit during which Reginald detailed the group's teachings, including the notion that White people are considered devils, Malcolm initially struggled to accept this belief. Over time, however, Malcolm reflected on his past relationships with White individuals and concluded that they had all been marked by dishonesty, injustice, greed, and hatred.[49] Malcolm, whose hostility to Christianity had earned him the prison nickname "Satan",[50] became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam.[51]

In late 1948, Malcolm wrote to Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him to renounce his past, humbly bow in prayer to God and promise never to engage in destructive behavior again.[52] Though he later recalled the inner struggle he had before bending his knees to pray,[53] Malcolm soon became a member of the Nation of Islam,[52] maintaining a regular correspondence with Muhammad.[54]

In 1950, the FBI opened a file on Malcolm after he wrote a letter from prison to President Harry S. Truman expressing opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself a communist.[55] That year, he also began signing his name "Malcolm X".[56] Muhammad instructed his followers to leave their family names behind when they joined the Nation of Islam and use "X" instead. When the time was right, after they had proven their sincerity, he said, he would reveal the Muslim's "original name".[57] In his autobiography, Malcolm X explained that the "X" symbolized the true African family name that he could never know. "For me, my 'X' replaced the white slavemaster name of 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears."[58]

### Early ministry

[edit]

Part of a series on the

Nation of Islam

Influencers

* Satokata Takahashi
* Noble Drew Ali

Leaders

* Wallace Fard Muhammad
* Elijah Muhammad
* Malcolm X
* Warith Deen Mohammed
* Louis Farrakhan
* Tynnetta Muhammad
* Ishmael Muhammad
* Ava Muhammad
* David Muhammad
* James 3X
* Khalid Muhammad

Beliefs and theology

* Saviours' Day
* Nation of Islam and antisemitism
* Tribe of Shabazz
* Yakub
* Dianetics

History

* Million Man March
* Millions More Movement
* Justice or Else

Publications

* A Torchlight for America
* The Final Call
* Muhammad Speaks
* How to Eat to Live
* Message to the Blackman in America

Subsidiaries

* Fruit of Islam
* Muhammad Farms
* Muhammad University of Islam
* Muslim Girls Training
* Star Chamber Academy

Offshoots and sects

* American Society of Muslims
* Five-Percent Nation
* United Nation of Islam
* Nation of Yahweh
* Nuwaubian Nation

Related organizations

* Black Dragon Society
* Black Mafia
* New Black Panther Party
* Peace Movement of Ethiopia
* El Rukn
* Church of Scientology
* Yusuf Bey
* Your Black Muslim Bakery
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* Moorish Science Temple of America

Islam portal  Politics portal

* v
* t
* e

After his parole in August 1952,[59] Malcolm X visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago.[60] In June 1953, he was named assistant minister of the Nation's Temple Number One in Detroit.[61][C] Later that year he established Boston's Temple Number 11;[63] in March 1954, he expanded Temple Number 12 in Philadelphia;[64] and two months later he was selected to lead Temple Number 7 in Harlem,[65] where he rapidly expanded its membership.[66]

In 1953, the FBI began surveillance of him, turning its attention from Malcolm X's possible communist associations to his rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam.[67]

During 1955, Malcolm X continued his successful recruitment of members on behalf of the Nation of Islam. He established temples in Springfield, Massachusetts (Number 13); Hartford, Connecticut (Number 14); and Atlanta (Number 15). Hundreds of African Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every month.[68]

Besides his skill as a speaker, Malcolm X had an impressive physical presence. He stood 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) tall and weighed about 180 pounds (82 kg).[69] One writer described him as "powerfully built",[70] and another as "mesmerizingly handsome ... and always spotlessly well-groomed".[69]

### Marriage and family

[edit]

In 1955, Betty Sanders met Malcolm X after one of his lectures, then again at a dinner party; soon she was regularly attending his lectures. In 1956, she joined the Nation of Islam, changing her name to Betty X.[71] One-on-one dates were contrary to the Nation's teachings, so the couple courted at social events with dozens or hundreds of others, and Malcolm X made a point of inviting her on the frequent group visits he led to New York City's museums and libraries.[72]

Malcolm X proposed during a telephone call from Detroit in January 1958, and they married two days later.[73][74] They had six daughters: Attallah (born 1958; Arabic for 'gift of God');[75][D][E] Qubilah (born 1960, named after Kublai Khan);[79] Ilyasah (born 1962, named after Elijah Muhammad);[80] Gamilah Lumumba (born 1964, named after Gamal Abdel Nasser and Patrice Lumumba);[81][82] and twins Malikah (1965–2021)[83] and Malaak (born 1965, both born after their father's death and named in his honor).[84]

### Hinton Johnson incident

[edit]

The American public first became aware of Malcolm X in 1957, after Hinton Johnson,[F] a Nation of Islam member, was beaten by two New York City police officers.[87][88] On April 26, Johnson and two other passersby‍—‌also Nation of Islam members‍—‌saw the officers beating an African American man with nightsticks.[87] When they attempted to intervene, shouting, "You're not in Alabama ... this is New York!"[88] one of the officers turned on Johnson, beating him so severely that he suffered brain contusions and subdural hemorrhaging. All four African American men were arrested.[87]

Alerted by a witness, Malcolm X and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Johnson.[87] Police initially denied that any Muslims were being held, but when the crowd grew to about five hundred, they allowed Malcolm X to speak with Johnson.[89] Afterward, Malcolm X insisted on arranging for an ambulance to take Johnson to Harlem Hospital.[90]

Johnson's injuries were treated and by the time he was returned to the police station, some four thousand people had gathered outside.[89] Inside the station, Malcolm X and an attorney were making bail arrangements for two of the Muslims. Johnson was not bailed, and police said he could not go back to the hospital until his arraignment the following day.[90] Considering the situation to be at an impasse, Malcolm X stepped outside the station house and gave a hand signal to the crowd. Nation members silently left, after which time the rest of the crowd also dispersed.[90]

One police officer told the New York Amsterdam News: "No one man should have that much power."[90][91] Within a month the New York City Police Department arranged to keep Malcolm X under surveillance; it also made inquiries with authorities in other cities in which he had lived, and prisons in which he had served time.[92] A grand jury declined to indict the officers who beat Johnson. In October, Malcolm X sent an angry telegram to the police commissioner. Soon the police department assigned undercover officers to infiltrate the Nation of Islam.[93]

### Increasing prominence

[edit]

By the late 1950s, Malcolm X was using a new name, Malcolm Shabazz or el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz ("The Pilgrim Malcolm the Patriarch"),[94][95][96] although he was still widely referred to as Malcolm X.[97] His comments on issues and events were being widely reported, in print and on radio and television.[98] He was featured in a 1959 New York City television broadcast about the Nation of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced.[98]

In September 1960, at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City, Malcolm X was invited to the official functions of several African nations. He met Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Sékou Touré of Guinea, and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African National Congress.[99] Fidel Castro also attended the Assembly, and Malcolm X met publicly with him as part of a welcoming committee of Harlem community leaders.[100] Castro was sufficiently impressed with Malcolm X to suggest a private meeting, and after two hours of talking, Castro invited Malcolm X to visit Cuba.[101] After the meeting, X publicly praised Castro, stating that he was "the only white person I ever liked".[102] While X admired Castro, he told the FBI during an interrogation after the meeting, that he could never be a communist, because according to X, communists do not believe in God.[103]

### Advocacy and teachings while with the Nation

[edit]

Malcolm X speaking to members of the African-American Students Foundation. (1959)

From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he broke with it in 1964, Malcolm X promoted the Nation's teachings. These included beliefs:

* That Black people are the original people of the world[104]
* That White people are "devils"[105] and
* That the demise of the White race is imminent.[106]

Louis E. Lomax said that "those who don't understand biblical prophecy wrongly label him as a racist and as a hate teacher, or as being anti-White or as teaching Black Supremacy".[107] One of the goals of the civil rights movement was to end disenfranchisement of African Americans, but the Nation of Islam forbade its members from participating in voting and other aspects of the political process.[108] The NAACP and other civil rights organizations denounced him and the Nation of Islam as irresponsible extremists whose views did not represent the common interests of African Americans.[109][110]

Malcolm X had been equally critical of the civil rights movement.[111] During this period, he denounced Martin Luther King Jr. as a "chump", and referred to other civil rights leaders as being "stooges" of the White establishment and was strongly against any kind of racial integration.[112][G] He called the 1963 March on Washington "the farce on Washington",[115] and said he did not know why so many Black people were excited about a demonstration "run by whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive."[116]

In 1961, Malcolm X spoke at an NOI rally alongside George Lincoln Rockwell, the head of the American Nazi Party. Rockwell saw overlap between black nationalism and white supremacy.[117] While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from Whites. He proposed that African Americans should return to Africa and that, in the interim, a separate country for Black people in America should be created.[118][119] He rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, arguing that Black people should defend and advance themselves "by any means necessary".[120] His speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, who were generally African Americans in northern and western cities. Many of them‍—‌tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality and respect[121]‍—‌felt that he articulated their complaints better than did the civil rights movement.[122][123]

### Effect on Nation membership

[edit]

Muhammad Ali (second row, in dark suit) watches Elijah Muhammad speak, 1964

Malcolm X is widely regarded as the second most influential leader of the Nation of Islam after Elijah Muhammad.[124] He is largely credited with helping the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s—from around 1,200 to between 50,000 and 100,000 members, with up to 25,000 actively attending, according to estimates.[125][H][I]

He inspired the boxer Muhammad Ali to join the Nation,[128] and the two became close.[129] In January 1964, Ali brought Malcolm X and his family to Miami to watch him train for his fight against Sonny Liston.[130] When Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam, he tried to convince Ali (who had just been renamed by Elijah Muhammad) to join him in converting to Sunni Islam, but Ali instead broke ties with him, later describing the break as one of his greatest regrets.[J]

Malcolm X mentored and guided Louis X (later known as Louis Farrakhan), who eventually became the leader of the Nation of Islam.[132] Malcolm X also served as a mentor and confidant to Elijah Muhammad's son, Wallace D. Muhammad; the son told Malcolm X about his skepticism toward his father's "unorthodox approach" to Islam.[133] Wallace Muhammad was excommunicated from the Nation of Islam several times, although he was eventually re-admitted.[134]

## Disillusionment and departure

[edit]

During 1962 and 1963, events caused Malcolm X to reassess his relationship with the Nation of Islam, and particularly its leader, Elijah Muhammad.

### Lack of Nation of Islam response to LAPD violence

[edit]

In late 1961, there were violent confrontations between the Nation of Islam members and police in South Central Los Angeles, and numerous Muslims were arrested. They were acquitted, but tensions had been raised. Just after midnight on April 27, 1962, two LAPD officers, unprovoked, shoved and beat several Muslims outside Temple Number 27. A large crowd of angry Muslims emerged from the mosque and the officers attempted to intimidate them.[135][136]

One officer was disarmed; his partner was shot in the elbow by a third officer. More than 70 backup officers arrived who then raided the mosque and randomly beat Nation of Islam members. Police officers shot seven Muslims, including William X Rogers, who was hit in the back and paralyzed for life, and Ronald Stokes, a Korean War veteran, who was shot from behind while raising his hands over his head to surrender, killing him.[135][136]

A number of Muslims were indicted after the event, but no charges were laid against the police. The coroner ruled that Stokes's killing was justified. To Malcolm X, the desecration of the mosque and the associated violence demanded action, and he used what Louis X (later Louis Farrakhan) later called his "gangsterlike past" to rally the more hardened of the Nation of Islam members to take violent revenge against the police.[135][136]

Malcolm X sought Elijah Muhammad's approval which was denied, stunning Malcolm X. Malcolm X was again blocked by Elijah Muhammad when he spoke of the Nation of Islam starting to work with civil rights organizations, local Black politicians, and religious groups. Louis X saw this as an important turning point in the deteriorating relationship between Malcolm X and Muhammad.[135][136]

### Sexual misbehavior by Elijah Muhammad

[edit]

Rumors were circulating that Muhammad was conducting extramarital affairs with young Nation secretaries‍—‌which would constitute a serious violation of Nation teachings. After first discounting the rumors, Malcolm X came to believe them after he spoke with Muhammad's son Wallace and the girls making the accusations in April 1963.[137] Muhammad confirmed the rumors that same year, attempting to justify his behavior by referring to precedents set by Biblical prophets.[138]

Over a series of national TV interviews between 1964 and 1965, Malcolm X provided testimony of his investigation, corroboration, and confirmation by Elijah Muhammed himself of multiple counts of child rape. During this investigation, he learned that seven of the eight girls had become pregnant as a result of this. He also revealed an assassination attempt made on his life, through a discovered explosive device in his car, as well as the death threats he was receiving, in response to his exposure of Elijah Muhammad.[139][140][141]

### Remarks on Kennedy assassination

[edit]

On December 1, 1963, when asked to comment on the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Malcolm X said that it was a case of "chickens coming home to roost." He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad."[142] Likewise, according to The New York Times:[142]

> [I]n further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba, Congo leader, of Medgar Evers, civil rights leader, and of the Negro girls bombed earlier this year in a Birmingham church. These, he said, were instances of other "chickens coming home to roost".

The remarks prompted widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had sent a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star.[143] Malcolm X retained his post and rank as minister but was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days.[144]

### Media attention to Malcolm X over Elijah Muhammad

[edit]

Malcolm X had by now become a media favorite, and some Nation members believed he was a threat to Elijah Muhammad's leadership. Publishers had shown interest in Malcolm X's autobiography, and when Louis Lomax wrote his 1963 book about the Nation, When the Word Is Given, he used a photograph of Malcolm X on the cover. He also reproduced five of his speeches but featured only one of Muhammad's, which greatly upset Muhammad and made him envious.[145]

### Departure from Nation of Islam

[edit]

On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. Though still a Muslim, he felt that the Nation had "gone as far as it can" because of its rigid teachings. He said he was planning to organize a Black nationalist organization to "heighten the political consciousness" of African Americans. He also expressed a desire to work with other civil rights leaders, saying that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from doing so in the past.[146]

## Activity after leaving Nation of Islam

[edit]

Malcolm X's only meeting with Martin Luther King Jr., March 26, 1964, during the Senate debates regarding the (eventual) Civil Rights Act of 1964.[147]

After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. (MMI), a religious organization,[148][149] and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU), a secular group that advocated Pan-Africanism.[150][151] On March 26, 1964, he briefly met Martin Luther King Jr. for the first and only time‍—‌and only long enough for photographs to be taken‍—‌in Washington, D.C., as both men attended the Senate's debate on the Civil Rights bill at the US Capitol building.[K][L]

In April, Malcolm X gave a speech titled "The Ballot or the Bullet", in which he advised African Americans to exercise their right to vote wisely but cautioned that if the government continued to prevent African Americans from attaining full equality, it might be necessary for them to take up arms.[154][155]

In the weeks after he left the Nation of Islam, several Sunni Muslims encouraged Malcolm X to learn about their faith. He soon converted to the Sunni faith.[156][157]

### Pilgrimage to Mecca

[edit]

Malcolm X meeting with Prince Faisal bin Abdulaziz. (1964)

In April 1964, with financial help from his half-sister Ella Little-Collins, Malcolm X flew to Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, as the start of his Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca obligatory for every Muslim who is able to do so. He was delayed in Jeddah when his US citizenship and inability to speak Arabic caused his status as a Muslim to be questioned.[158][159]

He had received Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam's book The Eternal Message of Muhammad with his visa approval, and he contacted the author. Azzam's son arranged for his release and lent him his personal hotel suite. The next morning Malcolm X learned that Prince Faisal had designated him as a state guest.[160] Several days later, after completing the Hajj rituals, Malcolm X had an audience with the prince.[161]

Malcolm X later said that seeing Muslims of "all colors, from blue-eyed blonds to Black-skinned Africans," interacting as equals led him to see Islam as a means by which racial problems could be overcome.[162]

Slavery in Saudi Arabia had been abolished only two years before his visit to Saudi Arabia, and his portrayal of racial harmony in the Arab world was a reply to the widespread criticism of African chattel slavery in Saudi Arabia from the African-American press in the US.[163]

### Visit to Cairo

[edit]

Malcolm X had already visited the United Arab Republic (a short-lived political union between Egypt and Syria), Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana in 1959 to make arrangements for a tour of Africa by Elijah Muhammad.[164] After his pilgrimage to Mecca in April 1964, he visited Africa a second time. He returned to the United States in late May[165] and flew to Africa again in July.[166] During these visits he met officials, gave interviews, and spoke on radio and television in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanganyika, Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea, Sudan, Senegal, Liberia, Algeria and Morocco.[167]

In Cairo, he attended the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity as a representative of the OAAU.[168] By the end of this third visit, he had met with essentially all of Africa's prominent leaders;[169] Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria had all invited Malcolm X to serve in their governments.[169] After he spoke at the University of Ibadan, the Nigerian Muslim Students Association bestowed on him the honorary Yoruba name Omowale ('the son who has come home').[170] He later called this his most treasured honor.[171]

Malcolm especially hated Moïse Tshombe of the Congo as an "Uncle Tom" figure. In a 1964 speech in New York, he called Tshombe "the worst African ever born" and "the man who in cold blood, cold blood, committed an international crime; murdered Patrice Lumumba".[172] Tshombe's decision in 1964 to hire White mercenaries to put down the Simba rebellion greatly offended Malcolm, who accused the mercenaries of committing war crimes against the Congolese.[173]

### France and United Kingdom

[edit]

On November 23, 1964, on his way home from Africa, Malcolm X stopped in Paris, where he spoke in the Salle de la Mutualité.[174][175] After his return to the United States, he accused the United States of imperialism in the Congo by supporting Tshombe and "his hired killers" as he called the White mercenaries.[173] X accused Tshombe and the American president Lyndon B. Johnson of "...sleeping together. When I say sleeping together, I don't mean that literally. But beyond that, they're in the same bed. Johnson is paying the salaries, paying the government, propping up Tshombe's government, this murderer".[173]

X expressed much anger about Operation Dragon Rouge, where the United States Air Force dropped Belgian paratroopers into the city of Stanleyville, modern Kisangani, to rescue the White Belgian hostages from the Simbas.[173] Malcolm X maintained that there was a double standard when it came to White and Black lives, noting it was an international emergency when the lives of Whites were in danger, making Dragon Rouge necessary, but that nothing was done to stop the abuses of the Congolese at the hands of "Tshombe's hired killers".[176] X charged that the "Congolese have been massacred by White people for years and years" and that "chickens come home to roost."[177]

A week later, on November 30, Malcolm X flew to the United Kingdom. On December 3 he took part in a debate at the Oxford Union Society. The motion was taken from a statement made earlier that year by US presidential candidate Barry Goldwater: "Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice; Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue".[178] Malcolm X argued for the affirmative, and interest in the debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the BBC.[179][180]

In his address at Oxford, Malcolm rejected the label of "Black Muslim" and instead focused on being a Muslim who happened to be Black, which reflected his conversion to Sunni Islam.[181] Malcolm only mentioned his religion twice during his Oxford speech, which was part of his effort to defuse his image as an "angry Black Muslim extremist", which he had long hated.[181] During the debate at Oxford, he criticized the way the Anglo-American press portrayed the Congo crisis, noting the Simbas were portrayed as primitive cannibalistic "savages" who engaged in every form of depravity imaginable while Tshombe and the White mercenaries were portrayed in a very favorable light with almost no mention of any atrocities on their part.[176]

Malcolm X charged that the Cuban émigré pilots hired by the CIA to serve as Tshombe's air force indiscriminately bombed Congolese villages and towns, killing women and children, but this was almost never mentioned in the media while the newspapers featured long accounts of the Simbas "raping White women, molesting nuns".[182] Likewise, he felt the term mercenary was inappropriate, preferring the term "hired killer" and that Tshombe should not be described as a premier as he preferred the term "cold-blooded murderer" to describe him.[182] Malcolm X stated that what he regarded as the extremism of the Tshombe government was "never referred to as extremism because it is endorsed by the West, it is financed by America, it's made respectable by America, and that kind of extremism is never labelled as extremism".[183]

Malcolm X argued this extremism was not morally acceptable "since it's not extremism in defense of liberty".[184] Many in the audience at Oxford were angered by Malcolm X's thesis and his support for the Simbas who had committed atrocities with one asking, "What sort of extremism would you consider the killing of missionaries?".[184] In response, Malcolm X answered "It is an act of war. I'd call it the same kind of extremism that happened when England dropped bombs on German cities and Germans dropped bombs on English cities".[184]

On February 5, 1965, Malcolm X flew to the UK again,[185] and on February 8 he addressed the first meeting of the Council of African Organizations in London.[186] The next day he tried to return to France, but was refused entry.[187] On February 12, he visited Smethwick, near Birmingham, where the Conservative Party had won the parliamentary seat in the 1964 general election. The town had become a byword for racial division after the successful candidate, Peter Griffiths, was accused of using the slogan, "If you want a nigger for a neighbour, vote Liberal or Labour." In Smethwick, Malcolm X compared the treatment of ethnic minority residents with the treatment of Jews under Hitler, saying: "I would not wait for the fascist element in Smethwick to erect gas ovens."[188][189]

### Return to United States

[edit]

After returning to the US, Malcolm X addressed a wide variety of audiences. He spoke regularly at meetings held by MMI and the OAAU, and was one of the most sought-after speakers on college campuses.[190] One of his top aides later wrote that he "welcomed every opportunity to speak to college students".[191] He also addressed public meetings of the Socialist Workers Party, speaking at their Militant Labor Forum.[192] He was interviewed on the subjects of segregation and the Nation of Islam by Robert Penn Warren for Warren's 1965 book Who Speaks for the Negro?[193]

## Death threats and intimidation from Nation of Islam

[edit]

Malcolm X guards his family after Nation of Islam threats in an iconic Ebony magazine photo.

Throughout 1964, as his conflict with the Nation of Islam intensified, Malcolm X was repeatedly threatened.[194]

In February, a leader of Temple Number Seven ordered the bombing of Malcolm X's car.[195] In March, Muhammad told Boston minister Louis X (later known as Louis Farrakhan) that "hypocrites like Malcolm should have their heads cut off";[196] the April 10 edition of Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon depicting Malcolm X's bouncing, severed head.[197][198]

On June 8, FBI surveillance recorded a telephone call in which Betty Shabazz was told that her husband was "as good as dead."[199] Four days later, an FBI informant received a tip that "Malcolm X is going to be bumped off."[200] That same month, the Nation sued to reclaim Malcolm X's residence in East Elmhurst, Queens, New York. His family was ordered to vacate[201] but on February 14, 1965‍—‌the night before a hearing on postponing the eviction‍—‌the house was destroyed by fire.[202]

On July 9, Muhammad aide John Ali (suspected of being an undercover FBI agent)[203] referred to Malcolm X by saying, "Anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy."[204] In the December 4 issue of Muhammad Speaks, Louis X wrote that "such a man as Malcolm is worthy of death."[205]

The September 1964 issue of Ebony dramatized Malcolm X's defiance of these threats by publishing a photograph of him holding an M1 carbine while peering out of a window.[206][207]

## Assassination

[edit]

Main article: Assassination of Malcolm X

The stage of the Audubon Ballroom after Malcolm X's assassination, with bullet holes circled External image

"The Violent End of the Man Called Malcolm", LIFE, March 5, 1965. Photos taken moments after the fatal shots were fired, including one of activist Yuri Kochiyama cradling the dying Malcolm X's head.[208]

On February 19, 1965, Malcolm X told interviewer Gordon Parks that the Nation of Islam was actively trying to kill him. On February 21, 1965, he was preparing to address the OAAU in Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom when someone in the 400-person audience yelled, "Nigger! Get your hand outta my pocket!"[209][210][211]

As Malcolm X and his bodyguards tried to quell the disturbance,[M] a man rushed forward and shot him once in the chest with a sawed-off shotgun[212][213] and two other men charged the stage firing semi-automatic handguns.[210] Malcolm X was pronounced dead at 3:30 pm, shortly after arriving at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.[211] The autopsy identified 21 gunshot wounds to the chest, left shoulder, arms and legs, including ten buckshot wounds from the initial shotgun blast.[214]

One gunman, Nation of Islam member Talmadge Hayer (also known as Thomas Hagan), was beaten by the crowd before police arrived.[215][216] Witnesses identified the other gunmen as Nation members Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson.[217] All three were convicted of murder in March 1966 and sentenced to life in prison.[218][219]

At trial, Hayer confessed, but refused to identify the other assailants except to assert that they were not Butler and Johnson.[220] In 1977 and 1978, he signed affidavits reasserting Butler's and Johnson's innocence, naming four other Nation members of Newark's Mosque No. 25 as participants in the murder or its planning.[221][222][223][224] These affidavits did not result in the case being reopened.

Butler, today known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was paroled in 1985 and became the head of the Nation's Harlem mosque in 1998; he maintains his innocence.[225] In prison Johnson, who changed his name to Khalil Islam, rejected the Nation's teachings and converted to Sunni Islam. Released in 1987, he maintained his innocence until his death in August 2009.[226][227] Hayer, who also rejected the Nation's teachings while in prison and converted also to Sunni Islam,[228] is known today as Mujahid Halim.[229] He was paroled in 2010.[230]

In 2021, Muhammad Abdul Aziz and Khalil Islam (formerly Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson) were exonerated from their murder convictions, following a review that found the FBI and the New York Police Department withheld key evidence during the trial.[231] On July 14, 2022, Aziz filed suit in the US District Court in Brooklyn against the City of New York, seeking $40 million in damages related to his wrongful imprisonment.[232]

Les Payne and Tamara Payne, in their Pulitzer Prize-winning biography The Dead Are Arising: The Life of Malcolm X, claim that the assassins were members of the Nation of Islam's Newark, New Jersey mosque: William 25X (also known as William Bradley), who fired the shotgun; Leon Davis; and Thomas Hayer.[233]

### Funeral

[edit]

The public viewing, February 23–26 at Unity Funeral Home in Harlem, was attended by some 14,000 to 30,000 mourners.[234] For the funeral on February 27, loudspeakers were set up for the overflow crowd outside Harlem's thousand-seat Faith Temple of the Church of God in Christ,[235][236] and a local television station carried the service live.[237]

Among the civil rights leaders attending were John Lewis, Bayard Rustin, James Forman, James Farmer, Jesse Gray, and Andrew Young.[235][238] Actor and activist Ossie Davis delivered the eulogy, describing Malcolm X as "our shining Black prince ... who didn't hesitate to die because he loved us so":

> There are those who will consider it their duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell us to revile him, to flee, even from the presence of his memory, to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times. Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy, controversial and bold young captain‍—‌and we will smile. Many will say turn away‍—‌away from this man, for he is not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter and an enemy of the Black man‍—‌and we will smile. They will say that he is of hate‍—‌a fanatic, a racist‍—‌who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance? For if you did you would know him. And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him.... And, in honoring him, we honor the best in ourselves.[239]

Malcolm X was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.[237] Friends took up the gravediggers' shovels to complete the burial on their own.[240]

Grave plaque for Malcolm X and his wife at Ferncliff Cemetery

Actor and activist Ruby Dee and Juanita Poitier (wife of Sidney Poitier) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise money for a home for his family and for his children's educations.[241]

### Reactions

[edit]

Reactions to Malcolm X's assassination were varied. In a telegram to Betty Shabazz, Martin Luther King Jr. expressed his sadness at "the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband."[242] He said:[242]

> While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem. He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems that we face as a race.

Elijah Muhammad told the annual Savior's Day convention on February 26 that "Malcolm X got just what he preached," but denied any involvement with the murder.[243] "We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't try to kill him," Muhammad said, adding "We know such ignorant, foolish teachings would bring him to his own end."[244]

Writer James Baldwin, who had been a friend of Malcolm X's, was in London when he heard the news of the assassination. He responded with indignation towards the reporters interviewing him, shouting, "You did it! It is because of you—the men that created this White supremacy—that this man is dead. You are not guilty, but you did it.... Your mills, your cities, your rape of a continent started all this."[245]

The New York Post wrote that "even his sharpest critics recognized his brilliance‍—‌often wild, unpredictable and eccentric, but nevertheless possessing promise that must now remain unrealized."[246] The New York Times wrote that Malcolm X was "an extraordinary and twisted man" who "turn[ed] many true gifts to evil purpose" and that his life was "strangely and pitifully wasted."[247] Time called him "an unashamed demagogue" whose "creed was violence."[248]

Outside the US, particularly in Africa, the press was sympathetic.[249] The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote that Malcolm X would "have a place in the palace of martyrs."[250] The Ghanaian Times likened him to John Brown, Medgar Evers, and Patrice Lumumba, and counted him among "a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred in freedom's cause."[251][252]

In China the People's Daily described Malcolm X as a martyr killed by "ruling circles and racists" in the United States; his assassination, the paper wrote, demonstrated that "in dealing with imperialist oppressors, violence must be met with violence."[252] The Guangming Daily, also published in Beijing, stated that "Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights."[253] In Cuba, El Mundo described the assassination as "another racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against discrimination."[249]

In a weekly column he wrote for the New York Amsterdam News, King reflected on Malcolm X and his assassination:[254]

> Malcolm X came to the fore as a public figure partially as a result of a TV documentary entitled, The Hate that Hate Produced. That title points to the nature of Malcolm's life and death.

> Malcolm X was clearly a product of the hate and violence invested in the Negro's blighted existence in this nation....

> In his youth there was no hope, no preaching, teaching or movements of non-violence....

> It is a testimony to Malcolm's personal depth and integrity that he could not become an underworld Czar, but turned again and again to religion for meaning and destiny. Malcolm was still turning and growing at the time of his brutal and meaningless assassination.…

> Like the murder of Lumumba, the murder of Malcolm X deprives the world of a potentially great leader. I could not agree with either of these men, but I could see in them a capacity for leadership which I could respect, and which was just beginning to mature in judgment and statesmanship.

### Allegations of conspiracy

[edit]

Louis Farrakhan in 2005

Within days the question of who bore responsibility for the assassination was being publicly debated. On February 23, James Farmer, leader of the Congress of Racial Equality, announced at a news conference that local drug dealers, and not the Nation of Islam, were to blame.[255] Others accused the NYPD, the FBI, or the CIA, citing the lack of police protection, the ease with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom, and the failure of the police to preserve the crime scene.[256][257] Earl Grant, one of Malcolm X's associates who was present at the assassination, later wrote:[258]

> [A]bout five minutes later, a most incredible scene took place. Into the hall sauntered about a dozen policemen. They were strolling at about the pace one would expect of them if they were patrolling a quiet park. They did not seem to be at all excited or concerned about the circumstances.

>  I could hardly believe my eyes. Here were New York City policemen, entering a room from which at least a dozen shots had been heard, and yet not one of them had his gun out! As a matter of absolute fact, some of them even had their hands in their pockets.

In the 1970s, the public learned about COINTELPRO and other secret FBI programs established to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s.[259] Louis Lomax wrote that John Ali, national secretary of the Nation of Islam, was a former FBI agent.[203] Malcolm X had confided to a reporter that Ali exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad and that he considered Ali his "archenemy" within the Nation of Islam leadership.[203] Ali had a meeting with Talmadge Hayer, one of the men convicted of killing Malcolm X, the night before the assassination.[260]

The Shabazz family are among those who have accused Louis Farrakhan of involvement in Malcolm X's assassination.[261][262][263][264][265] In a 1993 speech Farrakhan seemed to acknowledge the possibility that the Nation of Islam was responsible:[266][267]

> Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats.

In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000, Farrakhan stated that some things he said may have led to the assassination of Malcolm X. "I may have been complicit in words that I spoke," he said, adding "I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being."[268] A few days later Farrakhan denied that he "ordered the assassination" of Malcolm X, although he again acknowledged that he "created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm X's assassination."[269]

No consensus has been reached on who was responsible for the assassination.[270] In August 2014, an online petition was started using the White House online petition mechanism to call on the government to release, without alteration, any files they still held relating to the murder of Malcolm X.[271] In January 2019, members of the families of Malcolm X, John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jr., and Robert F. Kennedy were among dozens of Americans who signed a public statement calling for a truth and reconciliation commission to persuade Congress or the Justice Department to review the assassinations of all four leaders during the 1960s.[272][273]

A February 21, 2021, press conference attended by three of Malcolm X's daughters and members of deceased NYPD undercover officer Raymond Wood's family released his authorized posthumous letter that stated in part: "I was told to encourage leaders and members of the civil rights groups to commit felonious acts." The Guardian reports that "The arrests kept the two men from managing door security at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights on the day of the shooting, according to the letter."[274] On February 26, 2021, the daughter of Raymond Wood, Kelly Wood, stated that the letter presented at the February 21 press conference is fake. Kelly Wood stated that the letter was created by her cousin Reggie Wood for attention and book sales.[275]

In early 2023, members of Malcolm X's family said they would file a $100 million wrongful death lawsuit against the CIA, the FBI, the NYPD and others for allegedly concealing evidence related to the assassination and for alleged involvement to it.[276] The attorney representing the family is Benjamin Crump.[277] In November 2024, three daughters of Malcolm X filed the lawsuit in Manhattan Federal Court.[278]

## Philosophy

[edit]

Except for his autobiography, Malcolm X left no published writings. His philosophy is known almost entirely from the many speeches and interviews he gave from 1952 until his death.[279] Many of those speeches, especially from the last year of his life, were recorded and have been published.[280]

### Beliefs in the Nation of Islam

[edit]

Further information: Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam

> The white liberal differs from the white con­serv­a­tive only in one way: the liberal is more deceitful than the conservative.

—Malcolm X[281]

While he was a member of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X taught its beliefs, and his statements often began with the phrase "The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that ..."[282] It is virtually impossible now to discern whether Malcolm X's personal beliefs at the time diverged from the teachings of the Nation of Islam.[283][N] After he left the Nation in 1964, he compared himself to a ventriloquist's dummy who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him to say.[282][O]

Malcolm X taught that Black people were the original people of the world,[104] and that Whites were a race of devils who were created by an evil scientist named Yakub.[105] The Nation of Islam believed that Black people were superior to White people and that the demise of the White race was imminent.[106] When questioned concerning his statements that White people were devils, Malcolm X said: "history proves the White man is a devil."[286] "Anybody who rapes, and plunders, and enslaves, and steals, and drops hell bombs on people ... anybody who does these things is nothing but a devil," he said.[287]

Malcolm X said that Islam was the "true religion of Black mankind" and that Christianity was "the White man's religion" that had been imposed upon African Americans by their slave-masters.[288] He said that the Nation of Islam followed Islam as it was practiced around the world, but the Nation's teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the "uniquely pitiful" condition of Black people in the United States.[289] He taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the Nation, was God incarnate,[290] and that Elijah Muhammad was his Messenger, or Prophet.[P]

While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of Blacks from Whites.[105][106] The Nation of Islam proposed the establishment of a separate country for African Americans in the southern[118] or southwestern United States[293] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[119] Malcolm X suggested the United States government owed reparations to Black people for the unpaid labor of their ancestors.[294] He also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, advocating instead that Black people should defend themselves.[120]

### Later independent views

[edit]

#### Palestine

[edit]

Earlier in 1959, Malcolm X visited and met with religious leaders at Al-Aqsa mosque as a representative of Elijah Muhammad.[295] Later in 1964, X visited the Khan Younis refugee camp in Gaza where he visited a local hospital and dined with religious leaders in Gaza. He also met Palestinian poet, Harun Hashem Rashid, who recounted to him how he narrowly escaped the Khan Younis massacre of 1956. A few weeks later, Malcolm X headed to Cairo where he met with members of the Palestinian Liberation Organization.[295] These meetings and experiences inspired Malcolm X to write an essay entitled "Zionist Logic" that was published in the Egyptian Gazette.[295] In this essay Malcolm X explained how the "present occupation of Arab Palestine has no intelligent or legal basis in history" and described how Zionism was essentially a colonial and imperialist project:[296]

> The ever-scheming European imperialists wisely placed Israel where she could geographically divide the Arab world, infiltrate and sow the seed of dissension among African leaders and also divide the Africans against the Asians.

Following his return to the United States, Malcolm X continued to speak about the issue of Palestine describing in 1965 in one of his speeches in Detroit how "We need a free Palestine... We don't need a divided Palestine. We need a whole Palestine."[297]

#### Civil rights movement

[edit]

> The common goal of 22 million Afro-Americans is respect as human beings. ... We can never get civil rights in America until our human rights are first restored. We will never be recognized as citizens there until we are first recognized as humans. ...

> Just as the violation of human rights of our brothers and sisters in South Africa and Angola is an international issue and has brought the racists of South Africa and Portugal under attack from all other independent governments at the United Nations, once the miserable plight of the 22 million Afro-Americans is also lifted to the level of human rights our struggle then becomes an international issue and the direct concern of all other civilized governments. We can then take the racist American Government before the World Court and have the racists in it exposed and condemned as the criminals that they are.

—Malcolm X[298]

After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X announced his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights movement,[146] though he advocated some changes to their policies. He felt that calling the movement a struggle for civil rights would keep the issue within the United States while changing the focus to human rights would make it an international concern. The movement could then bring its complaints before the United Nations, where Malcolm X said the emerging nations of the world would add their support.[299]

Malcolm X argued that if the US government was unwilling or unable to protect Black people, Black people should protect themselves. He said that he and the other members of the OAAU were determined to defend themselves from aggressors, and to secure freedom, justice and equality "by whatever means necessary".[300]

Malcolm X at a 1964 press conference

Malcolm X stressed the global perspective he gained from his international travels. He emphasized the "direct connection" between the domestic struggle of African Americans for equal rights with the independence struggles of Third World nations.[301] He said that African Americans were wrong when they thought of themselves as a minority; globally, Black people were the majority.[302]

#### Integration

[edit]

Although he no longer called for the separation of Black people from White people, Malcolm X continued to advocate Black nationalism, which he defined as self-determination for the African American community.[303] In the last months of his life, however, Malcolm X began to reconsider his support for Black nationalism after meeting northern African revolutionaries who, to all appearances, were White.[304]

After his Hajj, Malcolm X articulated a view of White people and racism that represented a deep change from the philosophy he had supported as a minister of the Nation of Islam. In a famous letter from Mecca, he wrote that his experiences with White people during his pilgrimage convinced him to "rearrange" his thinking about race and "toss aside some of [his] previous conclusions".[305] In a conversation with Gordon Parks, two days before his assassination, Malcolm said:

> [L]istening to leaders like Nasser, Ben Bella, and Nkrumah awakened me to the dangers of racism. I realized racism isn't just a Black and White problem. It's brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another.

> Brother, remember the time that White college girl came into the restaurant‍—‌the one who wanted to help the [Black] Muslims and the Whites get together‍—‌and I told her there wasn't a ghost of a chance and she went away crying? Well, I've lived to regret that incident. In many parts of the African continent, I saw White students helping Black people. Something like this kills a lot of argument. I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a zombie then‍—‌like all [Black] Muslims‍—‌I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march. Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years.

> That was a bad scene, brother. The sickness and madness of those days‍—‌I'm glad to be free of them.[306]

#### Socialism

[edit]

In his speeches at the Militant Labor Forum, which was sponsored by the Socialist Workers Party, Malcolm X criticized capitalism.[192] After one such speech, when he was asked what political and economic system he wanted, he said he did not know, but that it was no coincidence the newly independent countries in the Third World were turning toward socialism.[307] When a reporter asked him what he thought about socialism, Malcolm X asked whether it was good for Black people. When the reporter told him it seemed to be, Malcolm X told him: "Then I'm for it."[307][308]

After X's death, a book published in 1968, titled The Last Year of Malcolm X argued that X was becoming more socialistic in thinking towards the end of his life, and becoming increasingly friendly with the Socialist Workers Party. The release of the book inspired X's then widow Betty Shabazz to comment to biographer Peter Louis Goldman: "Malcolm was not a socialist".[309]

### Claims of bisexuality

[edit]

Dating back to 2009, some experts have claimed that Malcolm X was bisexual.[310][311][312] These claims are primarily founded upon the work of late Columbia University historian Manning Marable, and his controversial 2011 book Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention. In the book, Marable asserted that "Malcolm X had exaggerated his early criminal career and had engaged in an early homosexual relationship with a White businessman."[313]

Scholar Christopher Phelps agreed with Marable in the Journal of American Studies: "Malcolm Little did take part in sex acts with male counterparts. If set in the context of the 1930s and 1940s, these acts position him not as a 'homosexual lover,' as has been asserted, but in the pattern of 'straight trade'—heterosexual men open to sex with homosexuals—an understanding that in turn affords insights into the Black revolutionary's mature masculinity."[314]

Malcolm X's family has rejected these allegations about his personal life. His daughter Ilyasah Shabazz said she would have known about these encounters before abruptly walking out on an interview on NPR. Shabazz said: "I think the things that I take issue with are the fact that he said my father engaged in a bisexual relationship, a homo—you know, he had a gay lover who was an elder White businessman, I think, in his late 50s when my father was in his teens. And, you know, my father was an open book. And we actually have four of the missing chapters from the autobiography. And, you know, he is very clear in his activities, which nothing included being gay. And certainly he didn't have anything against gay—he was for human rights, human justice, you know. So if he had a gay encounter, he likely would've talked about it. And what he did talk about was someone else's encounter."[315]

## Legacy

[edit]

A bust of Malcolm X at the Nebraska State Capitol, where he was inducted into the Nebraska Hall of Fame in 2024.

Malcolm X has been described as one of the most influential African Americans in history.[316][317][318] He is credited with raising the self-esteem of Black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage.[319] He is largely responsible for the spread of Islam in the Black community in the United States.[320][321][322] Many African Americans, especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and Western United States, felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than did the mainstream civil rights movement.[122][123] One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration, Malcolm X "made clear the price that White America would have to pay if it did not accede to Black America's legitimate demands."[323]

In the late 1960s, increasingly radical Black activists based their movements largely on Malcolm X and his teachings. The Black Power movement,[69][324] the Black Arts Movement,[69][325] and the widespread adoption of the slogan "Black is beautiful"[326] can all trace their roots to Malcolm X. In 1963, Malcolm X began a collaboration with Alex Haley on his life story, The Autobiography of Malcolm X.[145] He told Haley, "If I'm alive when this book comes out, it will be a miracle."[327] Haley completed and published it some months after the assassination.[328]

During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in his life among young people. Hip-hop groups such as Public Enemy adopted Malcolm X as an icon,[329] and his image was displayed in hundreds of thousands of homes, offices, and schools,[330] as well as on T-shirts and jackets.[331] In 1986 Ella Little-Collins merged the Organization of Afro-American Unity with the African American Defense League.[332]

In 1992 the film Malcolm X, an adaptation of The Autobiography of Malcolm X, was released.[333] In 1998, Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.[334]

Malcolm X was an inspiration for several fictional characters. He was fictionalized as the character Minister Q in the 1967 novel The Man Who Cried I Am by John A. Williams.[335] The Marvel Comics writer Chris Claremont confirmed that Malcolm X was an inspiration for the X-Men character Magneto, while Martin Luther King was an inspiration for Professor X.[336][337][338] Malcolm X also inspired the character Erik Killmonger in the film Black Panther.[339][340]

### Memorials and tributes

[edit]

A historical marker for Malcolm X's first home in Omaha, Nebraska. The home itself was demolished in 1965.

The house that once stood at 3448 Pinkney Street in North Omaha, Nebraska, was the first home of Malcolm Little with his birth family. The house was torn down in 1965 by new owners who did not know of its connection with Malcolm X.[341] The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.[342][343][344] A Nebraska Historical Marker now marks the site. The Malcolm X—Ella Little-Collins House in the Roxbury section of Boston, Massachusetts, where Malcolm X lived with his half-sister Ella Little-Collins and began getting involved in the Nation of Islam,[345] was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2021.[346] Several archaeological surveys have been performed on the house's grounds, and there are ongoing efforts to preserve the site.[347]

In 1968, twelve Black students who occupied North Hall at University of California, Santa Barbara temporarily renamed it Malcolm X Hall to force the administration to acknowledge the needs of Black students. As a result, UCSB created the Department of Black Studies.[348][349]

The Malcolm X—Ella Little-Collins House in Boston where Malcolm X and his half-sister Ella Little-Collins lived from 1941 to 1944.

In Lansing, Michigan, a Michigan Historical Marker was erected in 1975 on Malcolm Little's childhood home.[350] The city is also home to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy, a public charter school with an Afrocentric focus. The school is located in the building where Little attended elementary school.[351]

In cities across the United States, Malcolm X's birthday (May 19) is commemorated as Malcolm X Day. The first known celebration of Malcolm X Day took place in Washington, D.C., in 1971.[352] The city of Berkeley, California, has recognized Malcolm X's birthday as a citywide holiday since 1979.[353]

Malcolm X Boulevard in New York City

Many cities have renamed streets after Malcolm X. In 1987, New York mayor Ed Koch proclaimed Lenox Avenue in Harlem to be Malcolm X Boulevard.[354] The name of Reid Avenue in Brooklyn, New York, was changed to Malcolm X Boulevard in 1985.[355][356] Brooklyn also has El Shabazz Playground that was named after him.[357] New Dudley Street, in the Roxbury neighborhood of Boston, was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard in the 1990s.[358] In 1997, Oakland Avenue in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard.[359] Main Street in Lansing, Michigan, was renamed Malcolm X Street in 2010.[360] In 2016, Ankara, Turkey, renamed the street on which the U.S. is building its new embassy after Malcolm X.[361][362][Q]

Dozens of schools have been named after Malcolm X, including Malcolm X Shabazz High School in Newark, New Jersey,[364] Malcolm Shabazz City High School in Madison, Wisconsin,[365] Malcolm X College in Chicago, Illinois,[366] and El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy in Lansing, Michigan.[367] Malcolm X Liberation University, based on the Pan-Africanist ideas of Malcolm X, was founded in 1969 in North Carolina.[368]

In 1996, the first library named after Malcolm X was opened, the Malcolm X Branch Library and Performing Arts Center of the San Diego Public Library system.[369]

The U.S. Postal Service issued a Malcolm X postage stamp in 1999.[370] In 2005, Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm X was assassinated.[371] Collections of Malcolm X's papers are held by the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the Robert W. Woodruff Library.[372][373][374]

After a community-led initiative, Conrad Grebel University College in Canada (affiliated with the University of Waterloo) launched the Malcolm X Peace and Conflict Studies Scholarship in 2021 to support Black and Indigenous students enrolled in their Master of Peace and Conflict Studies program.[375][376]

In 2024, Malcolm X was inducted into the Nebraska Hall of Fame, with a bust of him being placed in the Nebraska State Capitol.[377]

## Portrayal in film, in television, and on stage

[edit]

Portrait of Malcolm X by Robert Templeton, from the collection Lest We Forget: Images of the Black Civil Rights Movement |  |

This article is part of
a series about

Denzel Washington

|

* Awards
* Filmography
* Gallery
* Quotes

* Don Pedro
* Easy Rawlins
* Lord Macbeth
* Macrinus

* Frank Lucas
* Malcolm X
* Rubin Carter
* Steve Biko

* Denzel Washington Is the Greatest Actor of All Time Period

* v
* t
* e

In 1986, composer Anthony Davis's opera X, The Life and Times of Malcolm X premiered at the New York City Opera. It was the first work by Davis, who would go on to win the Pulitzer Prize for Music for his opera The Central Park Five (2019).[378] In 2023, it was performed at the Metropolitan Opera in a production by Robert O'Hara, with Will Liverman playing the title role. It received positive reviews.[379]

Arnold Perl and Marvin Worth attempted to create a drama film based on The Autobiography of Malcolm X, but when people close to the subject declined to talk to them they decided to make a documentary instead. The result was the 1972 documentary film Malcolm X.

Denzel Washington played the title role in Spike Lee's film Malcolm X (1992).[380] Roger Ebert and Martin Scorsese included it on their lists of the ten best films of the 1990s.[381] Washington had previously played the part of Malcolm X in the 1981 Off-Broadway play When the Chickens Came Home to Roost.[382]

Other portrayals include:

* James Earl Jones, in the 1977 film The Greatest.[383]
* Dick Anthony Williams, in the 1978 television miniseries King[384] and the 1989 American Playhouse production of the Jeff Stetson play The Meeting.[385]
* Al Freeman Jr., in the 1979 television miniseries Roots: The Next Generations.[386]
* Morgan Freeman, in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet.[387]
* Ben Holt, in the 1986 opera X, The Life and Times of Malcolm X at the New York City Opera.[388]
* Gary Dourdan, in the 2000 television movie King of the World.[389]
* Joe Morton, in the 2000 television movie Ali: An American Hero.[390]
* Mario Van Peebles, in the 2001 film Ali.[391]
* Lindsay Owen Pierre, in the 2013 television movie Betty & Coretta.[392]
* François Battiste, in the stage play One Night in Miami, first performed in 2013.[393]
* Nigél Thatch, in the 2014 film Selma[394] and the 2019 television series Godfather of Harlem.[395]
* Kingsley Ben-Adir, in the 2020 film One Night in Miami, based on the play of the same name.[396]
* Jason Alan Carvell, in the 2023 season of the television series Godfather of Harlem.[397]
* Aaron Pierre, in the 2024 season of the television series Genius, which has been branded as MLK/X.[398]

## Published works

[edit]

The Autobiography of Malcolm X, first edition

* The Autobiography of Malcolm X. With the assistance of Alex Haley. New York: Grove Press, 1965. OCLC 219493184.
* Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Merit Publishers, 1965. OCLC 256095445.
* Malcolm X Talks to Young People. New York: Young Socialist Alliance, 1965. OCLC 81990227.
* Two Speeches by Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1965. OCLC 19464959.
* Malcolm X on Afro-American History. New York: Merit Publishers, 1967. OCLC 78155009.
* The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Morrow, 1968. OCLC 185901618.
* By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. OCLC 249307.
* The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971. OCLC 149849.
* The Last Speeches. Bruce Perry, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-87348-543-2.
* Malcolm X Talks to Young People: Speeches in the United States, Britain, and Africa. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-87348-962-1.
* February 1965: The Final Speeches. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-87348-749-8.
* The Diary of Malcolm X: 1964. Herb Boyd and Ilyasah Shabazz, eds. Chicago: Third World Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-88378-351-1.

## Explanatory notes

[edit]

1. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
2. ^ The accuracy of these accounts has been questioned by some people who met Malcolm X later in life or never knew him, including Ta-Nehisi Coates,[25] Maulana Karenga,[26] Ilyasah Shabazz,[27] and Raymond Winbush.[28] For further information, see Phelps,[29] Polk,[30] and Street et al.[31]
3. ^ Nation of Islam Temples were numbered according to the order in which they were established.[62]
4. ^ Attallah Shabazz has said she was not named after Attila, rather her name is Arabic for "the gift of God".[76][77]
5. ^ "People have to understand the [Autobiography of Malcolm X] was written at a time when indeed African Americans were likening themselves to warriors to underscore our revolutionary fervor. And Attallah was close to Attila the Hun, the warrior. But I'm named Attallah, which in Arabic means 'Gift of God.' I've never been Attila."[78]
6. ^ Some sources, including The Autobiography of Malcolm X, give the name Johnson Hinton, but Benjamin Karim (one of Malcolm X's top aides) and former Newsweek editor and Malcolm X biographer Peter Goldman both give the name Hinton Johnson.[85][86]
7. ^ King expressed mixed feelings toward Malcolm X. "He is very articulate ... but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views ... I don't want to seem to sound self-righteous ... or that I think I have the only truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the answer ... I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence is not going to solve our problem. And in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive, creative alternative, I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice ... [U]rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief."[113] However, the veracity of this quote as recorded by Alex Haley has been called into question by Jonathan Eigs, given that it does not appear on the original interview transcript.[114]
8. ^ "Estimates of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another, but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty-five thousand active temple people."[126]
9. ^ "The common response of Malcolm X to questions about numbers‍—‌'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'‍—‌was typical of the attitude of the leadership."[127]
10. ^ "Turning my back on Malcolm was one of the mistakes that I regret most in my life. I wish I'd been able to tell Malcolm that I was sorry, that he was right about so many things. But he was killed before I got the chance ... I might never have become a Muslim if it hadn't been for Malcolm. If I could go back and do it over again, I would never have turned my back on him."[131]
11. ^ "There was no time for substantive discussions between the two. They were photographed greeting each other warmly, smiling and shaking hands."[152]
12. ^ "Camera shutters clicked. The next day, the Chicago Sun-Times, the New York World-Telegram and Sun, and other dailies carried a picture of Malcolm and Martin shaking hands."[153]
13. ^ In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Haley wrote that Malcolm X said, "Hold it! Hold it! Don't get excited. Let's cool it, brothers" (p. 499). According to a transcript of an audio recording, Malcolm's only words were, "Hold it!", repeated ten times (DeCaro, p. 274).
14. ^ "'I'll be honest with you,' Malcolm X said to me. 'Everybody is talking about differences between the Messenger and me. It is absolutely impossible for us to differ.'"[284]
15. ^ On a radio program in December 1964, Malcolm X said "all of my former statements were prefaced by 'the Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches thus and so.' They weren't my statements, they were his statements, and I was repeating them."[285]
16. ^ Malcolm X told Lewis Lomax that "The Messenger is the Prophet of Allah."[291] On another occasion, he said, "We never refer to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet."[292]
17. ^ English-language sources disagreed whether the street was being renamed Malcolm X Road[361] or Malcolm X Avenue,[362] The state media agency's English-language announcement said merely that "the street ... will bear the name of Malcolm X".[363]

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Harrison, Isheka N. (July 2010). "Malcolm X's Grandson Working on Memoirs in Miami". South Florida Times. Archived from the original on June 24, 2016. Retrieved June 9, 2016.
2. ^ Watson, Clarence; Akhtar, Salman (2012). "Ideology and Identity: Malcolm X". In Akhtar, Salman (ed.). The African American Experience: Psychoanalytic Perspectives. Lanham, Maryland: Jason Aronson. p. 120\. ISBN 978-0-7657-0835-9.
3. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 20–30.
4. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 2–3.
5. ^ Vincent, Ted (March–April 1989). "The Garveyite Parents of Malcolm X". The Black Scholar. 20 (2): 10–13\. doi:10.1080/00064246.1989.11412923. ISSN 0006-4246. JSTOR 41067613.
6. ^ Malcolm X 1992, pp. 3–4.
7. ^ DeCaro 1996, pp. 43–44.
8. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 3.
9. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 4.
10. ^ Marable 2011, p. 29.
11. ^ a b Marable 2011, p. 32.
12. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 10.
13. ^ "Malcolm X and Seventh-day Adventism". Blacksdahistory. Archived from the original on July 29, 2019. Retrieved June 27, 2023.
14. ^ Marable 2011, p. 35.
15. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 35–36, 265.
16. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 33–34, 331.
17. ^ Dozier, Vickki (February 21, 2015). "How Malcolm X's murder rippled through his hometown". Lansing State Journal. Lansing, Michigan.
18. ^ a b Perry 1991, p. 42.
19. ^ "Timeline of Malcolm X's Life". PBS. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved December 31, 2020.
20. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 21–29, 55–56
21. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 32–48, 58–61.
22. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 62–81.
23. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 65–66.
24. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 77, 82–83.
25. ^ Coates 2011, online.
26. ^ Karenga, Maulana, "The Meaning and Measure of Malcolm X: Critical Remembrance and Rightful Reading", Boyd et al. 2012, p. 18.
27. ^ Martin, Michel (April 20, 2011). "Malcolm X's Daughter Disputes Claims in New Bio on Father". Tell Me More. NPR. Archived from the original on July 12, 2022. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
28. ^ Winbush, Raymond A., "Speculative Nonfiction: Manning Marable's Malcolm X", Ball & Burroughs 2012, pp. 105–117.
29. ^ Phelps, Christopher (August 2017). "The Sexuality of Malcolm X" (PDF). Journal of American Studies. 51 (3): 659–690\. doi:10.1017/S0021875816001341. S2CID 147843832. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 12, 2019. Retrieved July 11, 2019.
30. ^ Polk, Khary (Summer 2013). "Malcolm X, Sexual Hearsay, and Masculine Dissemblance". Biography. 36 (3): 568–584\. doi:10.1353/bio.2013.0029. JSTOR 24570210. S2CID 161615221.
31. ^ Street, Joe; Washington, Margaret; Hall, Simon; McLaughlin, Malcolm; Bailey, Peter (February 2013). "Roundtable – Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention". Journal of American Studies. 47 (1): 23–47\. doi:10.1017/S0021875812002605. S2CID 232254323.
32. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 51–52.
33. ^ a b Malcolm X 1992, p. 124.
34. ^ a b Carson, p. 108.
35. ^ a b Lord, Thornton & Bodipo-Memba 1992, p. 5.
36. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 106–109.
37. ^ Perry 1991, p. 99.
38. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 67–68.
39. ^ Malcolm X 1992, p. 181.
40. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 131.
41. ^ Parr, Patrick (2024). Malcolm Before X. University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 145–159\. doi:10.2307/jj.13703106. ISBN 978-1-62534-817-3.
42. ^ Malcolm X 1992, p. 199.
43. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 121.
44. ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 178; ellipsis in original.
45. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 108–110, 118.
46. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 127–128, 132–138
47. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 128–129.
48. ^ Perry 1991, p. 113.
49. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 134–135.
50. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 104–106.
51. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 136.
52. ^ a b Natambu 2002, pp. 138–139
53. ^ Malcolm X 1992, p. 196.
54. ^ Perry 1991, p. 116.
55. ^ Marable 2011, p. 95.
56. ^ Marable 2011, p. 96.
57. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 139–140.
58. ^ Malcolm X 1992, p. 229.
59. ^ Marable 2011, p. 98.
60. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 142, 144–145.
61. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 168.
62. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 141–142.
63. ^ Perry 1991, p. 147.
64. ^ Perry 1991, p. 152.
65. ^ Perry 1991, p. 153.
66. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 161–164.
67. ^ Carson 1991, p. 95.
68. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 122–123.
69. ^ a b c d Marable 2009, p. 301.
70. ^ Lincoln 1961, p. 189.
71. ^ Rickford 2003, pp. 36–45, 50–51.
72. ^ Rickford 2003, pp. 61–63.
73. ^ Shabazz, Betty, "Malcolm X as a Husband and Father", Clarke 1990, pp. 132–134.
74. ^ Rickford 2003, pp. 73–74.
75. ^ Rickford 2003, pp. 109–110.
76. ^ Hopkins, Ellen (November 30, 1989). "Yolanda King and Attallah Shabazz: Their Fathers' Daughters". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on February 6, 2018. Retrieved June 19, 2016.
77. ^ Miller, Russell (November 23, 1992). "X Patriot". New York. Archived from the original on July 27, 2023. Retrieved June 19, 2016.
78. ^ Barboza 1994, pp. 205–206.
79. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 122.
80. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 123.
81. ^ Assensoh & Alex-Assensoh 2016, p. xxi.
82. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 197.
83. ^ "Malikah Shabazz, daughter of Malcolm X, found dead at her home in New York". The Washington Post. November 22, 2021. Archived from the original on November 23, 2021. Retrieved November 24, 2021.
84. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 286.
85. ^ Karim 1992, pp. 47–48.
86. ^ Abdullah, Zain (Autumn 2012). "Narrating Muslim Masculinities: The Fruit of Islam and the Quest for Black Redemption". Spectrum: A Journal on Black Men. 1 (1): 169. doi:10.2979/spectrum.1.1.141. S2CID 162371130.
87. ^ a b c d Marable 2011, p. 127.
88. ^ a b Perry 1991, p. 164.
89. ^ a b Perry 1991, p. 165.
90. ^ a b c d Marable 2011, p. 128.
91. ^ Perry 1991, p. 166.
92. ^ Marable 2011, p. 132.
93. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 134–135.
94. ^ "Definition of hajj | Dictionary.com". www.dictionary.com. Archived from the original on March 9, 2023. Retrieved March 9, 2023.
95. ^ Krutzsch, Brett (April 5, 2021). "Malcolm X: Why El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Matters". The Revealer. Archived from the original on March 9, 2023. Retrieved March 9, 2023.
96. ^ Angelo Gomez, Michael (2005). Black Crescent: The Experience and Legacy of African Muslims in the Americas. Cambridge University Press. p. 367.
97. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 135, 193.
98. ^ a b Perry 1991, pp. 174–179.
99. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 231–233.
100. ^ Marable 2011, p. 172.
101. ^ Lincoln 1961, p. 18.
102. ^ Lucks, Daniel (2014). Selma to Saigon The Civil Rights Movement and the Vietnam War. University Press of Kentucky. p. 53\. ISBN 9780813145099.
103. ^ Rojas, Rafael (2015). Fighting Over Fidel The New York Intellectuals and the Cuban Revolution. Princeton University Press. p. 205\. ISBN 9781400880027.
104. ^ a b Lomax 1963, p. 55.
105. ^ a b c Perry 1991, p. 115.
106. ^ a b c Lomax 1963, p. 57.
107. ^ Lomax 1963, p. 181.
108. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 260.
109. ^ Marable 2011, p. 162.
110. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 215–216.
111. ^ Lomax 1963, pp. 79–80.
112. ^ Perry 1991, p. 203.
113. ^ Haley, Alex (January 1965). "The Playboy Interview: Martin Luther King". Playboy. Archived from the original on June 19, 2018. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
114. ^ Marcus, Josh (May 10, 2023). "Famous Martin Luther King quote ripping Malcom X was fake, author discovers". Independent. Archived from the original on May 11, 2023. Retrieved May 11, 2023.
115. ^ Cone 1991, p. 113.
116. ^ "Timeline". Malcolm X: Make It Plain, American Experience. PBS. May 19, 2005. Archived from the original on May 26, 2005. Retrieved November 11, 2017.
117. ^ Heer, Jeet (May 11, 2016). "Farrakhan's Grand Illusion". The New Republic. Archived from the original on April 4, 2022. Retrieved June 26, 2019.
118. ^ a b Lomax 1963, pp. 149–152.
119. ^ a b Malcolm X & Karim 1989, p. 78.
120. ^ a b Lomax 1963, pp. 173–174.
121. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 182.
122. ^ a b Cone 1991, pp. 99–100.
123. ^ a b West, Cornel (1984). "The Paradox of the Afro-American Rebellion". In Sayres, Sohnya; Stephanson, Anders; Aronowitz, Stanley; Jameson, Fredric (eds.). The 60s Without Apology. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8166-1336-6.
124. ^ Cone 1991, p. 91.
125. ^ Marable 2011, p. 123.
126. ^ Lomax 1963, pp. 15–16.
127. ^ Clegg III 1997, p. 115.
128. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 296–297.
129. ^ Remnick, David (1999) [1998]. King of the World: Muhammed Ali and the Rise of an American Hero. New York: Vintage Books. p. 165\. ISBN 978-0-375-70229-7.
130. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 165.
131. ^ Ali 2004, p. 85.
132. ^ Marable 2011[page needed]
133. ^ Marsh 2000, p. 101.
134. ^ Marsh 2000, pp. 58–59, 67.
135. ^ a b c d Branch 1998, pp. 3–20.
136. ^ a b c d Marable 2011, pp. 205–210.
137. ^ "Muslim Leader Elijah Muhammad Is Sued for Paternity | EBSCO Research Starters". www.ebsco.com. Retrieved May 19, 2025.
138. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 230–234.
139. ^ "Malcolm X Exposes Elijah Muhammad". February 2, 2019. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via YouTube.
140. ^ "Timeline of Malcolm X's Life | American Experience". PBS. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved May 19, 2025.
141. ^ "Malcolm X's Speech After the Firebombing (Feb. 14, 1965)". ICIT Digital Library. Retrieved May 19, 2025.
142. ^ a b "Malcolm X Scores U.S. and Kennedy". The New York Times. December 2, 1963. p. 21\. Archived from the original on July 27, 2022. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
143. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 288–290.
144. ^ Perry 1991, p. 242.
145. ^ a b Perry 1991, p. 214.
146. ^ a b Handler, M. S. (March 9, 1964). "Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad". The New York Times. p. 1\. Archived from the original on April 7, 2016. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
147. ^ Brown, DeNeen L. (January 18, 2014). "Martin Luther King Jr. met Malcolm X just once. The photo still haunts us with what was lost". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on October 19, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2020.
148. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 251–252.
149. ^ Malcolm X 1990, pp. 18–22.
150. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 294–296.
151. ^ Malcolm X & Breitman 1989, pp. 33–67.
152. ^ Cone 1991, p. 2.
153. ^ Perry 1991, p. 255.
154. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 257–259.
155. ^ Malcolm X 1990, pp. 23–44.
156. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 300–301.
157. ^ Perry 1991, p. 261.
158. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 262–263.
159. ^ DeCaro 1996, p. 204.
160. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 263–265.
161. ^ Perry 1991, p. 267.
162. ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 388–393; quote from pp. 390–391.
163. ^ Curtis IV, E. E. (2020). Muslim American Politics and the Future of US Democracy. USA: NYU Press. p. 63.
164. ^ Lomax 1963, p. 62.
165. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 303.
166. ^ Carson 1991, p. 305.
167. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 304–305.
168. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 360–362.
169. ^ a b Natambu 2002, p. 308
170. ^ Perry 1991, p. 269.
171. ^ Malcolm X 1992, p. 403.
172. ^ Tuck 2014, pp. 155–156.
173. ^ a b c d Tuck 2014, p. 157.
174. ^ Bethune, Lebert, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke 1990, pp. 226–231.
175. ^ Malcolm X & Breitman 1989, pp. 113–126.
176. ^ a b Tuck 2014, pp. 157–158.
177. ^ Tuck 2014, p. 157 & 159.
178. ^ Perlstein, Rick (August 2008). "1964 Republican Convention: Revolution from the Right". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on January 17, 2022. Retrieved June 20, 2015.
179. ^ Bethune, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke 1990, pp. 231–233.
180. ^ Malcolm X (December 3, 1964). "Malcolm X Oxford Debate". Malcolm X: A Research Site. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
181. ^ a b Tuck 2014, p. 154.
182. ^ a b Tuck 2014, p. 158.
183. ^ Tuck 2014, pp. 158–159.
184. ^ a b c Tuck 2014, p. 159.
185. ^ Carson 1991, p. 349.
186. ^ Perry 1991, p. 351.
187. ^ Natambu 2002, p. 312.
188. ^ Kundnani, Arun (February 10, 2005). "Black British History: Remembering Malcolm's Visit to Smethwick". Independent Race and Refugee News Network. Institute of Race Relations. Archived from the original on September 19, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
189. ^ Jeffries, Stuart (October 15, 2014). "Britain's Most Racist Election: The Story of Smethwick, 50 Years On". The Guardian. Archived from the original on August 10, 2022. Retrieved April 17, 2016.
190. ^ Terrill 2004, p. 9.
191. ^ Karim 1992, p. 128.
192. ^ a b Perry 1991, pp. 277–278.
193. ^ Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities (June 2, 1964). "Malcolm X". Who Speaks for the Negro?. Archived from the original on March 10, 2022. Retrieved March 11, 2015.
194. ^ "The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University". columbia.edu. Archived from the original on November 30, 2019. Retrieved December 13, 2019.
195. ^ Karim 1992, pp. 159–160.
196. ^ Kondo 1993, p. 170.
197. ^ Friedly 1992, p. 169.
198. ^ Majied, Eugene (April 10, 1964). "On My Own". Muhammad Speaks. Nation of Islam. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
199. ^ Carson 1991, p. 473.
200. ^ Carson 1991, p. 324.
201. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 290–292.
202. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 352–356.
203. ^ a b c Lomax 1987, p. 198
204. ^ Evanzz 1992, p. 248.
205. ^ Evanzz 1992, p. 264.
206. ^ Lord, Thornton & Bodipo-Memba 1992, p. 3.
207. ^ Massaquoi, Hans J. (September 1964). "Mystery of Malcolm X". Ebony. pp. 38–40, 42, 44–46\. Archived from the original on July 27, 2023. Retrieved April 4, 2017.
208. ^ Ross, Janell (May 19, 2016). "Google Commemorates a Very Controversial Civil-Rights Figure, Yuri Kochiyama". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 28, 2019. Retrieved May 20, 2016.
209. ^ Karim 1992, p. 191.
210. ^ a b Evanzz 1992, p. 295.
211. ^ a b Kihss 1965, p. 1.
212. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 436–437.
213. ^ Perry 1991, p. 366.
214. ^ Marable 2011, p. 450.
215. ^ Perry 1991, pp. 366–367.
216. ^ Talese, Gay (February 22, 1965). "Police Save Suspect From the Crowd". The New York Times. p. 10\. Archived from the original on July 27, 2022. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
217. ^ Kondo 1993, p. 97.
218. ^ Buckley, Thomas (March 11, 1966). "Malcolm X Jury Finds 3 Guilty". The New York Times. p. 1\. Archived from the original on June 19, 2018. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
219. ^ Roth, Jack (April 15, 1966). "3 Get Life Terms in Malcolm Case". The New York Times. p. 36\. Archived from the original on June 19, 2018. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
220. ^ Kondo 1993, p. 110.
221. ^ Leland, John (February 6, 2020). "Who Really Killed Malcolm X?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on February 6, 2020. Retrieved February 27, 2020.
222. ^ Nutt, Amy Ellis; Barry Carter (April 4, 2011). "Muslim Man Denies Author's Claim That He Killed Malcolm X". HuffPost. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved February 27, 2020.
223. ^ Bush, Roderick (1999). We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century. New York: New York University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-8147-1317-4.
224. ^ Friedly 1992, pp. 112–129.
225. ^ "Malcolm X Killer Heads Mosque". BBC News. March 31, 1998. Archived from the original on April 3, 2008. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
226. ^ Jacobson, Mark (October 1, 2007). "The Man Who Didn't Shoot Malcolm X". New York. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
227. ^ Marable 2011, p. 474.
228. ^ Fanelli, James (May 18, 2008). "Quiet Life of an 'X'-Assassin". New York Post. Archived from the original on October 24, 2020. Retrieved June 20, 2018.
229. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 489.
230. ^ Marable 2011, pp. 474–475.
231. ^ Southall, Ashley; Bromwich, Jonah E. (November 17, 2021). "2 Men Convicted of Killing Malcolm X Will Be Exonerated Decades Later". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved November 17, 2021.
232. ^ Southall, Ashley (July 14, 2022). "Man Exonerated in Malcolm X Murder Sues New York City After Talks Fail". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 15, 2022. Retrieved July 15, 2022.
233. ^ Payne, Les; Payne, Tamara (2020). The Dead Are Arising: The Life of Malcolm X. New York: Liveright. pp. 477–478\. ISBN 978-1-63149-166-5.
234. ^ Perry 1991, p. 374\. Alex Haley, in his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, says 22,000 (p. 519).
235. ^ a b Rickford 2003, p. 252.
236. ^ DeCaro 1996, p. 291.
237. ^ a b Arnold, Martin (February 28, 1965). "Harlem Is Quiet as Crowds Watch Malcolm X Rites". The New York Times. p. 1\. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
238. ^ DeCaro 1996, p. 290.
239. ^ Davis, Ossie (February 27, 1965). "Malcolm X's Eulogy". The Official Website of Malcolm X. Archived from the original on July 31, 2016. Retrieved August 9, 2016.
240. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 255.
241. ^ Rickford 2003, pp. 261–262.
242. ^ a b King, Martin Luther Jr. (February 26, 1965). "Telegram from Martin Luther King Jr. to Betty al-Shabazz". The Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute. Archived from the original on February 1, 2016. Retrieved May 28, 2018.
243. ^ Evanzz 1992, p. 301.
244. ^ Clegg III 1997, p. 232.
245. ^ DeCaro 1996, p. 285.
246. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 247.
247. ^ "Malcolm X". The New York Times. February 22, 1965. p. 20\. Archived from the original on June 22, 2022. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
248. ^ "Death and Transfiguration". Time. March 5, 1965. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
249. ^ a b Rickford 2003, p. 248.
250. ^ Evanzz 1992, p. 305.
251. ^ Kenworthy, E. W. (February 26, 1965). "Malcolm Called a Martyr Abroad". The New York Times. p. 15\. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
252. ^ a b "How World Saw Malcolm X's Death" (PDF). New York Amsterdam News. March 13, 1965. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 7, 2022. Retrieved January 15, 2018.
253. ^ Evanzz 1992, p. 306.
254. ^ King, Martin Luther Jr. (March 13, 1965). "The Nightmare of Violence" (PDF). New York Amsterdam News. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 7, 2021. Retrieved January 15, 2018.
255. ^ Perry 1991, p. 371.
256. ^ Marable 2009, pp. 305–306.
257. ^ Perry 1991, p. 372.
258. ^ Grant, Earl, "The Last Days of Malcolm X", Clarke 1990, p. 96.
259. ^ Kondo 1993, pp. 7–39.
260. ^ Evanzz 1992, p. 294.
261. ^ Rickford 2003, pp. 437, 492–495.
262. ^ Evanzz 1992, pp. 298–299.
263. ^ Friedly 1992, p. 253.
264. ^ Kondo 1993, pp. 182–183, 193–194.
265. ^ Marable 2009, p. 305.
266. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 492.
267. ^ Wartofsky, Alona (February 17, 1995). "Brother Minister: The Martyrdom of Malcolm X". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 13, 2012. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
268. ^ "Farrakhan Admission on Malcolm X". 60 Minutes. CBS News. May 14, 2000. Archived from the original on July 17, 2022. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
269. ^ "Farrakhan Responds to Media Attacks". The Final Call. May 15, 2000. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
270. ^ Natambu 2002, pp. 315–316.
271. ^ "Release Government Files on Malcolm X Assassination". The Boston Globe. January 10, 2015. Archived from the original on July 22, 2022. Retrieved November 11, 2017.
272. ^ Jackman, Tom (January 25, 2019). "Kennedy, King, Malcolm X relatives and scholars seek new assassination probes". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 13, 2022. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
273. ^ Simkin, John (January 2019). "Kennedy and King Family Members and Advisors Call for Congress to Reopen Assassination Probes". Spartacus Educational. Archived from the original on July 22, 2022. Retrieved January 26, 2019.
274. ^ Laughland, Oliver (February 21, 2021). "Malcolm X family says letter shows NYPD and FBI conspired in his murder". The Guardian. Archived from the original on February 21, 2021. Retrieved February 21, 2021. "The arrests kept the two men from managing door security at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights on the day of the shooting, according to the letter."
275. ^ Meminger, Dean (February 21, 2021). "Daughter of Former NYPD Officer Says Malcolm X Assassination Letter is Fake". NY1. Archived from the original on February 27, 2021. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
276. ^ "Malcolm X's family plans $100M wrongful death lawsuit against CIA, FBI – National | Globalnews.ca". globalnews.ca. Archived from the original on February 23, 2023. Retrieved February 23, 2023.
277. ^ Tracy, Thomas (July 25, 2023). "Witness to Malcolm X assassination comes forward with account questioning NYPD response". Daily News. New York. Archived from the original on August 5, 2023. Retrieved August 5, 2023.
278. ^ NEUMEISTER, LARRY (November 15, 2024). "The daughters of Malcolm X sue the CIA, FBI and NYPD over the civil rights leader's assassination". AP News. Archived from the original on December 26, 2024. Retrieved November 17, 2024.
279. ^ Kelley, Robin D. G. (1999). "Malcolm X". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books. p. 1233.
280. ^ Terrill 2004, pp. 15–16.
281. ^ X, Malcolm. "God's Judgement of White America". malcolm-x.org. Archived from the original on April 8, 2016. Retrieved April 2, 2016.
282. ^ a b Lomax 1963, pp. 80–81.
283. ^ Terrill 2004, p. 184.
284. ^ Lomax 1963, p. 91.
285. ^ Malcolm X & Perry 1989, p. 104.
286. ^ Lomax 1963, p. 67.
287. ^ Lomax 1963, p. 171.
288. ^ Lomax 1963, pp. 24, 137–138.
289. ^ Malcolm X 1991, p. 119.
290. ^ DeCaro 1996, pp. 166–167.
291. ^ Lomax 1963, p. 80.
292. ^ Malcolm X & Perry 1989, p. 46.
293. ^ Lincoln 1961, p. 95.
294. ^ Lincoln 1961, p. 96.
295. ^ a b c "When Malcolm X visited Gaza in September 1964". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on February 25, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
296. ^ "Socialist Viewpoint ... news and analysis for working people". marxists.org. Archived from the original on February 25, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
297. ^ "What did Malcolm X say about Palestine, Gaza and Zionism?". newarab.com. February 21, 2024. Archived from the original on February 25, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
298. ^ Malcolm X, "The Negro's Fight", The Egyptian Gazette, August 25, 1964. Reprinted as "Racism: The Canver That Is Destroying America" in Clarke 1990, pp. 302–306.
299. ^ Malcolm X 1990, pp. 33–35.
300. ^ Malcolm X & Breitman 1989, pp. 43, 47.
301. ^ Malcolm X 1990, p. 90.
302. ^ Malcolm X 1990, p. 117.
303. ^ Malcolm X 1990, pp. 38–41.
304. ^ Malcolm X 1990, pp. 212–213.
305. ^ Malcolm X 1992, p. 391.
306. ^ Parks, Gordon, "Malcolm X: The Minutes of Our Last Meeting", Clarke 1990, p. 122.
307. ^ a b Cone 1991, p. 284.
308. ^ Perry 1991, p. 277.
309. ^ Goldman, Peter Louis (1979). The death and life of Malcolm X. University of Illinois Press. p. 438\. ISBN 9780252007743.
310. ^ "Malcolm X's Daughter Disputes Claims in New Bio on Father". NPR. Retrieved May 19, 2025.
311. ^ Tatchell, Peter (October 20, 2009). "Malcolm X was bisexual. Get over it". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved May 19, 2025.
312. ^ Foundation, Peter Tatchell (March 11, 2019). "Malcolm X – Gay or bisexual black hero?". Peter Tatchell Foundation. Retrieved May 19, 2025.
313. ^ "Manning Marable's 'Reinvention' of Malcolm X". All Things Considered. NPR. April 5, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2021.
314. ^ Phelps, Christopher (August 2017). "The Sexuality of Malcolm X". Journal of American Studies. 51 (3). Cambridge University: 659–690\. doi:10.1017/S0021875816001341. S2CID 147843832.
315. ^ "Malcolm X's Daughter Disputes Claims in New Bio on Father". Tell Me More. NPR. April 20, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2021.
316. ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. p. 333\. ISBN 978-1-57392-963-9.
317. ^ Marable, Manning; Frazier, Nishani; McMillian, John Campbell (2003). Freedom on My Mind: The Columbia Documentary History of the African American Experience. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-231-10890-4.
318. ^ Salley, Columbus (1999). The Black 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential African-Americans, Past and Present. New York: Citadel Press. p. 88\. ISBN 978-0-8065-2048-3.
319. ^ Cone 1991, pp. 291–292.
320. ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2002). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. New York: HarperCollins. p. 97\. ISBN 978-0-06-073064-2.
321. ^ Perry 1991, p. 379.
322. ^ Turner, Richard Brent (2004). "Islam in the African-American Experience". In Bobo, Jacqueline; Hudley, Cynthia; Michel, Claudine (eds.). The Black Studies Reader. New York: Routledge. p. 445\. ISBN 978-0-415-94554-7.
323. ^ Perry 1991, p. 380.
324. ^ Sales 1994, p. 187.
325. ^ Woodard, Komozi (1999). A Nation Within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) & Black Power Politics. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. p. 62\. ISBN 978-0-8078-4761-9.
326. ^ Cone 1991, p. 291.
327. ^ Haley, "Epilogue", Autobiography, p. 471.
328. ^ Perry 1991, p. 375.
329. ^ Sales 1994, p. 5.
330. ^ Marable 2009, pp. 301–302.
331. ^ Sales 1994, p. 3.
332. ^ Millere, Mauricelm-Lei (2021). Malcolm X and The Organization of Afro-American Unity: African American Defense League (A2DL – OAAU). online: Kindle Books. p. 5\. ASIN B097YR2SBH.
333. ^ Sales 1994, p. 4.
334. ^ Gray, Paul (June 8, 1998). "Required Reading: Nonfiction Books". Time. Retrieved March 28, 2016.
335. ^ Tucker, Jeffrey Allen (2018). Conversations with John A. Williams. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-1817-1, p 135.
336. ^ Young, Paul (March 30, 2014). "Real Life Inspirations Behind Some of the Best Comic Book Villains". Screen Rant.
337. ^ Hanks, Henry (June 3, 2011). "The secret to 'X-Men's' success". CNN. Archived from the original on May 19, 2017.
338. ^ Darowski, Joseph J. The Ages of the X-Men:Essays on the Children of the Atom in Changing Times. p. 71.
339. ^ Eells, Josh (February 18, 2018). "The 'Black Panther' Revolution". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on February 25, 2018. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
340. ^ Ramos, Dino-Ray; N'Duka, Amanda (January 9, 2019). "New Hollywood Podcast: Michael B. Jordan Talks How 'Black Panther' Shifted Hollywood's Idea Of Representation". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved October 2, 2019.
341. ^ McMorris, Robert (March 11, 1989). "Empty Lot Holds Dreams for Rowena Moore". Omaha World-Herald. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
342. ^ "National Register of Historic Places – Nebraska, Douglas County". National Register of Historic Places. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
343. ^ "NRHP: Malcolm X House Site". Nebraska State Historical Society. Retrieved June 20, 2018.
344. ^ "Nebraska Historical Marker: Malcolm X". Nebraska State Historical Society. Archived from the original on October 28, 2019. Retrieved June 20, 2018.
345. ^ "Malcolm X House, 1875, Roxbury, MA." Historic Boston Incorporated. Retrieved April 23, 2023.
346. ^ Paybarah, Ali. "Malcolm X's Early Home in Boston Gets U.S. Historic Designation" The New York Times. Published March 4, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2023.
347. ^ "MALCOLM X HOUSE." City of Boston. Retrieved April 23, 2023.
348. ^ Kamidi, Sanya; Mejías-Pascoe, Sofía (October 18, 2018). "50 Years, 12 Students and the Takeover That Changed Everything". The Daily Nexus | The University of California, Santa Barbara'. Retrieved May 18, 2024.
349. ^ Estrada, Andrea (October 9, 2018). "North Hall Takeover 50 Years Later". The Current. Retrieved May 18, 2024.
350. ^ "Malcolm X Homesite". Michigan Historical Markers. Archived from the original on August 5, 2020. Retrieved June 20, 2018.
351. ^ Yancey, Patty (2000). "We Hold on to Our Kids, We Hold on Tight: Tandem Charters in Michigan". In Fuller, Bruce (ed.). Inside Charter Schools: The Paradox of Radical Decentralization. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-674-00325-5.
352. ^ Gay, Kathlyn (2007). African-American Holidays, Festivals and Celebrations. Detroit: Omnigraphics. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-7808-0779-2.
353. ^ Thaai, Walker (May 20, 2005). "Berkeley Honors Controversial Civil Rights Figure". Mercury News.
354. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 443.
355. ^ Rickford 2003, p. 419.
356. ^ Barron, James (January 18, 2009). "'Not Much of a Block,' but It's Named for a King". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 22, 2009. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
357. ^ "El Shabazz Playground: NYC Parks". New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
358. ^ DeCosta-Klipa, Nik (September 19, 2019). "Boston residents will get to vote on changing the name of Dudley Square. Here's why". The Boston Globe. Retrieved October 4, 2019.
359. ^ Scoville, Jen (December 1997). "The Big Beat". Texas Monthly. Archived from the original on December 29, 2004. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
360. ^ Vela, Susan (September 14, 2010). "Malcolm X, Cesar Chavez Get Nods for Lansing Street, Plaza Names". Lansing State Journal.
361. ^ a b Harvey, Benjamin (October 14, 2018). "Turkey Names Street Leading to U.S. Embassy 'Malcolm X Road'". Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg News. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
362. ^ a b Kent, Lauren (October 15, 2018). "Turkey renames street of new US Embassy to Malcolm X Avenue". CNN. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
363. ^ Calik, Burcu (October 13, 2018). "Turkey: New US Embassy street to be named 'Malcolm X'". Anadolu Agency. Retrieved October 23, 2018.
364. ^ Lee, Felicia R. (May 15, 1993). "Newark Students, Both Good and Bad, Make Do". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
365. ^ Hunt, Lori Bona (February 26, 1991). "Malcolm X's Widow Sees Signs of Hope". Milwaukee Journal.
366. ^ Witkowsky, Kathy (Spring 2000). "A Day in the Life". National CrossTalk. Archived from the original on March 3, 2001. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
367. ^ "Home". Shabazz Public School Academy. Retrieved February 27, 2023.
368. ^ Belvin, Brent (October 6, 2004). Master's Thesis: Malcolm X Liberation University: An Experiment in Independent Black Education (Thesis). North Carolina State University. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
369. ^ Flynn, Pat (January 7, 1996). "Big Crowd Welcomes New Library Warmly". The San Diego Union-Tribune.
370. ^ Marable 2009, pp. 303–304.
371. ^ "Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center Launches". Columbia University. May 17, 2005. Retrieved October 2, 2014.
372. ^ Marable 2011, p. 564.
373. ^ Hendrick, Bill (September 2, 1999). "A Revelation in Letters: Educated, Tender Malcolm X". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. ProQuest 413815431.
374. ^ Eakin, Emily (January 8, 2003). "Malcolm X Trove to Schomburg Center". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 25, 2013. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
375. ^ "New MPACS Scholarship Honours Malcolm X's Legacy". University of Waterloo. June 28, 2021. Retrieved February 24, 2022.
376. ^ "Peace Incubator participant helps establish new Malcolm X PACS Scholarship". University of Waterloo. June 28, 2021. Retrieved February 24, 2022.
377. ^ Bonderson, Aaron. "Malcolm X inducted into the Nebraska Hall of Fame". Nebraska Public Media. Published May 22, 2024. Retrieved September 16, 2024.
378. ^ Tsioulcas, Anastasia (November 23, 2023). "Malcolm X finally arrives at New York's Metropolitan Opera". NPR.
379. ^ "X: The Life and Times of Malcolm X". Metropolitan Opera.
380. ^ Canby, Vincent (November 18, 1992). "'Malcolm X,' as Complex as Its Subject". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
381. ^ Anderson, Jeffrey M. "The Best Films of the 1990s". Combustible Celluloid. Archived from the original on January 24, 2001. Retrieved November 11, 2017.
382. ^ Rich, Frank (July 15, 1981). "The Stage: Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
383. ^ Canby, Vincent (May 21, 1977). "Ali's Latest Victory Is 'The Greatest'". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
384. ^ O'Connor, John J. (February 9, 1978). "TV: 6-Hour 'King,' Drama of Civil Rights Drive". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
385. ^ Goodman, Walter (May 3, 1989). "An Imaginary Meeting of Dr. King and Malcolm X". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
386. ^ Maslin, Janet (February 25, 1979). "TV: End of 'Roots II' Delineates 60's". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
387. ^ "The Deification of Morgan Freeman: An Incomplete Filmography". The New York Times. August 28, 2011. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
388. ^ Henahan, Donal (September 29, 1986). "Opera: Anthony Davis's 'X (The Life and Times of Malcolm X)'". The New York Times. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
389. ^ Romano, Frederick V. (2004). The Boxing Filmography: American Features, 1920–2003. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. pp. 138–139\. ISBN 978-0-7864-1793-3.
390. ^ Gallo, Phil (August 30, 2000). "Review: 'Ali: An American Hero'". Variety. Retrieved June 9, 2016.
391. ^ Mitchell, Elvis (December 25, 2001). "Master of the Boast, King of the Ring, Vision of the Future". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 24, 2009. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
392. ^ Lowry, Brian (January 30, 2013). "Review: 'Betty & Coretta'". Variety. Retrieved June 9, 2016.
393. ^ Verini, Bob (August 5, 2013). "L.A. Legit Review: 'One Night in Miami…'". Archived from the original on June 28, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
394. ^ Scott, A. O. (December 24, 2014). "A 50-Mile March, Nearly 50 Years Later". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 24, 2014. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
395. ^ Petski, Denise (September 21, 2018). "'Godfather Of Harlem': Nigél Thatch To Star As Malcolm X In Epix Drama Series". Deadline. Retrieved December 18, 2019.
396. ^ Fleming., Mike Jr. (January 7, 2020). "Regina King Directing Debut 'One Night In Miami' Underway With Kingsley Ben-Adir, Eli Goree, Aldis Hodge & Leslie Odom Jr As '60s Icons". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved January 7, 2020.
397. ^ Simons, Roxy (January 15, 2023). "Why does Nigél Thatch not play Malcolm X in "Godfather of Harlem" Season 3?". Newsweek. Retrieved April 30, 2023.
398. ^ Andreeva, Nellie (September 28, 2022). "Genius: MLK/X Sets 4 Leads, Including Kelvin Harrison Jr. As Martin Luther King Jr., Aaron Pierre As Malcolm X". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved September 28, 2022.

### Works cited

[edit]

* Ali, Muhammad (2004). The Soul of a Butterfly: Reflections on Life's Journey. with Hana Yasmeen Ali. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5569-1.
* Assensoh, A. B.; Alex-Assensoh, Yvette M. (2016). Malcolm X and Africa. Amherst, New York: Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1-60497-924-4.
* Ball, Jared A.; Burroughs, Todd Steven, eds. (2012). A Lie of Reinvention: Correcting Manning Marable's Malcolm X. Baltimore: Black Classic Press. ISBN 978-1-57478-049-9.
* Barboza, Steven (1994). American Jihad: Islam After Malcolm X. New York: Image Books. ISBN 978-0-385-47694-2.
* Boyd, Herb; Daniels, Ron; Karenga, Maulana; Madhubuti, Haki R., eds. (2012). By Any Means Necessary: Malcolm X: Real, Not Reinvented. Chicago: Third World Press. ISBN 978-0-88378-336-8.
* Branch, Taylor (1998). Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–65. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-80819-2.
* Carson, Clayborne (1991). Malcolm X: The FBI File. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-758-1.
* Clarke, John Henrik, ed. (1990) [1969]. Malcolm X: The Man and His Times. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0-86543-201-7.
* Clegg III, Claude Andrew (1997). An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-312-18153-6.
* Coates, Ta-Nehisi (April 11, 2011). "The Sexuality of Malcolm X". The Atlantic. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
* Cone, James H. (1991). Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or a Nightmare. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books. ISBN 978-0-88344-721-5.
* DeCaro, Louis A. (1996). On the Side of My People: A Religious Life of Malcolm X. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1864-3.
* Evanzz, Karl (1992). The Judas Factor: The Plot to Kill Malcolm X. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 978-1-56025-049-4.
* Friedly, Michael (1992). Malcolm X: The Assassination. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-40010-9.
* Karim, Benjamin (1992). Remembering Malcolm. with Peter Skutches and David Gallen. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-881-6.
* Kihss, Peter (February 22, 1965). "Malcolm X Shot to Death at Rally Here". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved June 19, 2018.
* Kondo, Zak A. (1993). Conspiracys: Unravelling the Assassination of Malcolm X. Washington, D.C.: Nubia Press. OCLC 28837295.
* Lincoln, C. Eric (1961). The Black Muslims in America. Boston: Beacon Press. OCLC 422580.
* Lomax, Louis E. (1963). When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World. Cleveland: World Publishing. OCLC 1071204.
* Lomax, Louis E. (1987) [1968]. To Kill a Black Man: The Shocking Parallel in the Lives of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. Los Angeles: Holloway House. ISBN 978-0-87067-731-1.
* Lord, Lewis; Thornton, Jeannye; Bodipo-Memba, Alejandro (November 15, 1992). "The Legacy of Malcolm X". U.S. News & World Report. p. 5\. Archived from the original on January 14, 2012. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
* Malcolm X; Haley, Alex (1992) [1965]. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-37671-8. Citations in this article refer to this edition, of the many that have been published.
* Malcolm X (1989) [1970]. Breitman, George (ed.). By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-150-2.
* Malcolm X (1989) [1971]. Karim, Benjamin (ed.). The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. New York: Arcade. ISBN 978-1-55970-006-1.
* Malcolm X (1989). Perry, Bruce (ed.). The Last Speeches. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-543-2.
* Malcolm X (1990) [1965]. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-0-8021-3213-0.
* Malcolm X (1991) [1968]. The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Paragon House. ISBN 978-1-55778-479-7.
* Marable, Manning (2011). Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02220-5.
* Marable, Manning (2009). "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life: A Historian's Adventures in Living History". In Marable, Manning; Aidi, Hishaam D (eds.). Black Routes to Islam. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8400-5.
* Marable, Manning; Felber, Garrett (2013). The Portable Malcolm X Reader: A Man Who Stands for Nothing Will Fall for Anything. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-101-60294-2.
* Marsh, Clifton E. (2000) [1996]. The Lost-Found Nation of Islam in America. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-1-57886-008-1.
* Moore, R. Laurence (1987). Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-536399-9.
* Natambu, Kofi (2002). The Life and Work of Malcolm X. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. ISBN 978-0-02-864218-5.
* Perry, Bruce (1991). Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America. Barrytown, New York: Station Hill. ISBN 978-0-88268-103-0.
* Rickford, Russell J. (2003). Betty Shabazz: A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm X. Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1-4022-0171-4.
* Sales, William W. (1994). From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-480-3.
* Terrill, Robert (2004). Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment. Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-730-3.
* Tuck, Stephen (2014). The Night Malcolm X Spoke at the Oxford Union: A Transatlantic Story of Antiracist Protest. Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-27933-9.

## Further reading

[edit]

Library resources about
Malcolm X

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Abernethy, Graeme (2013). The Iconography of Malcolm X. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1920-7.
* Baldwin, James (2007) [1973]. One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haley's "The Autobiography of Malcolm X". New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-307-27594-3.
* Bailey, A. Peter (2013). Witnessing Brother Malcolm X: The Master Teacher. Plantation, Florida: Llumina Press. ISBN 978-1-62550-039-7.
* Breitman, George (1967). The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-004-8.
* Breitman, George; Porter, Herman; Smith, Baxter (1991) [1976]. The Assassination of Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-632-3.
* Cleage, Albert B.; Breitman, George (1968). Myths About Malcolm X: Two Views. New York: Merit. OCLC 615819.
* Collins, Rodnell P.; with A. Peter Bailey (1998). Seventh Child: A Family Memoir of Malcolm X. Secaucus, New Jersey: Birch Lane Press. ISBN 978-1-55972-491-3.
* Conyers, James L. Jr.; Smallwood, Andrew P., eds. (2008). Malcolm X: A Historical Reader. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-89089-228-2.
* DeCaro, Louis A. (1998). Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1932-9.
* Dyson, Michael Eric (1995). Making Malcolm: The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509235-6.
* Gallen, David, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: As They Knew Him. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-850-2.
* Goldman, Peter (1979). The Death and Life of Malcolm X (2nd ed.). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-00774-3.
* Jamal, Hakim A. (1972). From The Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-46234-9.
* Jenkins, Robert L. (2002). The Malcolm X Encyclopedia. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29264-4.
* Kly, Yussuf Naim, ed. (1986). The Black Book: The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X (El Hajj Malik El Shabazz). Atlanta: Clarity Press. ISBN 978-0-932863-03-4.
* Leader, Edward Roland (1993). Understanding Malcolm X: The Controversial Changes in His Political Philosophy. New York: Vantage Press. ISBN 978-0-533-09520-9.
* Lee, Spike; with Ralph Wiley (1992). By Any Means Necessary: The Trials and Tribulations of the Making of Malcolm X. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-56282-913-1.
* Marable, Manning; Felber, Garrett, eds. (2013). The Portable Malcolm X Reader. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-310694-4.
* Payne, Les; Payne, Tamara (2020). The Dead Are Arising: The Life of Malcolm X. New York: Liveright. ISBN 978-1-63149-166-5.
* Roberts, Randy; Smith, Johnny (2016). Blood Brothers: The Fatal Friendship Between Muhammad Ali and Malcolm X. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07970-4.
* Shabazz, Ilyasah; with Kim McLarin (2002). Growing Up X: A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-44495-0.
* Sherwood, Marika (2011). Malcolm X Visits Abroad. Hollywood, California: Tsehai Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59907-050-6.
* Strickland, William; et al. (1994). Malcolm X: Make It Plain. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-017713-8.
* Terrill, Robert, ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73157-7.
* T'Shaka, Oba (1983). The Political Legacy of Malcolm X. Richmond, California: Pan Afrikan Publications. ISBN 978-1-878557-01-8.
* Waldschmidt-Nelson, Britta (2012). Dreams and Nightmares: Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, and the Struggle for Black Equality. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-3723-3.
* Whitaker, Mark (2025). The Afterlife of Malcolm X: An Outcast Turned Icon's Enduring Impact on America (1st ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9781668033296.
* Wolfenstein, Eugene Victor (1989). The Victims of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution. London: Free Association Books. ISBN 978-1-85343-111-1.
* Wood, Joe, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: In Our Image. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-06609-3.

## External links

[edit]

* Official website of the Estate of Malcolm X
* The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University
* Malcolm, website on the life and legacy of Malcolm X
* Malcolm Little (Malcolm X) file at Federal Bureau of Investigation
* Malcolm X at IMDb

* v
* t
* e

Malcolm X

Family|

* Louise Little (mother)
* Betty Shabazz (wife)
* Attallah Shabazz (daughter)
* Qubilah Shabazz (daughter)
* Ilyasah Shabazz (daughter)
* Malcolm Shabazz (grandson)

Organizations|

* Nation of Islam
* Muslim Mosque, Inc.
* Organization of Afro-American Unity

Assassination|

* Thomas Hagan
* Hayer affidavits
* Muhammad Abdul Aziz

Places|

* Malcolm X House Site
* Malcolm X House
* Malcolm X—Ella Little-Collins House
* Mosque No. 7
* Mosque No. 11
* Mosque No. 12
* Audubon Ballroom
* Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center
* Lenox Avenue/Malcolm X Boulevard
* Malcolm X Shabazz High School
* Malcolm Shabazz City High School
* Malcolm X College

Media|

| Books and
speeches|

| Authored|

* "Message to the Grass Roots" (1963)
* "The Ballot or the Bullet" (1964)
* The Diary of Malcolm X (1964)
* The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965)

|

About|

* Growing Up X (2002)
* Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (2011)
* A Lie of Reinvention: Correcting Manning Marable's Malcolm X (2012)
* The Dead Are Arising: The Life of Malcolm X (2020)

Docu films
and series|

* The Hate That Hate Produced
* 1972 documentary
* Malcolm X: Make It Plain
* Seven Songs for Malcolm X
* An Eye on X
* Malcolm's Echo: The Legacy of Malcolm X
* Who Killed Malcolm X?
* Blood Brothers: Malcolm X & Muhammad Ali

* Poem for Malcolm
* Roots: The Next Generations
* "No Sell Out"
* X: The Life and Times of Malcolm X
* 1992 film
* soundtrack
* The Malcolm X Jazz Suite
* Death of a Prophet
* The Meeting
* An Eye on X
* Betty & Coretta
* Godfather of Harlem
* Genius: MLK/X

Related|

* Elijah Muhammad
* Rowena Moore
* WD Mohammed
* Hakim Jamal
* Malcolm X Day
* Malcolm X Memorial Foundation
* By any means necessary

* v
* t
* e

Pan-Africanism

Ideology|

| Variants|

* African nationalism
* African socialism
* Afrocentrism
* Anti-imperialism
* Anti-Western sentiment
* Black nationalism
* Garveyism
* Nkrumaism
* Sankarism
* Uhuru Movement
* Zikism

|

Concepts|

* African century
* Black power
* Négritude
* Ubuntu
* Ujamaa
* United States of Africa

Proponents|

| Politicians|

* Dennis Akumu
* Idi Amin
* Nnamdi Azikiwe
* Amílcar Cabral
* David Comissiong
* Jean-Jacques Dessalines
* Anténor Firmin
* Muammar Gaddafi
* Marcus Garvey
* Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof
* Kenneth Kaunda
* Modibo Keïta
* Jomo Kenyatta
* Toussaint Louverture
* Patrice Lumumba
* Samora Machel
* Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo
* Thabo Mbeki
* Tom Mboya
* Robert Mugabe
* Abdias do Nascimento
* Gamal Abdel Nasser
* Kwame Nkrumah
* Julius Nyerere
* John Nyathi Pokela
* Thomas Sankara
* Ahmed Sékou Touré
* Haile Selassie
* Robert Sobukwe
* I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson

|

Others|

* Marimba Ani
* Molefi Kete Asante
* Steve Biko
* Edward Wilmot Blyden
* Stokely Carmichael
* Aimé Césaire
* John Henrik Clarke
* Martin R. Delany
* Cheikh Anta Diop
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Frantz Fanon
* Amy Ashwood Garvey
* John G. Jackson
* Leonard Jeffries
* Yosef Ben-Jochannan
* Maulana Karenga
* Alice Kinloch
* Fela Kuti
* Malcolm X
* Archie Mafeje
* Ali Mazrui
* Zephania Mothopeng
* George Padmore
* Motsoko Pheko
* Runoko Rashidi
* Paul Robeson
* Randall Robinson
* Walter Rodney
* Burning Spear
* Issa Laye Thiaw
* Frances Cress Welsing
* Henry Sylvester Williams
* Amos N. Wilson
* Omali Yeshitela

Organizations|

| Educational|

* African Leadership Academy
* African Leadership University

|

Political|

* African Unification Front
* African Union
* All-African People's Revolutionary Party
* All-African Trade Union Federation
* Conseil de l'Entente
* Convention People's Party
* East African Community
* Economic Freedom Fighters
* First Pan-African Conference
* International African Service Bureau
* Organisation of African Trade Union Unity
* Organisation of African Unity
* Pan African Association
* Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa
* Pan-African Congress
* Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
* Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes
* Rassemblement Démocratique Africain
* Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League
* ZANU–PF

Symbols|

* Black Star of Africa
* Le Marron Inconnu
* Lion of Judah
* Pan-African colours
* Pan-African flag

Dynamics|

* Ethnic groups of Africa
* Languages of Africa
* Religion in Africa
* Conflicts in Africa

Related|

* African philosophy
* African-American leftism
* Africanization
* All-African Peoples' Conference
* East African Federation
* Kwanzaa
* Union of African States
* United States of Africa
* United States of Latin Africa
* Year of Africa

* Pan-Africanism category
* Africa category
* Pan-Africanism portal
* Africa portal

* v
* t
* e

Islamism

| Outline|

* Islamism
* Qutbism
* Khomeinism
* Salafism
* Salafi jihadism
* Shia Islamism

|

Concepts|

* Emirate
* Islamic governance
* Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists
* Islamic democracy
* Islamic feminism
* Islamic socialism
* Islamic state
* Islamic republic
* Islamistan
* Islamization
* of knowledge
* Pan-Islamism
* Post-Islamism
* Sharia
* Shura
* Turkish model
* Two-nation theory
* Ummah

Movements|

| Socio-political|

* Deobandi
* Hizb ut-Tahrir
* in Britain
* in Central Asia
* Islamic Defenders Front
* Jamaat-e-Islami
* Millî Görüş
* Muslim Brotherhood
* in Egypt
* in Syria
* Ansar–Khatmiyya rivalry
* Ansar
* Khatmiyya

|

Political parties|

* Freedom and Justice Party
* Green Algeria Alliance
* Ennahda
* Felicity Party
* Free Cause Party
* Hadas
* Hezbollah
* Islamic Salvation Front
* Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami
* Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan
* Jamiat-e Islami
* Justice and Construction Party
* Justice and Development Party (Morocco)
* Justice and Development Party (Turkey)
* National Congress
* National Iraqi Alliance
* New Welfare Party
* Malaysian Islamic Party
* Prosperous Justice Party
* Al Wefaq
* Welfare Party
* Fatah Alliance
* State of Law Coalition
* Islamic Action Front
* United Arab List

Related|

* Ansar Allah
* Taliban
* Islamic modernism

Political leaders

* Muhammad Abduh
* Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī
* Qazi Hussain Ahmad
* Hibatullah Akhundzada
* Muhammad Asad
* Hassan al-Banna
* Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
* Necmettin Erbakan
* Muammar Gaddafi
* Rached Ghannouchi
* Safwat Hegazi
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Alija Izetbegović
* Ali Khamenei
* Ruhollah Khomeini
* Abul A'la Maududi
* Abul Hasan Ali Hasani Nadwi
* Taqi al-Din al-Nabhani
* Mullah Omar
* Yusuf al-Qaradawi
* Sayyid Qutb
* Tariq Ramadan
* Ata Abu Rashta
* Rashid Rida
* Navvab Safavi
* Ali Shariati
* Haji Shariatullah
* Hassan al-Turabi
* Malcolm X
* Ahmed Yassin
* Zia-ul-Haq
* Rizieq Shihab

Salafi movement

| Movements|

| Scholastic|

* Ahl-i Hadith
* Madkhalism
* Sahwa movement
* Wahhabism

|

Political|

* Al Asalah
* Authenticity Party
* Al-Islah
* Al-Nour Party
* Islamist Bloc
* People Party
* Young Kashgar Party

Major figures|

* Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
* Al-Albani
* Ibn Baz
* Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i
* Safar al-Hawali
* Rabee al-Madkhali
* Muhammad Al-Munajjid
* Zakir Naik
* Salman al-Ouda
* Ali al-Tamimi
* Al-Uthaymin

Related|

* International propagation of Salafism
* Islamic religious police
* Petro-Islam
* Salafi–Sufi relations

Militant Islamism/Jihadism

| Ideology|

* Qutbism
* Salafi jihadism

|

Movements|

* Militant Islamism based in
* MENA region
* Egyptian Islamic Jihad
* Fatah al-Islam
* Hamas
* Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
* South Asia
* Taliban
* Lashkar-e-Taiba
* Southeast Asia
* Abu Sayyaf
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* Boko Haram
* al-Shabaab
* al-Qaeda
* in the Arabian Peninsula
* in Iraq
* in North Africa

Major figures|

* Hibatullah Akhundzada
* Anwar al-Awlaki
* Abdullah Yusuf Azzam
* Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi
* Osama bin Laden
* Akhtar Mansour
* Mullah Omar
* Juhayman al-Otaybi
* Omar Abdel-Rahman
* Ayman al-Zawahiri

Related|

* Islam and violence
* Islamic extremism
* Islamic terrorism
* Jihad
* Mujahideen
* Slavery
* Talibanization

Other topics

| Texts|

* Reconstruction (Iqbal, 1930s)
* Forty Hadith (Khomeini, 1940)
* Principles (Asad, 1961)
* Milestones (Qutb, 1964)
* Islamic Government (Khomeini, 1970)
* Islamic Declaration (Izetbegović, 1969-1970)
* The Green Book (Gaddafi, 1975)

|

Historical
events|

* Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization
* Iranian revolution
* Grand Mosque seizure
* Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
* Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam
* Popular Arab and Islamic Congress
* Algerian Civil War
* Faith Campaign
* September 11 attacks
* War on terror
* Arab Spring
* Arab Winter

Influences|

* Anti-imperialism
* Anti-Zionism
* Contemporary Islamic philosophy
* Islamic response to modernity
* Islamic revival

by region|

* Balkans
* Gaza Strip
* Sudan
* United Kingdom

Related topics|

* Criticism
* Political aspects of Islam
* Political Islam

* Islam in South Asia
* North Africa

* v
* t
* e

Civil rights movement (1954–1968)

Events
(timeline)|

| Prior to 1954|

* Journey of Reconciliation
* Executive Order 9981
* Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
* Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
* McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)
* Baton Rouge bus boycott

|

1954–1959|

* Brown v. Board of Education
* Bolling v. Sharpe
* Briggs v. Elliott
* Davis v. Prince Edward County
* Gebhart v. Belton
* Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
* Emmett Till
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle
* Tallahassee bus boycott
* Mansfield school desegregation
* 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Royal Ice Cream sit-in
* Little Rock Nine
* Cooper v. Aaron
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* Ministers' Manifesto
* Katz Drug Store sit-in
* Kissing Case
* Biloxi wade-ins

1960–1963|

* New Year's Day March
* Sit-in movement
* Greensboro sit-ins
* Nashville sit-ins
* Sibley Commission
* Atlanta sit-ins
* Savannah Protest Movement
* Greenville Eight
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Ax Handle Saturday
* New Orleans school desegregation
* Gomillion v. Lightfoot
* Boynton v. Virginia
* University of Georgia desegregation riot
* Rock Hill sit-ins
* Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
* Freedom Rides
* Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks
* Garner v. Louisiana
* Albany Movement
* Cambridge movement
* University of Chicago sit-ins
* "Second Emancipation Proclamation"
* Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
* Atlanta's Berlin Wall
* "Segregation now, segregation forever"
* Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
* 1963 Birmingham campaign
* Letter from Birmingham Jail
* Children's Crusade
* Birmingham riot
* 16th Street Baptist Church bombing
* John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
* Detroit Walk to Freedom
* March on Washington
* "I Have a Dream"
* Big Six
* St. Augustine movement

1964–1968|

* Twenty-fourth Amendment
* Chester school protests
* Bloody Tuesday
* 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
* Freedom Summer
* workers' murders
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
* Katzenbach v. McClung
* 1964–1965 Scripto strike
* 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
* "How Long, Not Long"
* SCOPE Project
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
* March Against Fear
* White House Conference on Civil Rights
* Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
* Loving v. Virginia
* Memphis sanitation strike
* King assassination
* funeral
* riots
* Civil Rights Act of 1968
* Poor People's Campaign
* Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
* Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
* 1968 Olympics Black Power salute

Activist
groups|

* Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
* American Friends Service Committee
* Atlanta Negro Voters League
* Atlanta Student Movement
* Black Panther Party
* Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* Committee for Freedom Now
* Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
* An Appeal for Human Rights
* Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
* Council of Federated Organizations
* Dallas County Voters League
* Deacons for Defense and Justice
* Georgia Council on Human Relations
* Highlander Folk School
* Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
* Lowndes County Freedom Organization
* Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
* Montgomery Improvement Association
* NAACP
* Youth Council
* Nashville Student Movement
* Nation of Islam
* Northern Student Movement
* National Council of Negro Women
* National Urban League
* Operation Breadbasket
* Regional Council of Negro Leadership
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Southern Regional Council
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* The Freedom Singers
* United Auto Workers (UAW)
* Wednesdays in Mississippi
* Women's Political Council

Activists|

* Juanita Abernathy
* Ralph Abernathy
* Victoria Gray Adams
* Zev Aelony
* Mathew Ahmann
* Muhammad Ali
* William G. Anderson
* Gwendolyn Armstrong
* Arnold Aronson
* Ella Baker
* James Baldwin
* Marion Barry
* Daisy Bates
* Harry Belafonte
* James Bevel
* Claude Black
* Gloria Blackwell
* Randolph Blackwell
* Unita Blackwell
* Ezell Blair Jr.
* Joanne Bland
* Julian Bond
* Joseph E. Boone
* William Holmes Borders
* Amelia Boynton
* Bruce Boynton
* Raylawni Branch
* Stanley Branche
* Ruby Bridges
* Aurelia Browder
* H. Rap Brown
* Ralph Bunche
* John H. Calhoun
* Guy Carawan
* Stokely Carmichael
* Johnnie Carr
* James Chaney
* J. L. Chestnut
* Shirley Chisholm
* Colia Lafayette Clark
* Ramsey Clark
* Septima Clark
* Xernona Clayton
* Eldridge Cleaver
* Kathleen Cleaver
* Josephine Dobbs Clement
* Charles E. Cobb Jr.
* Annie Lee Cooper
* Dorothy Cotton
* Claudette Colvin
* Vernon Dahmer
* Jonathan Daniels
* Abraham Lincoln Davis
* Angela Davis
* Joseph DeLaine
* Dave Dennis
* Annie Bell Robinson Devine
* John Wesley Dobbs
* Patricia Stephens Due
* Joseph Ellwanger
* Charles Evers
* Medgar Evers
* Myrlie Evers-Williams
* Chuck Fager
* James Farmer
* Walter Fauntroy
* James Forman
* Marie Foster
* Golden Frinks
* Andrew Goodman
* Robert Graetz
* Fred Gray
* Jack Greenberg
* Dick Gregory
* Lawrence Guyot
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Fred Hampton
* William E. Harbour
* Vincent Harding
* Dorothy Height
* Audrey Faye Hendricks
* Lola Hendricks
* Aaron Henry
* Oliver Hill
* Donald L. Hollowell
* James Hood
* Myles Horton
* Zilphia Horton
* T. R. M. Howard
* Ruby Hurley
* Cecil Ivory
* Jesse Jackson
* Jimmie Lee Jackson
* Richie Jean Jackson
* T. J. Jemison
* Esau Jenkins
* Barbara Rose Johns
* Vernon Johns
* Frank Minis Johnson
* Clarence Jones
* J. Charles Jones
* Matthew Jones
* Vernon Jordan
* Tom Kahn
* Clyde Kennard
* A. D. King
* C.B. King
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Martin Luther King Sr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Bernard Lee
* Sanford R. Leigh
* Jim Letherer
* Stanley Levison
* John Lewis
* Viola Liuzzo
* Z. Alexander Looby
* Joseph Lowery
* Clara Luper
* Danny Lyon
* Malcolm X
* Mae Mallory
* Vivian Malone
* Bob Mants
* Thurgood Marshall
* Benjamin Mays
* Franklin McCain
* Charles McDew
* Ralph McGill
* Floyd McKissick
* Joseph McNeil
* James Meredith
* William Ming
* Jack Minnis
* Amzie Moore
* Cecil B. Moore
* Douglas E. Moore
* Harriette Moore
* Harry T. Moore
* Queen Mother Moore
* William Lewis Moore
* Irene Morgan
* Bob Moses
* William Moyer
* Elijah Muhammad
* Diane Nash
* Charles Neblett
* Huey P. Newton
* Edgar Nixon
* Jack O'Dell
* James Orange
* Rosa Parks
* James Peck
* Charles Person
* Homer Plessy
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Fay Bellamy Powell
* Rodney N. Powell
* Al Raby
* Lincoln Ragsdale
* A. Philip Randolph
* George Raymond
* George Raymond Jr.
* Bernice Johnson Reagon
* Cordell Reagon
* James Reeb
* Frederick D. Reese
* Walter Reuther
* Gloria Richardson
* David Richmond
* Bernice Robinson
* Jo Ann Robinson
* Angela Russell
* Bayard Rustin
* Bernie Sanders
* Michael Schwerner
* Bobby Seale
* Pete Seeger
* Cleveland Sellers
* Charles Sherrod
* Alexander D. Shimkin
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Modjeska Monteith Simkins
* Glenn E. Smiley
* A. Maceo Smith
* Kelly Miller Smith
* Mary Louise Smith
* Maxine Smith
* Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
* Charles Kenzie Steele
* Hank Thomas
* Dorothy Tillman
* A. P. Tureaud
* Hartman Turnbow
* Albert Turner
* C. T. Vivian
* A. T. Walden
* Wyatt Tee Walker
* Hollis Watkins
* Walter Francis White
* Roy Wilkins
* Hosea Williams
* Kale Williams
* Robert F. Williams
* Q. V. Williamson
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young
* Sammy Younge Jr.
* Bob Zellner
* James Zwerg

By region|

* Omaha, Nebraska
* South Carolina

Movement
songs|

* "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
* "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
* "Kumbaya"
* "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
* "Oh, Freedom"
* "This Little Light of Mine"
* "We Shall Not Be Moved"
* "We Shall Overcome"
* "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"

Influences|

* Nonviolence
* Padayatra
* Sermon on the Mount
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Ahimsa
* Satyagraha
* The Kingdom of God Is Within You
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Mary McLeod Bethune

Related|

* Lyndon B. Johnson
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching in the United States
* Plessy v. Ferguson
* Separate but equal
* Buchanan v. Warley
* Hocutt v. Wilson
* Sweatt v. Painter
* Hernandez v. Texas
* Loving v. Virginia
* African-American women in the movement
* Jews in the civil rights movement
* Fifth Circuit Four
* 16th Street Baptist Church
* Kelly Ingram Park
* A.G. Gaston Motel
* Bethel Baptist Church
* Brown Chapel
* Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
* Holt Street Baptist Church
* Edmund Pettus Bridge
* March on Washington Movement
* African-American churches attacked
* List of lynching victims in the United States
* Freedom Schools
* Freedom songs
* Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
* "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence"
* Voter Education Project
* 1960s counterculture
* African American founding fathers of the United States
* Eyes on the Prize

Legacy|

* In popular culture
* Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
* Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
* Civil Rights Memorial
* Civil Rights Movement Archive
* Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
* Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
* Freedom Rides Museum
* Freedom Riders National Monument
* King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
* Martin Luther King Jr. Day
* Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
* other King memorials
* Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
* National Civil Rights Museum
* National Voting Rights Museum
* St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
* Olympic Black Power Statue

Noted
historians|

* Taylor Branch
* Clayborne Carson
* John Dittmer
* Michael Eric Dyson
* Chuck Fager
* Adam Fairclough
* David Garrow
* David Halberstam
* Vincent Harding
* Steven F. Lawson
* Doug McAdam
* Diane McWhorter
* Charles M. Payne
* Thomas E. Ricks
* Timothy Tyson
* Akinyele Umoja
* Movement photographers

Civil rights movement portal

* v
* t
* e

Black Panther Party

Founders|

* Huey P. Newton
* Bobby Seale

Leadership|

* Elaine Brown
* Eldridge Cleaver
* Kathleen Cleaver
* Donald Cox
* Fred Hampton
* David Hilliard

Members|

| West Coast based|

* JoNina Abron-Ervin
* Richard Aoki
* Charles Barron
* William Lee Brent
* Ed Bullins
* Bunchy Carter
* Mark Comfort
* Aaron Dixon
* Emory Douglas
* B. Kwaku Duren
* Barbara Easley-Cox
* Kent Ford
* Reggie Forte
* Raymond "Masai" Hewitt
* Elbert "Big Man" Howard
* John Huggins
* Ericka Huggins
* Bobby Hutton
* George Jackson
* Joan Tarika Lewis
* Jalil Muntaqim (Anthony Bottom)
* Pat Parker
* Geronimo Pratt
* Robert Trivers
* Michael Zinzun

|

East Coast based|

* Mumia Abu-Jamal
* Sundiata Acoli
* Ashanti Alston
* Kuwasi Balagoon
* Dhoruba bin Wahad
* Veronza Bowers Jr.
* Safiya Bukhari
* W. Paul Coates
* Marshall "Eddie" Conway
* Jamal Joseph
* Chaka Khan
* Warren Kimbro
* Lonnie McLucas
* Denise Oliver-Velez
* Larry Pinkney
* Alex Rackley
* Nile Rodgers
* George W. Sams Jr.
* Afeni Shakur
* Assata Shakur
* Russell Maroon Shoatz
* Michael "Cetewayo" Tabor
* James Dixon York

Southern based|

* H. Rap Brown
* Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin
* Mark Essex
* James Forman
* Robert Hillary King
* Pete O'Neal
* Malik Rahim
* Herman Wallace
* Albert Woodfox

Chicago based|

* Mark Clark
* William O'Neal
* Bobby Rush
* Marion Stamps
* Akua Njeri (Deborah Johnson)

Others|

* Stokely Carmichael
* Connie Matthews

Influences|

* Black power
* Deacons for Defense and Justice
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Frantz Fanon
* Harry Haywood
* Lowndes County Freedom Organization
* Malcolm X
* Robert F. Williams

Programs and projects|

* Ten-Point Program
* Free Breakfast for Children
* The Black Panther (newspaper)
* Rainbow Coalition
* United Front Against Fascism

Inspired groups|

| Contemporary|

* American Indian Movement
* Black Guerrilla Family
* Black Liberation Army
* Black Liberators
* Black Panthers (Israel)
* British Black Panthers
* Dalit Panthers
* George Jackson Brigade
* Gray Panthers
* I Wor Kuen
* Ngā Tamatoa
* Polynesian Panthers
* Red Guard Party
* The Pink Panthers
* Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi
* White Panther Party
* Young Lords

|

Subsequent|

* Assata's Daughters
* Black Panther Militia
* Black Riders Liberation Party
* Black Women's Defense League
* Huey P. Newton Gun Club
* New Afrikan Black Panther Party
* New Black Panther Party
* New Panther Vanguard Movement
* Revolutionary Black Panther Party

Films and television|

* Black Power, We're Goin' Survive America (1968)
* Black Panthers: A Report (1968)
* Black Panthers (1968)
* Mayday (1969)
* Interview with Bobby Seale (1969)
* Eldridge Cleaver, Black Panther (1969)
* Finally Got the News (1970)
* The Murder of Fred Hampton (1971)
* Teach Our Children (1973)
* In the Event Anyone Disappears (1974)
* Charles Garry: Streetfighter in the Courtroom (1992)
* Panther (1995)
* All Power to the People (1996)
* Public Enemy (1999)
* A Huey P. Newton Story (2001)
* Night Catches Us (2010)
* The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution (2015)
* Judas and the Black Messiah (2021)
* The Big Cigar (2024)

Books|

* Soul on Ice (1968)
* Seize the Time (1970)
* Blood in My Eye (1972)
* Revolutionary Suicide (1973)
* A Taste of Power (1992)
* Black Against Empire (2013)

Related articles|

* 1968 Olympics Black Power salute
* COINTELPRO
* Intercommunalism
* Murder of Betty Van Patter
* New Haven Black Panther trials
* Panther 21
* Rice–Poindexter case
* Robert Templeton
* Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song (1971)
* Panther Power (2000)
* Black power movement
* Revolutionary People's Constitutional Convention

* Category|Black Panther Party

* v
* t
* e

African Americans

History|

* Timeline
* Abolitionism
* African American founding fathers
* Afrocentrism
* American Civil War
* Atlantic slave trade
* Black Codes
* Black cowboys
* Black genocide
* Black Lives Matter
* Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
* Children of the plantation
* Civil Rights Acts
* 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* 1968
* Civil rights movement 1865–1896
* Civil right movement 1896–1954
* Civil rights movement 1954–1968
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle (1956)
* Sit-in movement
* Freedom Riders
* Birmingham movement
* March on Washington
* Freedom Summer
* Selma to Montgomery marches
* Chicago Freedom Movement
* Post–civil rights era
* Cornerstone Speech
* COVID-19 impact
* Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
* Free Negro
* Free people of color
* George Floyd protests
* Great Migration
* Second
* New
* Exodusters
* Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 / Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching
* Military history
* Million Man March
* Nadir of American race relations
* The Negro Motorist Green Book
* Partus sequitur ventrem
* Plantations
* Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
* Reconstruction Amendments
* Reconstruction era
* Redlining
* Separate but equal
* Silent Parade
* Slavery
* Treatment of slaves
* Tulsa race massacre
* Underground Railroad
* Women's suffrage movement

Culture|

* Afrofuturism
* Art
* Black mecca
* Businesses
* Dance
* Family structure
* Film
* Folktales
* Hair
* Harlem Renaissance
* New Negro
* Hoodoo
* Juneteenth
* Kwanzaa
* LGBTQ community
* Literature
* Music
* Musical theater
* Names
* Negro National Anthem
* Neighborhoods
* Newspapers
* Soul food
* Stereotypes
* Middle class
* Upper class

Notable people|

* Ralph Abernathy
* Maya Angelou
* Crispus Attucks
* James Baldwin
* James Bevel
* Julian Bond
* Amelia Boynton
* James Bradley
* Carol Moseley Braun
* Edward Brooke
* Blanche Bruce
* Ralph Bunche
* George Washington Carver
* Shirley Chisholm
* Claudette Colvin
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Medgar Evers
* James Farmer
* Henry Highland Garnet
* Marcus Garvey
* Fred Gray
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Kamala Harris
* Jimi Hendrix
* Jesse Jackson
* Ketanji Brown Jackson
* Michael Jackson
* Harriet Jacobs
* Barbara Jordan
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Huddie Ledbetter
* John Lewis
* Joseph Lowery
* Malcolm X
* Thurgood Marshall
* Toni Morrison
* Bob Moses
* Diane Nash
* Barack Obama
* Michelle Obama
* Rosa Parks
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Colin Powell
* Gabriel Prosser
* Joseph Rainey
* A. Philip Randolph
* Hiram Revels
* Paul Robeson
* Al Sharpton
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Clarence Thomas
* Emmett Till
* Sojourner Truth
* Harriet Tubman
* Nat Turner
* Denmark Vesey
* C. T. Vivian
* David Walker
* Booker T. Washington
* Ida B. Wells
* Roy Wilkins
* Oprah Winfrey
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young

Education, science
and technology|

* Black studies
* Black schools
* Historically black colleges and universities
* Inventors and scientists
* Museums
* Women
* in computer science
* in medicine
* in STEM fields

Religion|

* African-American Jews
* Islam
* American Society of Muslims
* Nation of Islam
* Black church
* Azusa Street Revival
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* Black theology
* Doctrine of Father Divine

Political movements|

* Anarchism
* Back-to-Africa movement
* Black power
* Movement
* Capitalism
* Conservatism
* Leftism
* Pan-Africanism
* Populism
* Raised fist
* Self-determination
* Nationalism
* Socialism

Civic and economic
groups

* Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
* Black Panther Party
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
* Nashville Student Movement
* National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
* National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
* National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
* National Urban League (NUL)
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* Thurgood Marshall College Fund
* United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
* Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

Sports|

* Negro league baseball
* Baseball color line
* Black players in professional American football
* Black NFL quarterbacks
* Black players in ice hockey
* Muhammad Ali
* Arthur Ashe
* Jack Johnson
* Joe Louis
* Jesse Owens
* Jackie Robinson
* Serena Williams

Athletic associations
and conferences

* Central (CIAA)
* Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
* Southern (SIAC)
* Southwestern (SWAC)

Ethnic subdivisions|

* By African descent
* Fula
* Gullah
* Igbo
* Yoruba
* Alabama Creole
* Black Indians
* Black Seminoles
* Cherokee Freedmen
* Choctaw Freedmen
* Creek Freedmen
* Black Southerners
* Blaxicans
* Great Dismal Swamp maroons
* Louisiana Creole
* of color
* Melungeon

Demographics|

* Neighborhoods
* list
* U.S. cities with large populations
* 2000 majorities
* 2010 majorities
* Metropolitan areas
* States and territories

Languages|

* Afro-Seminole Creole
* American Sign
* Black American Sign
* English
* American English
* African-American English
* African-American Vernacular English
* social context
* Gullah
* Louisiana Creole

By state/city|

* Alabama
* Arkansas
* California
* Los Angeles
* San Francisco
* Florida
* Jacksonville
* Tallahassee
* Georgia
* Atlanta
* Hawaii
* Illinois
* Chicago
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Davenport
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Lexington
* Louisiana
* Maryland
* Baltimore
* Massachusetts
* Boston
* Michigan
* Detroit
* Mississippi
* Nebraska
* Omaha
* New Jersey
* New York
* New York City
* North Carolina
* Ohio
* Cleveland
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Philadelphia
* Puerto Rico
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Austin
* Dallas–Fort Worth
* Houston
* San Antonio
* Utah
* Virginia
* West Virginia

Diaspora|

* Africa
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Liberia
* Sierra Leone
* America
* Canada
* Dominican Republic
* Haiti
* Mexico
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Israel
* Europe
* France

Lists|

* African Americans
* Activists
* Actors
* Astronauts
* Billionaires
* Journalists
* Jurists
* Mathematicians
* Republicans
* Singers
* Sportspeople
* Spingarn Medal winners
* US cabinet members
* US representatives
* US senators
* Visual artists
* Writers
* African-American firsts
* Mayors
* Sports firsts
* US state firsts
* Historic places
* Index of related articles
* Landmark African-American legislation
* Lynching victims
* Monuments
* Neighborhoods
* Topics related to the African diaspora

* Category
* United States portal

Portals:

* United States
* Biography
* Civil rights movement
* Islam
* Politics

Malcolm X at Wikipedia's sister projects:

* Media from Commons
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource
* Data from Wikidata

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* 2
* VIAF
* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Italy
* Australia
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Portugal
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Latvia
* Greece
* Korea
* Sweden
* Poland
* Israel
* Finland
* Catalonia
* Belgium

Academics|

* CiNii

Artists|

* MusicBrainz

People|

* Trove
* Deutsche Biographie
* DDB

Other|

* IdRef
* NARA
* SNAC
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi
* Yale LUX

*[m.]: married
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[Docu]: Documentary