Mangrove

Shrub growing in brackish water

For other uses, see Mangrove (disambiguation).

Mangroves are hardy shrubs and trees that thrive in salt water and have specialised adaptations so they can survive the volatile energies of intertidal zones along marine coasts.

A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline or brackish water. Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have particular adaptations to take in extra oxygen and remove salt, allowing them to tolerate conditions that kill most plants. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse due to convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator.[1][2] Mangrove plant families first appeared during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene epochs and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates. The oldest known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago.[2]

Mangroves are salt-tolerant (halophytic) and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low-oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud,[3] but are most likely to thrive in the upper half of the intertidal zone.[4]

The mangrove biome, often called the mangrove forest or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangrove forests serve as vital habitats for a diverse array of aquatic species, offering a unique ecosystem that supports the intricate interplay of marine life and terrestrial vegetation. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4% salinity), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9% salinity).[5][6]

Beginning in 2010, remote sensing technologies and global data have been used to assess areas, conditions and deforestation rates of mangroves around the world.[7][1][2] In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a new global baseline which estimates the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at 137,600 km2 (53,100 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories.[2][7] A 2022 study on losses and gains of tidal wetlands estimates a 3,700 km2 (1,400 sq mi) net decrease in global mangrove extent from 1999 to 2019.[8] Mangrove loss continues due to human activity, with a global annual deforestation rate estimated at 0.16%, and per-country rates as high as 0.70%. Degradation in quality of remaining mangroves is also an important concern.[2]

There is interest in mangrove restoration for several reasons. Mangroves support sustainable coastal and marine ecosystems. They protect nearby areas from tsunamis and extreme weather events. Mangrove forests are also effective at carbon sequestration and storage.[2][9][10] The success of mangrove restoration may depend heavily on engagement with local stakeholders, and on careful assessment to ensure that growing conditions will be suitable for the species chosen.[4]

The International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem is celebrated every year on 26 July.[11]

## Etymology

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Mangrove roots at low tide in the Philippines Mangroves are adapted to saline conditions

Etymology of the English term mangrove can only be speculative and is disputed.[12]: 1–2  [13] The term may have come to English from the Portuguese mangue or the Spanish mangle.[13] Further back, it may be traced to South America and Cariban and Arawakan languages[14] such as Taíno.[15] Other possibilities include the Malay language manggi-manggi[13][12] The English usage may reflect a corruption via folk etymology of the words mangrow and grove.[14][12][16]

The word "mangrove" is used in at least three senses:

* Most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal,[13][17] for which the terms mangrove forest biome and mangrove swamp are also used;
* To refer to all trees and large shrubs in a mangrove swamp;[13] and
* Narrowly to refer only to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora of the family Rhizophoraceae.[18]

## Biology

[edit]

According to Hogarth (2015), among the recognized mangrove species there are about 70 species in 20 genera from 16 families that constitute the "true mangroves" – species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats.[17] Demonstrating convergent evolution, many of these species found similar solutions to the tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils, and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangrove.[19] The greatest biodiversity of mangroves occurs in Southeast Asia, particularly in the Indonesian archipelago.[20]

Red mangrove

### Adaptations to low oxygen

[edit]

The red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) survives in the most inundated areas, props itself above the water level with stilt or prop roots and then absorbs air through lenticels in its bark.[21] The black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) lives on higher ground and develops many specialized root-like structures called pneumatophores, which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing.[22][23] These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to 30 cm (12 in), and in some species, over 3 m (9.8 ft). The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plants.[citation needed]

### Nutrient uptake

[edit]

Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available. Anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble ferrum (iron), inorganic phosphates, sulfides, and methane, which make the soil much less nutritious.[citation needed] Pneumatophores (aerial roots) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide.

Salt crystals formed on an Avicennia marina leaf

### Limiting salt intake

[edit]

Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots that are highly suberised (impregnated with suberin), acting as an ultrafiltration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the rest of the plant.[citation needed] One study found that roots of the Indian mangrove Avicennia officinalis exclude 90% to 95% of the salt in water taken up by the plant, depositing the excluded salt in the cortex of the root. An increase in the production of suberin and in the activity of a gene regulating cytochrome P450 were observed in correlation with an increase in the salinity of the water to which the plant was exposed.[24] In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research on the Red mangrove Rhizophora mangle suggests that the older, yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves.[25]

* Pneumatophorous aerial roots of the grey mangrove (Avicennia marina)

* Vivipary in Rhizophora mangle seeds

### Limiting water loss

[edit]

Seawater filtration in the root of the mangrove Rhizophora stylosa. (a) Schematic of the root. The outermost layer is composed of three layers. The root is immersed in NaCl solution. (b) Water passes through the outermost layer when a negative suction pressure is applied across the outermost layer. The Donnan potential effect repels Cl− ions from the first sublayer of the outermost layer. Na+ ions attach to the first layer to satisfy the electro-neutrality requirement and salt retention eventually occurs.[26]

Because of the limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapor during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. A captive red mangrove grows only if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times a week, simulating frequent tropical rainstorms.[27]

### Filtration of seawater

[edit]

A 2016 study by Kim et al. investigated the biophysical characteristics of sea water filtration in the roots of the mangrove Rhizophora stylosa from a plant hydrodynamic point of view. R. stylosa can grow even in saline water and the salt level in its roots is regulated within a certain threshold value through filtration. The root possesses a hierarchical, triple layered pore structure in the epidermis and most Na+ ions are filtered at the first sublayer of the outermost layer. The high blockage of Na+ ions is attributed to the high surface zeta potential of the first layer. The second layer, which is composed of macroporous structures, also facilitates Na+ ion filtration. The study provides insights into the mechanism underlying water filtration through halophyte roots and could serve as a basis for the development of a bio-inspired method of desalination.[26]

Uptake of Na+ ions is desirable for halophytes to build up osmotic potential, absorb water and sustain turgor pressure. However, excess Na+ ions may work on toxic element. Therefore, halophytes try to adjust salinity delicately between growth and survival strategies. In this point of view, a novel sustainable desalination method can be derived from halophytes, which are in contact with saline water through their roots. Halophytes exclude salt through their roots, secrete the accumulated salt through their aerial parts and sequester salt in senescent leaves and/or the bark.[28][29][30] Mangroves are facultative halophytes and Bruguiera is known for its special ultrafiltration system that can filter approximately 90% of Na+ions from the surrounding seawater through the roots.[24][31][32] The species also exhibits a high rate of salt rejection. The water-filtering process in mangrove roots has received considerable attention for several decades.[33][34] Morphological structures of plants and their functions have been evolved through a long history to survive against harsh environmental conditions.[35][26]

### Increasing survival of offspring

[edit]

A germinating Avicennia seed

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In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. red mangrove) are viviparous,[36] meaning their seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via photosynthesis.

The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions.

## Taxonomy and evolution

[edit]

The following listings, based on Tomlinson, 2016, give the mangrove species in each listed plant genus and family.[37] Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and the number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction.[38]

### True mangroves

[edit]

True mangroves (major components or strict mangroves)

Following Tomlinson, 2016, the following 35 species are the true mangroves, contained in 5 families and 9 genera[37]: 29–30
Included on green backgrounds are annotations about the genera made by Tomlinson
Family  | Genus  | Mangrove species  | Common name  |
Arecaceae | Monotypic subfamily within the family
Nypa | Nypa fruticans | Mangrove palm  |
Avicenniaceae
(disputed) | Old monogeneric family, now subsumed in Acanthaceae, but clearly isolated
Avicennia | Avicennia alba |  |
Avicennia balanophora |  |
Avicennia bicolor |  |
Avicennia integra |  |
Avicennia marina | grey mangrove
(subspecies: australasica,
eucalyptifolia, rumphiana) |
Avicennia officinalis | Indian mangrove  |
Avicennia germinans | black mangrove  |
Avicennia schaueriana |  |
Avicennia tonduzii |  |
Combretaceae | Tribe Lagunculariae (including Macropteranthes = non-mangrove)
Laguncularia | Laguncularia racemosa | white mangrove  |
Lumnitzera | Lumnitzera racemosa | white-flowered black mangrove  |
Lumnitzera littorea |  |
Rhizophoraceae | Rhizophoraceae collectively form the tribe Rhizophorae, a monotypic group, within the otherwise terrestrial family
Bruguiera | Bruguiera cylindrica |  |
Bruguiera exaristata | rib-fruited mangrove  |
Bruguiera gymnorhiza | oriental mangrove  |
Bruguiera hainesii |  |
Bruguiera parviflora |  |
Bruguiera sexangula | upriver orange mangrove  |
Ceriops | Ceriops australis | yellow mangrove  |
Ceriops tagal | spurred mangrove  |
Kandelia | Kandelia candel |  |
Kandelia obovata |  |
Rhizophora | Rhizophora apiculata |  |
Rhizophora harrisonii |  |
Rhizophora mangle | red mangrove  |
Rhizophora mucronata | Asiatic mangrove  |
Rhizophora racemosa |  |
Rhizophora samoensis | Samoan mangrove  |
Rhizophora stylosa | spotted mangrove,  |
Rhizophora x lamarckii |  |
Lythraceae | Sonneratia | Sonneratia alba |  |
Sonneratia apetala |  |
Sonneratia caseolaris |  |
Sonneratia ovata |  |
Sonneratia griffithii |

### Other mangroves

[edit]

Minor components

Tomlinson, 2016, lists about 19 species as minor mangrove components, contained in 10 families and 11 genera[37]: 29–30
Included on green backgrounds are annotations about the genera made by Tomlinson
Family  | Genus  | Species  | Common name  |
Euphorbiaceae | This genus includes about 35 non-mangrove taxa
Excoecaria | Excoecaria agallocha | milky mangrove, blind-your-eye mangrove and river poison tree  |
Lythraceae | Genus distinct in the family
Pemphis | Pemphis acidula | bantigue or mentigi  |
Malvaceae | Formerly in Bombacaceae, now an isolated genus in subfamily Bombacoideeae
Camptostemon | Camptostemon schultzii | kapok mangrove  |
Camptostemon philippinense |  |
Meliaceae | Genus of 3 species, one non-mangrove, forms tribe Xylocarpaeae with Carapa, a non–mangrove
Xylocarpus | Xylocarpus granatum |  |
Xylocarpus moluccensis |  |
Myrtaceae | An isolated genus in the family
Osbornia | Osbornia octodonta | mangrove myrtle  |
Pellicieraceae | Monotypic genus and family of uncertain phylogenetic position
Pelliciera | Pelliciera rhizophorae | tea mangrove  |
Plumbaginaceae | Isolated genus, at times segregated as family Aegialitidaceae
Aegialitis | Aegialitis annulata | club mangrove  |
Aegialitis rotundifolia |  |
Primulaceae | Formerly an isolated genus in Myrsinaceae
Aegiceras | Aegiceras corniculatum | black mangrove, river mangrove or khalsi  |
Aegiceras floridum |  |
Pteridaceae | A fern somewhat isolated in its family
Acrostichum | Acrostichum aureum | golden leather fern, swamp fern or mangrove fern  |
Acrostichum speciosum | mangrove fern  |
Rubiaceae | A genus isolated in the family
Scyphiphora | Scyphiphora hydrophylacea | nilad  |

## Species distribution

[edit]

See also: Mangrove tree distribution

Global distribution of native mangrove species, 2010.[39]
Colour-coded number ranges indicate number of species.
Not shown are introduced ranges: Rhizophora stylosa in French Polynesia, Bruguiera sexangula, Conocarpus erectus, and Rhizophora mangle in Hawaii, Sonneratia apelata in China, and Nypa fruticans in Cameroon and Nigeria.

Mangroves are a type of tropical vegetation with some outliers established in subtropical latitudes, notably in South Florida and southern Japan, as well as South Africa, New Zealand and Victoria (Australia). These outliers result either from unbroken coastlines and island chains or from reliable supplies of propagules floating on warm ocean currents from rich mangrove regions.[37]: 57

Location and relative density of mangroves in South-east Asia and Australasia – based on Landsat satellite images, 2010[40] Global distribution of threatened mangrove species, 2010[39]

"At the limits of distribution, the formation is represented by scrubby, usually monotypic Avicennia-dominated vegetation, as at Westonport Bay and Corner Inlet, Victoria, Australia. The latter locality is the highest latitude (38° 45'S) at which mangroves occur naturally. The mangroves in New Zealand, which extend as far south as 37°, are of the same type; they start as low forest in the northern part of the North Island but become low scrub toward their southern limit. In both instances, the species is referred to as Avicennia marina var. australis, although genetic comparison is clearly needed. In Western Australia, A. marina  extends as far south as Bunbury (33° 19'S). In the northern hemisphere, scrubby Avicennia gerrninans in Florida occurs as far north as St. Augustine on the east coast and Cedar Point on the west. There are records of A. germinans and Rhizophora mangle for Bermuda, presumably supplied by the Gulf Stream. In southern Japan, Kandelia obovata occurs to about 31 °N (Tagawa in Hosakawa et al., 1977, but initially referred to as K. candel)."[37]: 57

## Mangrove forests

[edit]

Global distribution of mangrove forests, 2011[1]

Main article: Mangrove forest

Mangrove forests, also called mangrove swamps or mangals, are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangroves occur include estuaries and marine shorelines.[19]

The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.[2][4]

At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.[2][4]

About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being trees that grow in such a saline swamp,[19] though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, Rhizophora. However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home (habitat) for a great variety of other species, including as many as 174 species of marine megafauna.[41]

Mangrove roots above and below water

Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of low environmental oxygen levels, high salinity, and frequent tidal flooding. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal flooding and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as crabs preying on plant seedlings.[42]

Nipa palms, Nypa fruticans, the only palm species fully adapted to the mangrove biome

Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments have concentrated from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and organisms of the area.[43]

Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during tropical cyclones), and tsunamis.[44][45][46] They limit high-energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis.[47] The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy.[48] Likewise, they slow down tidal water so that its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs.[49] In this way, mangroves build their environments.[44] Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs,[4] including national biodiversity action plans.[45]

The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine habitat for young organisms.[50] In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter-feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottoms as their home.[51] Mangrove crabs eat the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal mud for other bottom feeders.[52] In at least some cases, the export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs.[53]

Mangrove forests contribute significantly to coastal ecosystems by fostering complex and diverse food webs. The intricate root systems of mangroves create a habitat conducive to the proliferation of microorganisms, crustaceans, and small fish, forming the foundational tiers of the food chain. This abundance of organisms serves as a critical food source for larger predators like birds, reptiles, and mammals within the ecosystem. Additionally, mangrove forests function as essential nurseries for many commercially important fish species, providing a sheltered environment rich in nutrients during their early life stages. The decomposition of leaves and organic matter in the water further enhances the nutrient content, supporting overall ecosystem productivity. In summary, mangrove forests play a crucial and unbiased role in sustaining biodiversity and ecological balance within coastal food webs.[54]

Larger marine organisms benefit from the habitat as a nursery for their offspring. Lemon sharks depend on mangrove creeks to give birth to their pups. The ecosystem provides little competition and minimizes threats of predation to juvenile lemon sharks as they use the cover of mangroves to practice hunting before entering the food web of the ocean.[55]

Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, and India host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans.[56]

The mangrove food chain extends beyond the marine ecosystem. Coastal bird species inhabit the tidal ecosystems feeding off small marine organisms and wetland insects. Common bird families found in mangroves around the world are egrets, kingfishers, herons, and hornbills, among many others dependent on ecological range.[57] Bird predation plays a key role in maintaining prey species along coastlines and within mangrove ecosystems.

Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of termites. It becomes peat in good geochemical, sedimentary, and tectonic conditions.[58] The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangroves involved. In Puerto Rico, the red, white, and black mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions, so the carbon content varies between the species, as well between the different tissues of the plant (e.g., leaf matter versus roots).[58]

In Puerto Rico, there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations, which are dominated by red mangroves, to farther inland with a higher concentration of white mangroves.[58] Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal ecosystems.[58] Knowing this, scientists seek to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem over thousands of years using sediment cores.[59] However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in the sediment due to the tidal flushing of mangrove forests. Termites play an important role in the formation of peat from mangrove materials.[58] They process fallen leaf litter, root systems and wood from mangroves into peat to build their nests, and stabilise the chemistry of this peat that represents approximately 2% of above ground carbon storage in mangroves. As the nests are buried over time this carbon is stored in the sediment and the carbon cycle continues.[58]

Mangroves are an important source of blue carbon. Globally, mangroves stored 4.19 Gt (9.2×1012 lb) of carbon in 2012. Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012, equivalent to a maximum potential of 0.316996250 Gt (6.9885710×1011 lb) of emissions of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere.[60]

Globally, mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms.[61]

## Mangrove microbiome

[edit]

See also: Plant microbiome

Plant microbiomes play crucial roles in the health and productivity of mangroves.[62] Many researchers have successfully applied knowledge acquired about plant microbiomes to produce specific inocula for crop protection.[63][64] Such inocula can stimulate plant growth by releasing phytohormones and enhancing uptake of some mineral nutrients (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen).[64][65][66] However, most of the plant microbiome studies have focused on the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and economically important crop plants, such as rice, barley, wheat, maize and soybean. There is less information on the microbiomes of tree species.[62][64] Plant microbiomes are determined by plant-related factors (e.g., genotype, organ, species, and health status) and environmental factors (e.g., land use, climate, and nutrient availability).[62][66] Two of the plant-related factors, plant species and genotypes, have been shown to play significant roles in shaping rhizosphere and plant microbiomes, as tree genotypes and species are associated with specific microbial communities.[65] Different plant organs also have specific microbial communities depending on plant-associated factors (plant genotype, available nutrients, and organ-specific physicochemical conditions) and environmental conditions (associated with aboveground and underground surfaces and disturbances).[67][68][69][70]

### Root microbiome

[edit]

Bacterial and fungal community in a mangrove tree.[70] Bacterial taxonomic community composition in the rhizosphere soil and fungal taxonomic community composition in all four rhizosphere soil and plant compartments. Information on the fungal ecological functional groups is also provided. Proportions of fungal OTUs (approximate species) that can colonise at least two of the compartments are shown in the left panel.

See also: Root microbiome

Mangrove roots harbour a repertoire of microbial taxa that contribute to important ecological functions in mangrove ecosystems. Like typical terrestrial plants, mangroves depend upon mutually beneficial interactions with microbial communities.[71] In particular, microbes residing in developed roots could help mangroves transform nutrients into usable forms before plant assimilation.[72][73] These microbes also provide mangroves phytohormones for suppressing phytopathogens[74] or helping mangroves withstand heat and salinity.[71] In turn, root-associated microbes receive carbon metabolites from the plant via root exudates,[75] thus close associations between the plant and microbes are established for their mutual benefits.[76][77]

The taxonomic class level shows that most Proteobacteria were reported to come from Gammaproteobacteria, followed by Deltaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria. The diverse function and the phylogenic variation of Gammaproteobacteria, which consisted of orders such as Alteromonadales and Vibrionales, are found in marine and coastal regions and are high in abundance in mangrove sediments functioning as nutrient recyclers. Members of Deltaproteobacteria found in mangrove soil are mostly sulfur-related, consisting of Desulfobacterales, Desulfuromonadales, Desulfovibrionales, and Desulfarculales among others.[78] Highly diverse microbial communities (mainly bacteria and fungi) have been found to inhabit and function in mangrove roots.[79][71][80] For example, diazotrophic bacteria in the vicinity of mangrove roots could perform biological nitrogen fixation, which provides 40–60% of the total nitrogen required by mangroves;[81][82] the soil attached to mangrove roots lacks oxygen but is rich in organic matter, providing an optimal microenvironment for sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogens,[71] ligninolytic, cellulolytic, and amylolytic fungi are prevalent in the mangrove root environment;[71] rhizosphere fungi could help mangroves survive in waterlogged and nutrient-restricted environments.[83] These studies have provided increasing evidence to support the importance of root-associated bacteria and fungi for mangrove growth and health.[71][72][77]

Recent studies have investigated the detailed structure of root-associated microbial communities at a continuous fine-scale in other plants,[84] where a microhabitat was divided into four root compartments: endosphere,[74][85][86] episphere,[74] rhizosphere,[85][87] and nonrhizosphere or bulk soil.[88][89] Moreover, the microbial communities in each compartment have been reported to have unique characteristics.[74][85] Root exudates selectively enrich adapted microbial populations; however, these exudates were found to exert only marginal impacts on microbes in the bulk soil outside the rhizosphere .[90][76] Furthermore, it was noted that the root episphere, rather than the rhizosphere, was primarily responsible for controlling the entry of specific microbial populations into the root,[74] resulting in the selective enrichment of Proteobacteria in the endosphere.[74][91] These findings provide new insights into the niche differentiation of root-associated microbial communities,[74][90][76][91] Nevertheless, amplicon-based community profiling may not provide the functional characteristics of root-associated microbial communities in plant growth and biogeochemical cycling.[92] Unraveling functional patterns across the four root compartments holds a great potential for understanding functional mechanisms responsible for mediating root–microbe interactions in support of enhancing mangrove ecosystem functioning.[77]

The diversity of bacteria in disturbed mangroves is reported to be higher than in well-preserved mangroves[78] Studies comparing mangroves in different conservation states show that bacterial composition in disturbed mangrove sediment alters its structure, leading to a functional equilibrium, where the dynamics of chemicals in mangrove soils lead to the remodeling of its microbial structure.[93]

### Suggestions for future mangrove microbial diversity research

[edit]

Despite many research advancements in mangrove sediment bacterial metagenomics diversity in various conditions over the past few years, bridging the research gap and expanding our knowledge towards the relationship between microbes mainly constituted of bacteria and its nutrient cycles in the mangrove sediment and direct and indirect impacts on mangrove growth and stand-structures as coastal barriers and other ecological service providers. Thus, based on studies by Lai et al.'s systematic review, here they suggest sampling improvements and a fundamental environmental index for future reference.[78]

### Mangrove virome

[edit]

Phages are viruses that infect bacteria, such as cyanobacteria. Shown are the virions of different families of tailed phages: Myoviridae, Podoviridae and Siphoviridae

See also: Virome and Marine viruses

Phylogenetic tree of tailed phages found in the mangrove virome.[94] Reference sequences are coloured black, and virome contigs are indicated with varied colours. The scale bar represents half amino acid substitution per site.

Mangrove forests are one of the most carbon-rich biomes, accounting for 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. Viruses are thought to significantly influence local and global biogeochemical cycles, though as of 2019, little information was available about the community structure, genetic diversity, and ecological roles of viruses in mangrove ecosystems.[94]

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities on earth, present in virtually all ecosystems.[95][96] By lysing their hosts, that is, by rupturing their cell membranes, viruses control host abundance and affect the structure of host communities.[97] Viruses also influence their host diversity and evolution through horizontal gene transfer, selection for resistance and manipulation of bacterial metabolisms.[98][99][100] Importantly, marine viruses affect local and global biogeochemical cycles through the release of substantial amounts of organic carbon and nutrients from hosts and assist microbes in driving biogeochemical cycles with auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs).[101][102][103][94]

It is presumed that AMGs augment viral-infected host metabolism and facilitate the production of new viruses.[98][104] AMGs have been extensively explored in marine cyanophages and include genes involved in photosynthesis, carbon turnover, phosphate uptake and stress response.[105][106][107][108] Cultivation-independent metagenomic analysis of viral communities has identified additional AMGs that are involved in motility, central carbon metabolism, photosystem I, energy metabolism, iron–sulphur clusters, anti-oxidation and sulphur and nitrogen cycling.[102][109][110][111] Interestingly, a recent analysis of Pacific Ocean Virome data identified niche-specialised AMGs that contribute to depth-stratified host adaptations.[112] Given that microbes drive global biogeochemical cycles, and viruses infect a large fraction of microbes at any given time,[113] viral-encoded AMGs must play important roles in global biogeochemistry and microbial metabolic evolution.[94]

Mangrove forests are the only woody halophytes that live in salt water along the world's subtropical and tropical coastlines. Mangroves are one of the most productive and ecologically important ecosystems on earth. The rates of primary production of mangroves equal those of tropical humid evergreen forests and coral reefs.[114] As a globally relevant component of the carbon cycle, mangroves sequester approximately 24 million metric tons of carbon each year.[114][115] Most mangrove carbon is stored in soil and sizable belowground pools of dead roots, aiding in the conservation and recycling of nutrients beneath forests.[116] Although mangroves cover only 0.5% of the earth's coastal area, they account for 10–15% of the coastal sediment carbon storage and 10–11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans.[117] The disproportionate contribution of mangroves to carbon sequestration is now perceived as an important means to counterbalance greenhouse gas emissions.[94]

Circular representation of the chloroplast genome for the grey mangrove, Avicennia marina[118]

Despite the ecological importance of the mangrove ecosystem, knowledge of mangrove biodiversity is notably limited. Previous reports mainly investigated the biodiversity of mangrove fauna, flora, and bacterial communities.[119][120][121] Particularly, little information is available about viral communities and their roles in mangrove soil ecosystems.[122][123] In view of the importance of viruses in structuring and regulating host communities and mediating element biogeochemical cycles, exploring viral communities in mangrove ecosystems is essential. Additionally, the intermittent flooding of sea water and resulting sharp transition of mangrove environments may result in substantially different genetic and functional diversity of bacterial and viral communities in mangrove soils compared with those of other systems.[124][94]

### Genome sequencing

[edit]

* Rhizophoreae as revealed by whole-genome sequencing[125]

## See also

[edit]

* Wetlands portal

* Coastal management
* Mangrove swamp
* Mangrove restoration
* Salt marsh
* Flooding
* Longshore drift
* Coastal erosion
* Coastal geography
* Ecological values of mangrove
* Blue carbon
* Nursery habitat
* Foundation species
* Keystone species
* Adelaida K. Semesi

## References

[edit]

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## Further reading

[edit]

* Saenger, Peter (2002). Mangrove Ecology, Silviculture, and Conservation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. ISBN 1-4020-0686-1.
* Thanikaimoni, Ganapathi (1986). Mangrove Palynology UNDP/UNESCO and the French Institute of Pondicherry, ISSN 0073-8336 (E).
* Tomlinson, Philip B. (1986). The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-25567-8.
* Teas, H. J. (1983). Biology and Ecology of Mangroves. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-6193-948-8.
* Plaziat, Jean-Claude; Cavagnetto, Carla; Koeniguer, Jean-Claude; Baltzer, Frédéric (2001). "History and biogeography of the mangrove ecosystem, based on a critical reassessment of the paleontological record". Wetlands Ecology and Management. 9 (3): 161–180\. doi:10.1023/A:1011118204434. S2CID 24980831.
* Jayatissa, L. P.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Koedam, N. (2002). "A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka" (PDF). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 138: 29–43\. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339.2002.00002.x.
* Ellison, Aaron M. (2000). "Mangrove Restoration: Do We Know Enough?". Restoration Ecology. 8 (3): 219–229\. Bibcode:2000ResEc...8..219E. doi:10.1046/j.1526-100x.2000.80033.x. S2CID 86352384.
* Agrawala, Shardul; Hagestad; Marca; Koshy, Kayathu; Ota, Tomoko; Prasad, Biman; Risbey, James; Smith, Joel; Van Aalst, Maarten. 2003. Development and Climate Change in Fiji: Focus on Coastal Mangroves. Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, Cedex 16, France.
* Barbier, E. B.; Sathirathai, S. (2001). "Valuing Mangrove Conservation in Southern Thailand". Contemporary Economic Policy. 19 (2): 109–122\. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7287.2001.tb00054.x.
* Bosire, J. O.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Jayatissa, L. P.; Koedam, N.; Lo Seen, D.; Nitto, Di D. (2005). "How Effective were Mangroves as a Defense Against the Recent Tsunami?". Current Biology. 15 (12): R443 – R447. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.06.008. hdl:2013/ULB-DIPOT:oai:dipot.ulb.ac.be:2013/46641. PMID 15964259. S2CID 8772526.
* Bowen, Jennifer L.; Valiela, Ivan; York, Joanna K. (2001). "Mangrove Forests: One of the World's Threatened Major Tropical Environments". BioScience. 51 (10): 807–815\. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0807:mfootw]2.0.co;2.
* Jin-Eong, Ong (2004). "The Ecology of Mangrove Conservation and Management". Hydrobiologia. 295 (1–3): 343–351\. doi:10.1007/BF00029141. S2CID 26686381.1–3&rft.pages=343-351&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/BF00029141&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26686381#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Jin-Eong&rft.aufirst=Ong&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Mangrove" class="Z3988">
* Glenn, C. R. 2006. "Earth's Endangered Creatures"
* Lewis, Roy R. III (2004). "Ecological Engineering for Successful Management and Restoration of Mangrove Forest". Ecological Engineering. 24 (4): 403–418\. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2004.10.003.
* Kuenzer, C.; Bluemel, A.; Gebhardt, S.; Vo Quoc, T. & Dech, S. (2011). "Remote Sensing of Mangrove Ecosystems: A Review". Remote Sensing. 3 (5): 878–928\. Bibcode:2011RemS....3..878K. doi:10.3390/rs3050878.
* Lucien-Brun, H (1997). "Evolution of world shrimp production: Fisheries and aquaculture". World Aquaculture. 28: 21–33.
* Twilley, R. R., V. H. Rivera-Monroy, E. Medina, A. Nyman, J. Foret, T. Mallach, and L. Botero. 2000. Patterns of forest development in mangroves along the San Juan River estuary, Venezuela. Forest Ecology and Management
* Murray, M. R.; Zisman, S. A.; Furley, P. A.; Munro, D. M.; Gibson, J.; Ratter, J.; Bridgewater, S.; Mity, C. D.; Place, C. J. (2003). "The Mangroves of Belize: Part 1. Distribution, Composition and Classification". Forest Ecology and Management. 174 (1–3): 265–279\. Bibcode:2003ForEM.174..265M. doi:10.1016/s0378-1127(02)00036-1.1–3&rft.pages=265-279&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/s0378-1127(02)00036-1&rft_id=info:bibcode/2003ForEM.174..265M&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=M.+R.&rft.au=Zisman,+S.+A.&rft.au=Furley,+P.+A.&rft.au=Munro,+D.+M.&rft.au=Gibson,+J.&rft.au=Ratter,+J.&rft.au=Bridgewater,+S.&rft.au=Mity,+C.+D.&rft.au=Place,+C.+J.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Mangrove" class="Z3988">
* Vo Quoc, T.; Kuenzer, C.; Vo Quang, M.; Moder, F. & Oppelt, N. (December 2012). "Review of Valuation Methods for Mangrove Ecosystem Services". Ecological Indicators. 23: 431–446\. Bibcode:2012EcInd..23..431V. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.04.022.
* Spalding, Mark; Kainuma, Mami and Collins, Lorna (2010) World Atlas of Mangroves Earthscan, London, ISBN 978-1-84407-657-4; 60 maps showing worldwide mangrove distribution
* Warne, Kennedy (2013) Let them eat shrimp: the tragic disappearance of the rainforests of the sea. Island Press, 2012, ISBN 978-1597263344
* Massó; Alemán, S.; Bourgeois, C.; Appeltans, W.; Vanhoorne, B.; De Hauwere, N.; Stoffelen, P.; Heaghebaert, A.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F. (2010). "The 'Mangrove Reference Database and Herbarium'" (PDF). Plant Ecology and Evolution. 143 (2): 225–232\. doi:10.5091/plecevo.2010.439.
* Vo Quoc, T.; Oppelt, N.; Leinenkugel, P. & Kuenzer, C. (2013). "Remote Sensing in Mapping Mangrove Ecosystems – An Object-Based Approach". Remote Sensing. 5 (1): 183–201\. Bibcode:2013RemS....5..183V. doi:10.3390/rs5010183.

## External links

[edit]

Mangrove at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons

* "Mangrove Factsheet". Waitt Institute. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
* "Mangroves". Smithsonian Ocean Portal. 30 April 2018.
* Top 10 Mangrove Forest In The World – Travel Mate
* "Mangroves Fact Sheet" (PDF). Fisheries Western Australia. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2013.* In May 2011, the VOA Special English service of the Voice of America broadcast a 15-minute program on mangrove forests. A transcript and MP3 of the program, intended for English learners, can be found at Mangrove Forests Could Be a Big Player in Carbon Trading
* "Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean". Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
* "Ocean Data Viewer – UNEP-WCMC". UNEP-WCMC's official website – Ocean Data Viewer. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
* Queensland's coastal kidneys: mangroves. Stacey Larner, John Oxley Library Blog. State Library of Queensland.
* "Take Shelter - Mangroves work together to protect the Earth and its waters. What can they teach us about community and sacrifice?". Atmos. 16 February 2024.

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Mangroves

Taxa|

* True mangroves
* Other mangroves
* List of mangrove tree species of Australia

Ecology|

* Mangrove forest
* Mangrove tree distribution
* Ecological values of mangroves

By region|

| Africa|

* Central African mangroves
* East African mangroves
* Guinean mangroves
* Madagascar mangroves
* Red Sea mangroves
* Southern Africa mangroves

|

Asia|

* Mangroves in India
* Indochina mangroves
* Indus River Delta–Arabian Sea mangroves
* Mangroves of the Straits of Malacca
* Myanmar Coast mangroves
* Sri Lankan mangroves
* Sunda Shelf mangroves
* Sundarbans

Oceania|

* Australian mangroves
* New Guinea mangroves

Americas|

* Amazon–Orinoco–Southern Caribbean mangroves
* Cuban mangroves
* Florida mangroves
* Guianan mangroves
* Gulf of Panama mangroves
* Northern Mesoamerican Pacific Coast Mangroves
* South American Pacific mangroves
* Trinidad mangroves
* Coastal Venezuelan mangroves

Conservation|

* Mangrove restoration
* Community Based Mangrove Management
* International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem
* Mangrove Care Forum Bali
* Mangrove deforestation in Myanmar

Related|

* Blue carbon
* Integrated mangrove-shrimp aquaculture
* Tropical salt pond ecosystem
* Wetland conservation

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Aquatic ecosystems

General components and freshwater ecosystems

| General|

* Acoustic ecology
* Algal bloom
* Anoxic waters
* Aquatic adaptation
* Aquatic animal
* Insect
* Mammal
* Water bird
* Aquatic biomonitoring
* Aquatic plant
* Aquatic population dynamics
* Aquatic predation
* Aquatic respiration
* Aquatic science
* Aquatic toxicology
* Benthos
* Bioluminescence
* Biomass
* Cascade effect
* Colored dissolved organic matter
* Dead zone
* Ecohydrology
* Eutrophication
* Fisheries science
* Food chain
* Food web
* GIS and aquatic science
* Hydrobiology
* Hypoxia
* Macrobenthos
* Meiobenthos
* Microbial ecology
* Microbial food web
* Microbial loop
* Nekton
* Neuston
* Particle
* Pelagic zone
* Photic zone
* Phytoplankton
* Plankton
* Pleuston
* Productivity
* Ramsar Convention
* Sediment trap
* Semiaquatic
* Shoaling and schooling
* Siltation
* Spawn
* Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems
* Stream metabolism
* Substrate
* Thermal pollution
* Trophic level
* Underwater camouflage
* Water column
* Zooplankton

|
|

Freshwater|

* Freshwater biology
* Freshwater biome
* Freshwater environmental quality parameters
* Freshwater fish
* Hyporheic zone
* Limnology
* Lake ecosystem
* Lake stratification
* Macrophyte
* Pond
* Fish pond
* Rheotaxis
* River
* Ecosystem
* Stream bed
* Stream pool
* Trophic state index
* Upland and lowland
* Water garden
* Wetland
* Bog
* Brackish marsh
* Fen
* Freshwater marsh
* Freshwater swamp forest

Ecoregions|

* List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)
* Africa and Madagascar
* Latin America and the Caribbean
* List of marine ecoregions
* Specific examples
* Everglades
* Maharashtra
* North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
* San Francisco Estuary

Marine ecosystems (components)

| General|

* Deep scattering layer
* Diel vertical migration
* f-ratio
* Iron fertilization
* Large marine ecosystem
* Marine biology
* Marine chemistry
* Marine food web
* Marine primary production
* Marine snow
* Ocean fertilization
* Oceanic physical-biological process
* Ocean turbidity
* Photophore
* Thorson's rule
* Upwelling
* Viral shunt
* Whale fall

|
|

Marine life|

* Census of Marine Life
* Deep-sea community
* Deep-water coral
* Marine fungi
* Marine invertebrates
* Marine larval ecology
* Seagrass
* Seashore wildlife
* Wild fisheries

Microorganisms|

* Marine bacteriophage
* Marine prokaryotes
* Marine protists
* Marine viruses
* Paradox of the plankton

Vertebrates|

* Marine mammal
* Marine reptile
* Saltwater fish
* Coastal fish
* Coral reef fish
* Deep-sea fish
* Demersal fish
* Pelagic fish
* Seabird

Marine habitats|

* Bay mud
* Marine coastal ecosystem
* Coastal biogeomorphology
* Cold seep
* Coral reef
* Davidson Seamount § Ecology
* Estuary
* Intertidal ecology
* Intertidal wetland
* Kelp forest
* Hydrothermal vent
* Lagoon
* Mangrove
* Marine biomes
* Mudflat
* Oyster reef
* Rocky shore
* Salt marsh
* Salt pannes and pools
* Seagrass meadow
* Sponge ground
* Sponge reef
* Tide pool

Conservation|

* Coral bleaching
* Ecological values of mangroves
* Fisheries and climate change
* HERMIONE
* Human impact on marine life
* Marine conservation activism
* Marine pollution
* Marine protected area

* Lakes portal
* Oceans portal
* Category

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Biogeographic regions

Biomes|

| Terrestrial
biomes|

| Polar/montane|

* Tundra
* Taiga
* Montane grasslands and shrublands
* Alpine tundra

|

Temperate|

* Coniferous forests
* Broadleaf and mixed forests
* Deciduous forests
* Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

Tropical and
subtropical|

* Rainforest
* Coniferous forests
* Moist broadleaf forests
* Dry broadleaf forests
* Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

Dry|

* Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
* Deserts and xeric shrublands
* Steppe

Wet|

* Flooded grasslands and savannas
* Riparian
* Wetland
* Mangroves

Aquatic
biomes|

* Pond
* Littoral
* Intertidal
* Kelp forests
* Coral reefs
* Neritic zone
* Pelagic zone
* Benthic zone
* Hydrothermal vents
* Cold seeps
* Demersal zone

Other biomes|

* Endolithic zone

Biogeographic
realms|

| Terrestrial|

* Afrotropical
* Antarctic
* Australasian
* Holarctic
* Nearctic
* Palearctic
* Indomalayan
* Neotropical
* Oceanian

|

Marine|

* Antarctic/Southern Ocean
* Arctic
* Central Indo-Pacific
* Eastern Indo-Pacific
* Temperate Australasia
* Temperate Northern Atlantic
* Temperate Northern Pacific
* Temperate South America
* Temperate Southern Africa
* Tropical Atlantic
* Tropical Eastern Pacific
* Western Indo-Pacific

Subdivisions|

* Biogeographic provinces
* Bioregions
* Ecoregions
* Lists of ecoregions
* Global 200 ecoregions

See also|

* Altitudinal zonation
* Ecological classification
* Floristic kingdoms
* Vegetation classifications
* Wallace Line
* Zoogeography

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Wetlands

Types and landforms|

| Natural|

* Backswamp
* Bayou
* Beach meadow
* Blackwater river
* Bofedales
* Bog
* Blanket bog
* Cataract bog
* Coastal bog
* Kermi bog
* Plateau bog
* Polygonal bog
* Raised bog
* String bog
* Upland bog
* Callows
* Carr
* Alder carr
* Ciénega
* Clearwater river
* Cypress dome
* Dambo
* Fen
* Fen-meadow
* Poor fen
* Rich fen
* Flark
* Flood-meadow
* Flooded grasslands and savannas
* Grass valley
* Guelta
* Hamun
* Igapó
* Ings
* Interdunal wetland
* Intertidal wetland
* Kettle
* Lagg
* Marsh
* Brackish marsh
* Freshwater marsh
* Inland salt marsh
* Salt marsh
* Tidal marsh
* High marsh
* Low marsh
* Mere
* Misse
* Moorland
* Mudflat
* Muskeg
* Oasis
* Pakihi
* Palsa
* Palustrine wetland
* Peatland, mire, and quagmire
* Pocosin
* Pond
* Pothole
* Reed bed
* Salt pannes and pools
* Slough
* Swamp
* Coniferous swamp
* Freshwater swamp forest
* Mangrove forest
* Myristica swamp
* Peat swamp forest
* Shrub swamp
* Wet meadow
* Várzea forest
* Vernal pool
* Whitewater river
* Yaéré

|

Artificial|

* Bog garden
* Constructed wetland
* Converted wetland
* Swale
* Water-meadow

Life|

* List of wetland plants
* List of fen plants
* Sphagnum

Soil mechanics|

* Acrotelm
* Histosol
* Peat
* Sapric or muck
* Tropical peat
* Hydric soil
* Marsh gas
* Ombrotrophic

Processes|

* Halosere
* Hydrosere
* Paludification
* Salt marsh dieback

Classifications|

* A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia
* National Wetlands Inventory
* Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type

Conservation|

* Clean Water Act
* Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands
* Marsh organ
* Ramsar Convention
* Ramsar site
* List
* Salt marsh die-off
* Wetland indicator status

Organizations|

* Bangladesh Haor and Wetland Development Board
* Delta Waterfowl Foundation
* Ducks Unlimited
* Irish Peatland Conservation Council
* Meadowview Biological Research Station
* Society of Wetland Scientists
* Wetlands International
* Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust

Related articles|

* Aquatic ecosystem
* Bog body
* Bog butter
* Bog iron
* Bog-wood
* List of bogs
* Drainage basin
* Estuary
* Riparian zone
* River delta
* Telmatology
* Turbary
* Will-o'-the-wisp

* Wetlands portal
* Category

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Sources of tannins

Sources of
condensed tannins|

* Areca catechu seed
* arecatannins
* Broad bean
* Vicia faba
* Grape
* Vitis vinifera
* Mimosa bark
* Acacia mollissima
* Myrtan or black marlock
* Eucalyptus redunca
* Quebracho wood

Sources of
hydrolysable tannins|

* Chestnut wood
* Dhawa
* Anogeissus latifolia
* Myrobalan fruit
* Terminalia chebula
* Oak bark
* Oak wood
* Valonia oak
* Quercus macrolepis
* Sumac
* Tanner's sumach leaves - Rhus coriaria or Chinese gall on Rhus chinensis
* Tara pod
* Tara spinosa

Other sources
by organ|

| Barks|

* General : Tanbark

* Acacias (most notably Acacia pycnantha and Acacia decurrens)
* Alder
* Alnus sp
* Avaram
* Senna auriculata
* Babul
* Acacia nilotica
* Birch
* Betula sp
* Button mangrove
* Conocarpus erectus
* Hemlock
* Tsuga sp
* Larch
* Larix sp
* Mangrove
* Pine
* Pinus sp
* Spruce
* Picea sp
* Urunday
* Myracrodruon urundeuva
* Willow
* Salix caprea

|

Leaves|

* Badan
* Bergenia crassifolia
* Gambier
* Uncaria gambir
* Redoul
* Coriaria myrtifolia

Roots|

* Canaigre
* Rumex hymenosepalus
* Garouille
* Quercus coccifera
* Sea lavender
* Limonium sp

Woods|

* Cutch
* Senegalia catechu

Fruit|

* Divi-divi pod
* Libidibia coriaria
* Sant pod
* Acacia nilotica
* Teri pod
* Moullava digyna

Galls|

* Gall oak
* Quercus lusitanica
* Quercus infectoria

Whole plant|

* Prosopis sp. bark and wood
* Prosopis humilis
* Prosopis nigra
* Tanoak
* Notholithocarpus
* Tizra heartwood and root
* Searsia pentaphylla

Undetermined organ|

* Anadenanthera colubrina (vilca)

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Biodiversity of South Africa

* Afrotropical realm
* Marine biodiversity of South Africa
* Temperate Southern Africa
* Western Indo-Pacific
* Wildlife of South Africa

National taxon checklists

| Plants|

* Conifers
* Cycads
* Hornworts
* Liverworts
* Lycophytes
* Mosses
* Pteridophytes

| Flowering
plants|

* Acorales
* Alismatales
* Apiales
* Apiaceae
* Aquifoliales
* Arecales
* Asparagales
* Asphodelaceae
* Hyacinthaceae
* Iridaceae
* Orchidaceae
* Asterales
* Asteraceae
* Boraginales
* Brassicales
* Bruniales
* Buxales
* Canellales
* Caryophyllales
* Aizoaceae
* Celastrales
* Ceratophyllales
* Commelinales
* Cornales
* Crossosomatales
* Cucurbitales
* Dioscoreales
* Dipsacales
* Ericales
* Escalloniales
* Fabales
* Fagales
* Gentianales
* Apocynaceae
* Rubiaceae
* Geraniales
* Gunnerales
* Huerteales
* Icacinales
* Lamiales
* Acanthaceae
* Lamiaceae
* Scrophulariaceae
* Laurales
* Liliales
* Magnoliales
* Malpighiales
* Euphorbiaceae
* Malvales
* Myrtales
* Nymphaeales
* Oxalidales
* Pandanales
* Piperales
* Poales
* Poaceae
* Proteales
* Ranunculales
* Rosales
* Santalales
* Sapindales
* Saxifragales
* Solanales
* Vahliales
* Vitales
* Zingiberales
* Zygophyllales

|

Animals|

* Ascidians
* Bryozoans
* Comb jellies
* Echinoderms
* Nematodes
* Polychaetes
* Marine cnidarians
* Marine flatworms
* Sponges
* Tardigrades

| Arthropods|

* Marine crustaceans
* Sea spiders
* Centipedes
* Millipedes
* Entognatha

| Arachnids|

* Harvestmen
* Microwhip scorpions
* Pseudoscorpions
* Scorpions
* Shorttailed whipscorpions
* Solifugae
* Araneae
* Ixodida
* Whip spiders and tailless whip scorpions

|

Insects|

* Alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies
* Beetles
* Booklice, barklice and barkflies
* Butterflies and moths
* Caddisflies
* Cockroaches and termites
* Dragonflies and damselflies
* Earwigs
* Fleas
* Flies
* Jumping bristletails
* Lice
* Mantises
* Mayflies
* Net-winged insects
* Notoptera
* Orthoptera
* Sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants
* Scorpionflies
* Silverfish and firebrats
* Stick and leaf insects
* Stoneflies
* Strepsiptera
* Termites
* Thrips
* True bugs
* Webspinners

Molluscs|

* Non-marine molluscs
* Marine molluscs
* Marine gastropods
* Marine heterobranch gastropods

Vertebrates|

* Amphibians
* Birds
* Freshwater fishes
* Marine fishes
* Marine bony fishes
* Marine spiny-finned fishes
* Marine Perciform fishes
* Mammals
* Reptiles

Seaweeds|

* Green seaweeds
* Brown seaweeds
* Red seaweeds

Fungi|

* A
* B
* C
* D
* E
* F
* G
* H
* I
* J
* K
* L
* M
* N
* O
* P
* Q
* R
* S
* T
* U
* V
* W
* X
* Y
* Z

Related|

* List of bacteria of South Africa
* List of invasive species in South Africa
* List of invasive plant species in South Africa
* List of Oomycetes of South Africa
* List of slime moulds of South Africa
* List of Southern African indigenous trees and woody lianes
* List of botanists by author abbreviation

Regional taxon checklists and other minor lists

* List of marine invertebrates of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
* List of marine vertebrates of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
* List of green seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
* List of brown seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
* List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
* Related:
* Timber trees of Gauteng

Biodiversity hotspots and Centres of diversity

* Cape Floristic Region
* Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot
* Succulent Karoo

* Succulent Karoo
* Cape Floristic Region
* Griqualand West Centre
* Albany Centre
* Drakensberg Alpine Centre
* Soutpansberg Centre
* Wolkberg Centre
* Sekhukhuneland Centre
* Barberton Centre
* Maputaland-Pondoland Region

Ecoregions

* List of ecoregions in South Africa

| Tropical and subtropical
moist broadleaf forests|

* Knysna–Amatole montane forests
* KwaZulu–Cape coastal forest mosaic
* Maputaland coastal forest mosaic

|

Tropical and subtropical grasslands,
savannas, and shrublands|

* Kalahari Acacia-Baikiaea woodlands
* Southern Africa bushveld
* Zambezian and mopane woodlands

Montane grasslands
and shrublands|

* Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands
* Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests
* Highveld grasslands
* Maputaland–Pondoland bushland and thickets

Mediterranean forests,
woodlands, and scrub|

* Albany thickets
* Lowland fynbos and renosterveld
* Montane fynbos and renosterveld

Deserts and xeric shrublands|

* Kalahari xeric savanna
* Nama Karoo
* Succulent Karoo

Tundra|

* Southern Indian Ocean Islands tundra

Mangroves|

* Southern Africa mangroves

Marine ecoregions|

* Agulhas ecoregion
* Benguela ecoregion
* Delagoa ecoregion
* Natal ecoregion
* Southeast Atlantic ecoregion
* Southwest Indian ecoregion

Biomes and Vegetation classification

* List of vegetation types of South Africa

| Savanna|

* Andesite Mountain Bushveld
* Aoub Duneveld
* Barberton Serpentine Sourveld
* Bhisho Thornveld
* Cathedral Mopane Bushveld
* Central Sandy Bushveld
* Delagoa Lowveld
* Dwaalboom Thornveld
* Dwarsberg-Swartruggens Mountain Bushveld
* Eastern Valley Bushveld
* Gabbro Grassy Bushveld
* Gauteng Shale Mountain Bushveld
* Ghaap Plateau Vaalbosveld
* Gold Reef Mountain Bushveld
* Gordonia Duneveld
* Gordonia Kameeldoring Bushveld
* Gordonia Plains Shrubland
* Granite Lowveld
* Gravelotte Rocky Bushveld
* Kaalrug Mountain Bushveld
* Kathu Bushveld
* Kimberley Thornveld
* Koranna-Langeberg Mountain Bushveld
* Kuruman Mountain Bushveld
* Kuruman Thornveld
* Kuruman Vaalbosveld
* KwaZulu-Natal Hinterland Thornveld
* KwaZulu-Natal Sandstone Sourveld
* Lebombo Summit Sourveld
* Legogote Sour Bushveld
* Limpopo Ridge Bushveld
* Limpopo Sweet Bushveld
* Loskop Mountain Bushveld
* Loskop Thornveld
* Lowveld Rugged Mopaneveld
* Madikwe Dolomite Bushveld
* Mafikeng Bushveld
* Makatini Clay Thicket
* Makhado Sweet Bushveld
* Makuleke Sandy Bushveld
* Malelane Mountain Bushveld
* Mamabolo Mountain Bushveld
* Marikana Thornveld
* Molopo Bushveld
* Moot Plains Bushveld
* Mopane Basalt Shrubland
* Mopane Gabbro Shrubland
* Musina Mopane Bushveld
* Ngongoni Veld
* Norite Koppies Bushveld
* Northern Lebombo Bushveld
* Northern Zululand Sourveld
* Nossob Bushveld
* Nwambyia-Pumbe Sandy Bushveld
* Ohrigstad Mountain Bushveld
* Olifantshoek Plains Thornveld
* Phalaborwa-Timbavati Mopaneveld
* Pilanesberg Mountain Bushveld
* Polokwane Plateau Bushveld
* Postmasburg Thornveld
* Poung Dolomite Mountain Bushveld
* Pretoriuskop Sour Bushveld
* Roodeberg Bushveld
* Schmidtsdrif Thornveld
* Schweizer-Reneke Bushveld
* Sekhukhune Mountain Bushveld
* Sekhukhune Plains Bushveld
* South Eastern Coastal Thornveld
* Southern Lebombo Bushveld
* Soutpansberg Mountain Bushveld
* Springbokvlakte Thornveld
* Stella Bushveld
* Swaziland Sour Bushveld
* Tembe Sandy Bushveld
* Thukela Thornveld
* Thukela Valley Bushveld
* Tsende Mopaneveld
* Tshokwane-Hlane Basalt Lowveld
* Tzaneen Sour Bushveld
* Vaalbos Rocky Shrubland
* VhaVenda Miombo
* Waterberg Mountain Bushveld
* Western Maputaland Clay Bushveld
* Western Maputaland Sandy Bushveld
* Western Sandy Bushveld
* Zeerust Thornveld
* Zululand Coastal Thornveld
* Zululand Lowveld

|

Grassland|

* Aliwal North Dry Grassland
* Amathole Mistbelt Grassland
* Amathole Montane Grassland
* Amersfoort Highveld Clay Grassland
* Barberton Montane Grassland
* Basotho Montane Shrubland
* Bedford Dry Grassland
* Besemkaree Koppies Shrubland
* Bloemfontein Dry Grassland
* Bloemfontein Karroid Shrubland
* Carletonville Dolomite Grassland
* Central Free State Grassland
* Drakensberg Afroalpine Heathland
* Drakensberg Foothill Moist Grassland
* Drakensberg-Amathole Afromontane Fynbos
* East Griqualand Grassland
* Eastern Free State Clay Grassland
* Eastern Free State Sandy Grassland
* Eastern Highveld Grassland
* Egoli Granite Grassland
* Frankfort Highveld Grassland
* Income Sandy Grassland
* Ithala Quartzite Sourveld
* KaNgwane Montane Grassland
* Karoo Escarpment Grassland
* Klerksdorp Thornveld
* KwaZulu-Natal Highland Thornveld
* Leolo Summit Sourveld
* Lesotho Highland Basalt Grassland
* Low Escarpment Moist Grassland
* Lydenburg Montane Grassland
* Lydenburg Thornveld
* Mabela Sandy Grassland
* Midlands Mistbelt Grassland
* Mooi River Highland Grassland
* Mthatha Moist Grassland
* Northern Drakensberg Highland Grassland
* Northern Escarpment Afromontane Fynbos
* Northern Escarpment Dolomite Grassland
* Northern Escarpment Quartzite Sourveld
* Northern Free State Shrubland
* Northern KwaZulu-Natal Moist Grassland
* Northern KwaZulu-Natal Shrubland
* Northern Zululand Mistbelt Grassland
* Paulpietersburg Moist Grassland
* Queenstown Thornveld
* Rand Highveld Grassland
* Sekhukhune Montane Grassland
* Senqu Montane Shrubland
* Southern Drakensberg Highland Grassland
* Southern KwaZulu-Natal Moist Grassland
* Soutpansberg Summit Sourveld
* Soweto Highveld Grassland
* Steenkampsberg Montane Grassland
* Stormberg Plateau Grassland
* Strydpoort Summit Sourveld
* Tarkastad Montane Shrubland
* Tsakane Clay Grassland
* Tsomo Grassland
* uKhahlamba Basalt Grassland
* Vaal Reefs Dolomite Sinkhole Woodland
* Vaal-Vet Sandy Grassland
* Vredefort Dome Granite Grassland
* Wakkerstroom Montane Grassland
* Waterberg-Magaliesberg Summit Sourveld
* Western Free State Clay Grassland
* Western Highveld Sandy Grassland
* Western Lesotho Basalt Shrubland
* Winburg Grassy Shrubland
* Wolkberg Dolomite Grassland
* Woodbush Granite Grassland
* Xhariep Karroid Grassland
* Zastron Moist Grassland

Fynbos|

* Agulhas Limestone Fynbos
* Agulhas Sand Fynbos
* Albertinia Sand Fynbos
* Algoa Sandstone Fynbos
* Atlantis Sand Fynbos
* Bokkeveld Sandstone Fynbos
* Boland Granite Fynbos
* Breede Alluvium Fynbos
* Breede Quartzite Fynbos
* Breede Sand Fynbos
* Breede Shale Fynbos
* Canca Limestone Fynbos
* Cape Flats Sand Fynbos
* Cape Winelands Shale Fynbos
* Cederberg Sandstone Fynbos
* Central Coastal Shale Band Vegetation
* Central Inland Shale Band Vegetation
* De Hoop Limestone Fynbos
* Eastern Coastal Shale Band Vegetation
* Eastern Inland Shale Band Vegetation
* Elgin Shale Fynbos
* Elim Ferricrete Fynbos
* Garden Route Granite Fynbos
* Garden Route Shale Fynbos
* Graafwater Sandstone Fynbos
* Greyton Shale Fynbos
* Grootrivier Quartzite Fynbos
* Hangklip Sand Fynbos
* Hawequas Sandstone Fynbos
* Hopefield Sand Fynbos
* Kamiesberg Granite Fynbos
* Kango Conglomerate Fynbos
* Knysna Sand Fynbos
* Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos
* Kouebokkeveld Alluvium Fynbos
* Kouebokkeveld Shale Fynbos
* Kouga Grassy Sandstone Fynbos
* Kouga Sandstone Fynbos
* Leipoldtville Sand Fynbos
* Loerie Conglomerate Fynbos
* Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos
* Matjiesfontein Quartzite Fynbos
* Matjiesfontein Shale Fynbos
* Montagu Shale Fynbos
* Namaqualand Sand Fynbos
* North Hex Sandstone Fynbos
* North Kammanassie Sandstone Fynbos
* North Langeberg Sandstone Fynbos
* North Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos
* North Rooiberg Sandstone Fynbos
* North Sonderend Sandstone Fynbos
* North Swartberg Sandstone Fynbos
* Northern Inland Shale Band Vegetation
* Olifants Sandstone Fynbos
* Overberg Sandstone Fynbos
* Peninsula Granite Fynbos
* Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos
* Piketberg Sandstone Fynbos
* Potberg Ferricrete Fynbos
* Potberg Sandstone Fynbos
* Robertson Granite Fynbos
* South Hex Sandstone Fynbos
* South Kammanassie Sandstone Fynbos
* South Langeberg Sandstone Fynbos
* South Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos
* South Rooiberg Sandstone Fynbos
* South Sonderend Sandstone Fynbos
* South Swartberg Sandstone Fynbos
* Southern Cape Dune Fynbos
* Stinkfonteinberge Quartzite Fynbos
* Suurberg Quartzite Fynbos
* Suurberg Shale Fynbos
* Swartberg Altimontane Sandstone Fynbos
* Swartberg Shale Fynbos
* Swartland Alluvium Fynbos
* Swartruggens Quartzite Fynbos
* Swellendam Silcrete Fynbos
* Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos
* Western Altimontane Sandstone Fynbos
* Western Coastal Shale Band Vegetation
* Winterhoek Sandstone Fynbos

Renosterveld|

* Baviaanskloof Shale Renosterveld
* Breede Alluvium Renosterveld
* Breede Shale Renosterveld
* Central Mountain Shale Renosterveld
* Central Ruêns Shale Renosterveld
* Ceres Shale Renosterveld
* Eastern Ruêns Shale Renosterveld
* Hantam Plateau Dolerite Renosterveld
* Humansdorp Shale Renosterveld
* Kango Limestone Renosterveld
* Langkloof Shale Renosterveld
* Matjiesfontein Shale Renosterveld
* Montagu Shale Renosterveld
* Mossel Bay Shale Renosterveld
* Namaqualand Granite Renosterveld
* Nieuwoudtville Shale Renosterveld
* Nieuwoudtville-Roggeveld Dolerite Renosterveld
* Peninsula Shale Renosterveld
* Robertson Granite Renosterveld
* Roggeveld Shale Renosterveld
* Ruêns Silcrete Renosterveld
* Swartberg Shale Renosterveld
* Swartland Alluvium Renosterveld
* Swartland Granite Renosterveld
* Swartland Shale Renosterveld
* Swartland Silcrete Renosterveld
* Uniondale Shale Renosterveld
* Vanrhynsdorp Shale Renosterveld
* Western Ruêns Shale Renosterveld

Succulent
Karoo|

* Aggeneys Gravel Vygieveld
* Agter-Sederberg Shrubland
* Anenous Plateau Shrubland
* Bushmanland Inselberg Shrubland
* Central Knersvlakte Vygieveld
* Central Richtersveld Mountain Shrubland
* Citrusdal Vygieveld
* Die Plate Succulent Shrubland
* Doringrivier Quartzite Karoo
* Eastern Little Karoo
* Eenriet Plains Succulent Shrubland
* Goariep Mountain Succulent Shrubland
* Hantam Karoo
* Kamiesberg Mountains Shrubland
* Klawer Sandy Shrubland
* Knersvlakte Dolomite Vygieveld
* Knersvlakte Quartz Vygieveld
* Knersvlakte Shale Vygieveld
* Koedoesberge-Moordenaars Karoo
* Kosiesberg Succulent Shrubland
* Lekkersing Succulent Shrubland
* Little Karoo Quartz Vygieveld
* Namaqualand Arid Grassland
* Namaqualand Blomveld
* Namaqualand Coastal Duneveld
* Namaqualand Heuweltjie Strandveld
* Namaqualand Heuweltjieveld
* Namaqualand Inland Duneveld
* Namaqualand Klipkoppe Shrubland
* Namaqualand Shale Shrubland
* Namaqualand Spinescent Grassland
* Namaqualand Strandveld
* Northern Knersvlakte Vygieveld
* Northern Richtersveld Scorpionstailveld
* Northern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld
* Oograbies Plains Sandy Grassland
* Piketberg Quartz Succulent Shrubland
* Platbakkies Succulent Shrubland
* Prince Albert Succulent Karoo
* Richtersveld Coastal Duneveld
* Richtersveld Red Duneveld
* Richtersveld Sandy Coastal Scorpionstailveld
* Riethuis-Wallekraal Quartz Vygieveld
* Robertson Karoo
* Roggeveld Karoo
* Rooiberg Quartz Vygieveld
* Rosyntjieberg Succulent Shrubland
* Southern Namaqualand Quartzite Klipkoppe Shrubland
* Southern Richtersveld Inselberg Shrubland
* Southern Richtersveld Scorpionstailveld
* Southern Richtersveld Yellow Duneveld
* Steytlerville Karoo
* Stinkfonteinberge Eastern Apron Shrubland
* Swartruggens Quartzite Karoo
* Tanqua Escarpment Shrubland
* Tanqua Karoo
* Tatasberg Mountain Succulent Shrubland
* Umdaus Mountains Succulent Shrubland
* Upper Annisvlakte Succulent Shrubland
* Vanrhynsdorp Gannabosveld
* Vyftienmyl se Berge Succulent Shrubland
* Western Bushmanland Klipveld
* Western Gwarrieveld
* Western Little Karoo
* Willowmore Gwarrieveld

Albany
Thicket
and
Strandveld|

* Albany Arid Thicket
* Albany Bontveld
* Albany Mesic Thicket
* Albany Valley Thicket
* Baviaans Valley Thicket
* Bethelsdorp Bontveld
* Blombos Strandveld
* Buffels Mesic Thicket
* Buffels Valley Thicket
* Cape Flats Dune Strandveld
* Crossroads Grassland Thicket
* Doubledrift Karroid Thicket
* Eastern Gwarrieveld
* Elands Forest Thicket
* Escarpment Arid Thicket
* Escarpment Mesic Thicket
* Escarpment Valley Thicket
* Fish Arid Thicket
* Fish Mesic Thicket
* Fish Valley Thicket
* Gamka Arid Thicket
* Gamka Valley Thicket
* Geluk Grassland Thicket
* Goukamma Dune Thicket
* Gouritz Valley Thicket
* Grahamstown Grassland Thicket
* Grassridge Bontveld
* Groot Brak Dune Strandveld
* Hamburg Dune Thicket
* Hartenbos Dune Thicket
* Kasouga Dune Thicket
* Koedoeskloof Karroid Thicket
* Lambert's Bay Strandveld
* Langebaan Dune Strandveld
* Mons Ruber Fynbos Thicket
* Motherwell Karroid Thicket
* Nanaga Savanna Thicket
* Oudshoorn Karroid Thicket
* Overberg Dune Strandveld
* Saldanha Flats Strandveld
* Saldanha Granite Strandveld
* Saldanha Limestone Strandveld
* Saltaire Karroid Thicket
* Sardinia Forest Thicket
* St Francis Dune Thicket
* Subtropical Dune Thicket
* Sundays Arid Thicket
* Sundays Mesic Thicket
* Sundays Valley Thicket
* Thorndale Forest Thicket
* Umtiza Forest Thicket
* Vanstadens Forest Thicket
* Western Gwarrieveld
* Willowmore Gwarrieveld

Nama
Karoo
and
desert|

* Albany Broken Veld
* Blouputs Karroid Thornveld
* Bushmanland Arid Grassland
* Bushmanland Basin Shrubland
* Bushmanland Sandy Grassland
* Eastern Lower Karoo
* Eastern Upper Karoo
* Gamka Karoo
* Kalahari Karroid Shrubland
* Lower Gariep Broken Veld
* Lower Karoo Gwarrieveld
* Northern Upper Karoo
* Upper Karoo Hardeveld
* Western Upper Karoo
* Alexander Bay Coastal Duneveld
* Eastern Gariep Plains Desert
* Eastern Gariep Rocky Desert
* Helskloof Canyon Desert
* Kahams Mountain Desert
* Kwaggarug Mountain Desert
* Namib Lichen Fields
* Noms Mountain Desert
* Northern Nababiepsberge Mountain Desert
* Richtersberg Mountain Desert
* Richtersveld Sheet Wash Desert
* Southern Nababiepsberge Mountain Desert
* Western Gariep Hills Desert
* Western Gariep Lowland Desert
* Western Gariep Plains Desert

Azonal|

* Albany Alluvial Vegetation
* Albany Dune Strandveld
* Algoa Dune Strandveld
* Arid Estuarine Salt Marshes
* Bushmanland Vloere
* Cape Estuarine Salt Marshes
* Cape Inland Salt Pans
* Cape Lowland Alluvial Vegetation
* Cape Lowland Freshwater Wetlands
* Cape Seashore Vegetation
* Cape Vernal Pools
* Drakensberg Wetlands
* Eastern Temperate Freshwater Wetlands
* Fynbos Riparian Vegetation
* Highveld Alluvial Vegetation
* Highveld Salt Pans
* Lesotho Mires
* Lower Gariep Alluvial Vegetation
* Muscadel Riviere
* Namaqualand Riviere
* Namaqualand Salt Pans
* Namaqualand Seashore Vegetation
* Namib Seashore Vegetation
* Southern Kalahari Mekgacha
* Southern Kalahari Salt Pans
* Southern Karoo Riviere
* Subantarctic Kelp Bed Vegetation
* Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation
* Subtropical Dune Thicket
* Subtropical Estuarine Salt Marshes
* Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands
* Subtropical Salt Pans
* Subtropical Seashore Vegetation
* Tanqua Wash Riviere
* Upper Gariep Alluvial Vegetation

Forest
and
Coastal
belt|

* KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Belt
* Maputaland Coastal Belt
* Maputaland Wooded Grassland
* Pondoland-Natal Sandstone Coastal Sourveld
* Transkei Coastal Belt
* Ironwood Dry Forest
* Lowveld Riverine Forest
* Mangrove Forest
* Northern Afrotemperate Forest
* Northern Coastal Forest
* Northern Mistbelt Forest
* Sand Forest
* Scarp Forest
* Southern Afrotemperate Forest
* Southern Coastal Forest
* Southern Mistbelt Forest
* Swamp Forest

Subantarctic
biome|

* Subantarctic Biotic Herbfield and Grassland
* Subantarctic Cinder Cone Vegetation
* Subantarctic Coastal Vegetation
* Subantarctic Drainage Line Vegetation
* Subantarctic Fellfield
* Subantarctic Fernbrake Vegetation
* Subantarctic Mire
* Subantarctic Polar Desert

not on
VEGMAP|

* List of forests of South Africa
* List of forests of the Eastern Cape
* Forests of KwaZulu-Natal
* KwaZulu-Natal Dune Forest
* KwaZulu-Natal coastal lowland forest
* List of forests of the Western Cape

Protected areas of South Africa

* Index of protected areas of South Africa

| South
African
National
Parks|

* Addo Elephant National Park
* Agulhas National Park
* Augrabies Falls National Park
* Bontebok National Park
* Camdeboo National Park
* Garden Route National Park
* Tsitsikamma National Park
* Wilderness National Park
* Golden Gate Highlands National Park
* Karoo National Park
* Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park
* Kruger National Park
* Mapungubwe National Park
* Marakele National Park
* Mokala National Park
* Mountain Zebra National Park
* Namaqua National Park
* Table Mountain National Park
* Tankwa Karoo National Park
* West Coast National Park
* ǀAi-ǀAis/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park

|

Biosphere
reserves|

* Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve
* Gouritz Cluster Biosphere Reserve
* Kogelberg Nature Reserve
* Kruger to Canyons Biosphere
* Magaliesberg Biosphere Reserve
* Waterberg Biosphere

Marine
protected
areas of
South
Africa|

| Coastal|

* Addo Elephant National Park Marine Protected Area
* Amathole Marine Protected Area
* Betty's Bay Marine Protected Area
* Bird Island Marine Protected Area
* De Hoop Marine Protected Area
* Dwesa-Cwebe Marine Protected Area
* Goukamma Marine Protected Area
* Helderberg Marine Protected Area
* Hluleka Marine Protected AreaI
* iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area
* Jutten Island Marine Protected Area
* Langebaan Lagoon Marine Protected Area
* Malgas Island Marine Protected Area
* Marcus Island Marine Protected Area
* Namaqua National Park Marine Protected Area
* Pondoland Marine Protected Area
* Robben Island Marine Protected Area
* Rocherpan Marine Protected Area
* Robberg Marine Protected Area
* Sardinia Bay Marine Protected Area
* Sixteen Mile Beach Marine Protected Area
* Stilbaai Marine Protected Area
* Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area
* Trafalgar Marine Protected Area
* Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area
* uThukela Banks Marine Protected Area
* Walker Bay Whale Sanctuary

|

Offshore|

* Agulhas Bank Complex Marine Protected Area
* Agulhas Front Marine Protected Area
* Agulhas Muds Marine Protected Area
* Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area
* Amathole Offshore Marine Protected Area
* Benguela Bank Marine Protected Area
* Benguela Muds Marine Protected Area
* Browns Bank Complex Marine Protected Area
* Browns Bank Corals Marine Protected Area
* Cape Canyon Marine Protected Area
* Childs Bank Marine Protected Area
* iSimangaliso Offshore Marine Protected Area
* Namaqua Fossil Forest Marine Protected Area
* Orange Shelf Edge Marine Protected Area
* Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area
* Protea Banks Marine Protected Area
* Southeast Atlantic Seamounts Marine Protected Area
* Southwest Indian Seamount Marine Protected Area
* Port Elizabeth Corals Marine Protected Area
* uThukela Banks Marine Protected Area

Management
organisations|

* CapeNature
* City of Cape Town
* Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries
* Department of Science and Innovation
* Eastern Cape Parks
* Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife
* iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority
* Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality
* South African National Parks

Biodiversity research in SA

* Bolus Herbarium
* Iziko South African Museum
* National Research Foundation
* South African National Collection of Fungi

| Research
organisations|

* Animal Demography Unit
* BirdLife South Africa
* South African Association for Marine Biological Research
* South African Environmental Observation Network
* South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity
* South African National Biodiversity Institute

|

Research
projects|

* African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme
* National Biodiversity Assessment
* National Vegetation Map Project
* Reef Atlas Project
* SeaKeys

Citizen science
databases|

* iNaturalist
* iSpot
* Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology Virtual Museum

Botanical
gardens|

* Durban Botanic Gardens
* Free State National Botanical Garden
* Garden Route Botanical Garden
* Hantam National Botanical Garden
* Harold Porter National Botanical Garden
* Johannesburg Botanical Garden
* Karoo Desert National Botanical Garden
* Kwelera National Botanical Garden
* Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden
* KwaZulu-Natal National Botanical Garden
* Lowveld National Botanical Garden
* Makana Botanical Gardens
* Manie van der Schijff Botanical Garden
* North-West University Botanical Garden
* Pretoria National Botanical Garden
* Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden
* Thohoyandou National Botanical Garden
* University of KwaZulu-Natal Botanical Garden
* Walter Sisulu National Botanical Garden

Taxonomists|

* List of authors of South African botanical taxa
* List of authors of South African animal taxa

Related

* Biodiversity
* Biosphere
* Ecotourism
* Encyclopedia of Life
* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Low impact diving
* International Union for Conservation of Nature
* Marine protected area
* National park
* Nature conservation
* Nature reserve
* Scuba diving tourism
* South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative
* World Register of Marine Species
* World Wide Fund for Nature

| Regional biodiversity|

* Biodiversity of Cape Town
* List of nature reserves in Cape Town

|

Legislation|

* Marine Living Resources Act, 18 of 1998
* National Environmental Management Act, 1998
* National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, 10 of 2004
* National Environmental Management: Integrated Coastal Management Act, 24 of 2008
* National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, 57 of 2003

Publications|

* List of field guides to South African biota

* Categories: Biodiversity of South Africa
*   * Index

Authority control databases: National |

* Germany
* United States
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Israel

|

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