Mars Climate Orbiter

Failed NASA mission to Mars (1998–1999)

Mars Climate Orbiter

Artist's conception of the Mars Climate Orbiter

Names| Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter
Mission type| Mars orbiter
Operator| NASA/JPL
COSPAR ID| 1998-073A
SATCAT no.| 25571
Website| science.nasa.gov
Mission duration| 286 days
Mission failure
Spacecraft properties
Manufacturer| Lockheed Martin
Launch mass| 638 kilograms (1407 lb)[1]
Power| 500 watts
Start of mission
Launch date| December 11, 1998, 18:45:51 (1998-12-11UTC18:45:51Z) UTC
Rocket| Delta II 7425
D-264
Launch site| CCAFS SLC-17A
Contractor| Boeing
End of mission
Disposal| Destroyed
Last contact| 23 September 1999 09:06:00 (1999-09-23UTC09:07Z) UTC
Unintentionally deorbited
Orbital parameters
Reference system| Areocentric
Epoch| Planned

Mars Surveyor 98 mission logo

Mars Exploration Program

<- Mars Pathfinder

MPL ->

Mars Surveyor '98

The Mars Climate Orbiter (formerly the Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter) was a robotic space probe launched by NASA on December 11, 1998, to study the Martian climate, Martian atmosphere, and surface changes and to act as the communications relay in the Mars Surveyor '98 program for Mars Polar Lander. However, on September 23, 1999, communication with the spacecraft was permanently lost as it went into orbital insertion. The spacecraft encountered Mars on a trajectory that brought it too close to the planet, and it was either destroyed in the atmosphere or escaped the planet's vicinity and entered an orbit around the Sun.[2] An investigation attributed the failure to a measurement mismatch between two measurement systems: SI units (metric) by NASA and US customary units by spacecraft builder Lockheed Martin.[3]

## Mission background

[edit]

### History

[edit]

After the loss of Mars Observer and the onset of the rising costs associated with the future International Space Station, NASA began seeking less expensive, smaller probes for scientific interplanetary missions. In 1994, the Panel on Small Spacecraft Technology was established to set guidelines for future miniature spacecraft. The panel determined that the new line of miniature spacecraft should be under 1000 kg (2200 pounds) with highly focused instrumentation.[4] In 1995, a new Mars Surveyor program began as a set of missions designed with limited objectives, low costs, and frequent launches. The first mission in the new program was Mars Global Surveyor, launched in 1996 to map Mars and provide geologic data using instruments intended for Mars Observer.[5] Following Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Climate Orbiter carried two instruments, one originally intended for Mars Observer, to study the climate and weather of Mars.

The primary science objectives of the mission included:[6]

* determine the distribution of water on Mars
* monitor the daily weather and atmospheric conditions
* record changes on the Martian surface due to wind and other atmospheric effects
* determine temperature profiles of the atmosphere
* monitor the water vapor and dust content of the atmosphere
* look for evidence of past climate change.

### Spacecraft design

[edit]

The Mars Climate Orbiter bus measured 2.1 meters (6 feet 11 inches) tall, 1.6 meters (5 feet 3 inches) wide and 2 meters (6 feet 7 inches) deep. The internal structure was largely constructed with graphite composite/aluminum honeycomb supports, a design found in many commercial airplanes. With the exception of the scientific instruments, battery and main engine, the spacecraft included dual redundancy on the most important systems.[6][7] The spacecraft weighed 638-kilogram (1,407 lb).[1]

The spacecraft was 3-axis stabilized and included eight hydrazine monopropellant thrusters: four 22 N (4.9 lbf) thrusters to perform trajectory corrections and four 0.9 N (3.2 ozf) thrusters to control attitude. Orientation of the spacecraft was determined by a star tracker, two Sun sensors and two inertial measurement units. Orientation was controlled by firing the thrusters or using three reaction wheels. To perform the Mars orbital insertion maneuver, the spacecraft also included a LEROS 1B main engine rocket,[8] providing 640 N (140 lbf) of thrust by burning hydrazine fuel with nitrogen tetroxide (NTO) oxidizer.[6][7]

The spacecraft included a 1.3-meter (4-foot-3-inch) high-gain antenna to transceive data with the Deep Space Network over the x band. The radio transponder designed for the Cassini–Huygens mission was used as a cost-saving measure. It also included a two-way UHF radio frequency system to relay communications with Mars Polar Lander upon an expected landing on December 3, 1999.[6][7][9]

The space probe was powered with a 3-panel solar array, providing an average of 500 W (0.67 hp) at Mars. Deployed, the solar array measured 5.5 meters (18 ft 1 in) in length. Power was stored in 12-cell, 16-amp-hour nickel-hydrogen batteries. The batteries were intended to be recharged when the solar array received sunlight and power the spacecraft as it passed into the shadow of Mars. When entering into orbit around Mars, the solar array was to be utilized in the aerobraking maneuver, to slow the spacecraft until a circular orbit was achieved. The design was largely adapted from guidelines from the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative outlined in the book, Technology for Small Spacecraft.[6][7][4]

In an effort to simplify previous implementations of computers on spacecraft, Mars Climate Orbiter featured a single computer using an IBM RAD6000 processor utilizing a POWER1 ISA capable of 5, 10 or 20 MHz operation. Data storage was to be maintained on 128 MB of random-access memory (RAM) and 18 MB of flash memory. The flash memory was intended to be used for highly important data, including triplicate copies of the flight system software.[6]

#### Scientific instruments

[edit]

Pressure Modulated Infrared Radiometer (PMIRR)
PMIRR diagram

The Pressure Modulated Infrared Radiometer (PMIRR) uses narrow-band radiometric channels and two pressure modulation cells to measure atmospheric and surface emissions in the thermal infrared and a visible channel to measure dust particles and condensates in the atmosphere and on the surface at varying longitudes and seasons.[10] Its principal investigator was Daniel McCleese at JPL/CALTECH. Similar objectives were later achieved with Mars Climate Sounder on board Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Its objectives:[11]

* Map the three-dimensional and time-varying thermal structure of the atmosphere from the surface to 80 km altitude.
* Map the atmospheric dust loading and its global, vertical and temporal variation.
* Map the seasonal and spatial variation of the vertical distribution of atmospheric water vapor to an altitude of at least 35 km.
* Distinguish between atmospheric condensates and map their spatial and temporal variation.
* Map the seasonal and spatial variability of atmospheric pressure.
* Monitor the polar radiation balance.

Mars Color Imager (MARCI)
MARCI camera

The Mars Color Imager (MARCI) is a two-camera (medium-angle/wide-angle) imaging system designed to obtain pictures of the Martian surface and atmosphere. Under proper conditions, resolutions up to 1 kilometer (3300 ft) are possible.[12][13] The principal investigator on this project was Michael Malin at Malin Space Science Systems and the project was reincorporated on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.

Its objectives:[12]

* Observe Martian atmospheric processes at global scale and synoptically.
* Study details of the interaction of the atmosphere with the surface at a variety of scales in both space and time.
* Examine surface features characteristic of the evolution of the Martian climate over time.

* Diagram of Mars Climate Orbiter

* Mars Climate Orbiter during assembly

* Mars Climate Orbiter undergoing acoustic testing

* Mars Climate Orbiter awaiting a spin test in November 1998

## Mission profile

[edit]

Timeline of travel  Date | Time
(UTC) | Event

|
|

Dec 11
1998 | 18:45:51 | Spacecraft launched
Sep 23
1999 | 08:41:00 | Insertion begins. Orbiter stows solar array.
08:50:00 | Orbiter turns to correct orientation to begin main engine burn.
08:56:00 | Orbiter fires pyrotechnic devices which open valves to begin pressurizing the fuel and oxidizer tanks.
09:00:46 | Main engine burn starts; expected to fire for 16 minutes 23 seconds.
09:04:52 | Communication with spacecraft lost
09:06:00 | Orbiter expected to enter Mars occultation, out of radio contact with Earth.[n 1]
09:27:00 | Expected to exit Mars occultation.[n 1]
Sep 25
1999 |  | Mission declared a loss. Reason for loss known. No further attempts to contact.

### Launch and trajectory

[edit]

The Mars Climate Orbiter probe was launched on December 11, 1998, at 18:45:51 UTC by NASA from Space Launch Complex 17A at the Cape Canaveral Air Station in Florida, aboard a Delta II 7425 launch vehicle. The complete burn sequence lasted 42 minutes bringing the spacecraft into a Hohmann transfer orbit, sending the probe into a 9.5-month, 669 million km (416 million mi) trajectory.[6][9] At launch, Mars Climate Orbiter weighed 638 kg (1407 lb) including propellant.[1]

* Exploded diagram of Delta II launch vehicle with Mars Climate Orbiter

* Launch of Mars Climate Orbiter by NASA on a Delta II 7425 launch vehicle

* Interplanetary trajectory of Mars Climate Orbiter

* Aerobraking procedure to place Mars Climate Orbiter into orbit around Mars

### Encounter with Mars

[edit]

* This image of Mars on September 7, 1999, is the only image acquired by the Orbiter.

* Diagram comparing the intended and actual trajectories of the Orbiter

Mars Climate Orbiter began the planned orbital insertion maneuver on September 23, 1999, at 09:00:46 UTC. Mars Climate Orbiter went out of radio contact when the spacecraft passed behind Mars at 09:04:52 UTC, 49 seconds earlier than expected, and communication was never reestablished. Due to complications arising from human error, the spacecraft encountered Mars at a lower-than-anticipated altitude and it was either destroyed in the atmosphere or re-entered heliocentric space after leaving Mars' atmosphere.[2] Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has since completed most of the intended objectives for this mission.

## Cause of failure

[edit]

> The problem here was not the error; it was the failure of NASA's systems engineering, and the checks and balances in our processes, to detect the error. That's why we lost the spacecraft.

—Edward Weiler, NASA associate administrator for space science[14]

On November 10, 1999, the Mars Climate Orbiter Mishap Investigation Board released a Phase I report, detailing the suspected issues encountered with the loss of the spacecraft.

Previously, on September 8, 1999, Trajectory Correction Maneuver-4 (TCM-4) was computed, and was then executed on September 15, 1999. It was intended to place the spacecraft at an optimal position for an orbital insertion maneuver that would bring the spacecraft around Mars at an altitude of 226 km (140 miles) on September 23, 1999.

However, during the week between TCM-4 and the orbital insertion maneuver, the navigation team reported that it appeared the insertion altitude could be much lower than planned, at about 150 to 170 km (93 to 106 miles). Twenty-four hours prior to orbital insertion, calculations placed the orbiter at an altitude of 110 km (68 miles). 80 km (50 miles) was the minimum altitude that Mars Climate Orbiter was thought to be capable of surviving during this maneuver.

During insertion, the orbiter was intended to skim through Mars' upper atmosphere, gradually aerobraking for weeks, but post-failure calculations showed that the spacecraft's trajectory would have taken it within 57 km (35 miles) of the surface. At this altitude, the spacecraft would likely have skipped violently off the denser-than-expected atmosphere,[citation needed] and it was either destroyed in the atmosphere, or re-entered heliocentric space.[2]

The primary cause of this discrepancy was that one piece of ground software supplied by Lockheed Martin produced results in a United States customary unit, contrary to its Software Interface Specification (SIS), while a second system, supplied by NASA, expected those results to be in SI units, in accordance with the SIS. Specifically, software that calculated the total impulse produced by thruster firings produced results in pound-force seconds. The trajectory calculation software then used these results – expected to be in newton-seconds (incorrect by a factor of 4.45)[2] – to update the predicted position of the spacecraft.[2]

Still, NASA does not place the responsibility on Lockheed for the mission loss; instead, various officials at NASA have stated that NASA itself was at fault for failing to make the appropriate checks and tests that would have caught the discrepancy.[14]

The discrepancy between calculated and measured position, resulting in the discrepancy between desired and actual orbit insertion altitude, had been noticed earlier by at least two navigators, whose concerns were dismissed because they "did not follow the rules about filling out [the] form to document their concerns". A meeting of trajectory software engineers, trajectory software operators (navigators), propulsion engineers, and managers was convened to consider the possibility of executing Trajectory Correction Maneuver-5, which was in the schedule. Attendees of the meeting recall an agreement to conduct TCM-5, but it was ultimately not done.[14]

### Project costs

[edit]

According to NASA, the cost of the mission was $327.6 million ($571.41 million in 2023)[15] total for the orbiter and lander, comprising $193.1 million ($336.81 million in 2023)[15] for spacecraft development, $91.7 million ($159.95 million in 2023)[15] for launching it, and $42.8 million ($74.65 million in 2023)[15] for mission operations.[7]

## See also

[edit]

* Spaceflight portal

* List of missions to Mars
* List of artificial objects on Mars
* List of software bugs
* Metrication

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b Planned but unaccounted for event.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c "1998 MARS CLIMATE ORBITER ARRIVES AT NASA'S KENNEDY SPACE CENTER FOR FINAL LAUNCH PREPARATIONS" (Press release). NASA. September 14, 1998. Archived from the original on October 8, 1999. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
2. ^ a b c d e Arthur G. Stephenson; Lia S. LaPiana; Daniel R. Mulville; Peter J. Rutledge; Frank H. Bauer; David Folta; Greg A. Dukeman; Robert Sackheim; Peter Norvig (November 10, 1999). Mars Climate Orbiter Mishap Investigation Board Phase I Report (PDF). NASA. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 23, 2020. Retrieved May 11, 2021.
3. ^ Robin Lloyd (September 30, 1999). "Metric mishap caused loss of NASA orbiter". CNN. Archived from the original on October 24, 2019. Retrieved March 21, 2016.
4. ^ a b Panel on Small Spacecraft Technology, National Research Council (1994). Technology for Small Spacecraft. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press. pp. 6, 121–123. ISBN 0-309-05075-8. Archived from the original on June 29, 2024. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
5. ^ Committee on Planetary and Lunar Exploration, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications, National Research Council (1995). The Role of Small Missions in Planetary and Lunar Exploration. Washington D.C.: National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/12285. hdl:2060/19960002222. ISBN 978-0-309-12250-4. S2CID 219866579. Archived from the original on October 17, 2012. Retrieved January 13, 2011.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
6. ^ a b c d e f g "Mars Climate Orbiter Arrival Press Kit" (PDF) (Press release). NASA. September 1999. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 12, 2011. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
7. ^ a b c d e "Mars Climate Orbiter". science.nasa.gov. NASA. Archived from the original on June 29, 2024. Retrieved August 3, 2020.
8. ^ "LEROS 1B". Archived from the original on September 3, 2011.
9. ^ a b "1998 Mars Missions Press Kit" (PDF) (Press release). NASA. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 30, 2020. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
10. ^ "Pressure Modulated Infrared Radiometer (PMIRR)". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. NASA. Archived from the original on April 14, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
11. ^ Arden L. Albee (1988). "Workshop on Mars Sample Return Science". Mars Sample Return Science. Lunar and Planetary Institute: 25–29. Bibcode:1988msrs.work...25A.
12. ^ a b M. C. Malin; J. F. Bell, III; W. M. Calvin; M. A. Caplinger; R. T. Clancy; R. M. Harberle; et al. (2001). "Mars Color Imager (MARCI) on the Mars Climate Orbiter" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 106 (E8): 17, 651–17, 672. Bibcode:2001JGR...10617651M. doi:10.1029/1999JE001145. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 23, 2020. Retrieved January 13, 2011.
13. ^ "Mars Color Imager (MARCI)". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. NASA. Archived from the original on April 14, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2011.
14. ^ a b c James Oberg (December 1, 1999). "Why the Mars Probe went off course". IEEE. Archived from the original on February 5, 2023. Retrieved July 13, 2016.
15. ^ a b c d Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved November 30, 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth series.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mars Climate Orbiter.

* Mars Surveyor '98 launch press kit Archived April 30, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
* Mars Climate Orbiter arrival at Mars press kit
* Mars Climate Orbiter Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
* NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive
* Mars Climate Orbiter Mishap Investigation Board Phase I Report - November 10, 1999

* v
* t
* e

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

Instruments|

* HiRISE
* CRISM
* SHARAD
* MARCI

Related|

* Mars Climate Orbiter
* Timeline of MRO
* HiWish program
* Evidence of water on Mars found by MRO
* Small Deep Space Transponder
* Exploration of Mars

* v
* t
* e

Spacecraft missions to Mars

* List of missions to Mars
* List of Mars orbiters
* List of artificial objects on Mars

Active|

| Orbiters|

* 2001 Mars Odyssey
* Mars Express
* Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
* timeline
* MAVEN
* ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter
* Hope
* Tianwen-1 orbiter

|

Rovers|

* Curiosity
* Mars Science Laboratory
* timeline
* Perseverance
* Mars 2020
* timeline

Past|

| Flybys|

* Mars 1†
* Mariner 4
* Zond 2†
* Mariner 6 and 7
* Mars 6
* Mars 7
* Rosetta
* Dawn
* Mars Cube One (MarCO)
* Psyche (2023, flyby in 2026)

|

Orbiters|

* Mars 2
* Mars 3
* Mariner 9
* Mars 4†
* Mars 5
* Viking program
* Viking 1
* Viking 2
* Phobos program
* Phobos 1†
* Phobos 2†
* Mars Observer†
* Mars Global Surveyor
* Nozomi†
* Mars Climate Orbiter†
* Mangalyaan

Landers|

* Mars 2†
* Mars 3†
* Mars 6†
* Mars 7†
* Viking 1
* Viking 2
* Mars Pathfinder
* Mars Polar Lander† / Deep Space 2†
* Beagle 2†
* Phoenix
* ExoMars Schiaparelli†
* InSight
* Tianwen-1 lander

Rovers|

* PrOP-M†
* Sojourner
* Mars Exploration Rover
* Spirit
* timeline
* Opportunity
* timeline
* Zhurong

Aircraft|

* Ingenuity helicopter
* flights
* Mars 2020

| Failed
launches|

* Mars 1M No.1
* 1M No.2
* 2MV-4 No.1
* 2MV-3 No.1
* Mariner 3
* Mars 2M No.521
* 2M No.522
* Mariner 8
* Mars 3MS No.170
* Mars 96
* Fobos-Grunt / Yinghuo-1

|

Future|

| Planned|

* Mangalyaan-2 (2024)
* Europa Clipper (2024, flyby in 2025)
* EscaPADE (2024)
* Tera-hertz Explorer (TEREX) (mid 2020s)
* Martian Moons eXploration (MMX) (2026)
* ExoMars (Rosalind Franklin) (2028)
* NASA-ESA Mars Sample Return
* Mars Sample Recovery Helicopters
* Kazachok

|

Proposed|

* Biological Oxidant and Life Detection
* DePhine
* Icebreaker Life
* Mars Aerial and Ground Global Intelligent Explorer
* Mars Base Alpha
* Mars Exploration Ice Mapper
* Mars Geyser Hopper
* Mars-Grunt
* Mars Micro Orbiter
* MELOS rover
* MetNet
* Next Mars Orbiter
* PADME
* Phootprint
* Sky-Sailor

| Cancelled
proposals|

* Aerial Regional-scale Environmental Survey
* Astrobiology Field Laboratory
* Beagle 3
* Marsokhod
* Mars 4NM & 5NM
* Mars 5M (Mars-79)
* Mars-Aster
* Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C)
* Mars One
* Mars Surveyor Lander
* Mars Telecommunications Orbiter
* NetLander
* Northern Light
* Red Dragon
* Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars (SCIM)
* Vesta
* Voyager Mars

|

Exploration|

| Concepts|

* Flyby
* Orbiter
* Landing
* Atmospheric entry
* Rover
* Aircraft
* Sample return
* Human mission
* Permanent settlement
* Colonization
* Terraforming

|

Strategies|

* Mars Scout Program
* Mars Exploration Program
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* Mars Next Generation

Advocacy|

* The Mars Project
* The Case for Mars
* Inspiration Mars
* Mars Institute
* Mars Society
* Mars race

Missions are ordered by launch date. Sign † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned.

* v
* t
* e

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Current missions|

* Euclid
* Psyche
* ACRIMSAT
* ASTER
* Atmospheric infrared sounder (AIRS)
* Deep Space Atomic Clock
* GRACE-FO
* InSight
* Juno
* Keck observatory
* Large Binocular Telescope (LBT)
* Mars Odyssey
* Mars 2020
* Perseverance rover
* Ingenuity helicopter
* Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)
* Mars Science Laboratory (MSL)
* Microwave limb sounder (MLS)
* Multi-angle imaging spectroradiometer (MISR)
* Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP)
* Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer (TES)
* SWOT
* Voyager program
* Voyager 1
* Voyager 2

Past missions|

* Cassini-Huygens
* Dawn
* Deep Impact
* Deep Space 1
* Deep Space 2
* Explorers
* GALEX
* Galileo
* spacecraft
* Genesis
* GRACE
* Herschel
* IRAS
* Jason-1
* Kepler
* Magellan
* Mariner
* Mars Climate Orbiter
* Mars Cube One (MarCO)
* Mars Observer
* Mars Pathfinder
* Mars Polar Lander
* Mars Global Surveyor
* Mars Exploration Rovers
* Spirit rover
* Opportunity rover
* NSCAT
* Phoenix
* Pioneer
* QuikSCAT
* Ranger
* Rosetta
* Seasat
* Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM)
* Solar Mesosphere Explorer (SME)
* Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR)
* Spitzer Space Telescope
* Stardust
* Surveyor
* SVLBI
* TOPEX/Poseidon
* Ulysses
* Viking
* Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC)
* Wide Field Infrared Explorer (WIRE)
* Lunar Flashlight

Planned missions|

* Europa Clipper
* Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope
* Near-Earth Asteroid Scout
* SPHEREx

Proposed missions|

* Europa Lander
* FINESSE

Canceled missions|

* Astrobiology Field Laboratory (AFL)
* Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C)

Related organizations|

* NASA
* Caltech
* NASA Deep Space Network
* Goldstone Complex
* Table Mountain Observatory
* Solar System Ambassadors

* JPL Science Division
* Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking
* Space Flight Operations Facility

* v
* t
* e

← 1997

Orbital launches in 1998

1999 →

* Lunar Prospector
* Skynet 4D
* Ofek-4
* STS-89
* Soyuz TM-27
* USA-137
* Brasilsat B3
* Inmarsat-3 F5
* Orbcomm FM3
* Orbcomm FM4
* GFO
* Ad Astra
* Globalstar 1
* Globalstar 2
* Globalstar 3
* Globalstar 4
* Kosmos 2349
* Iridium 50
* Iridium 52
* Iridium 53
* Iridium 54
* Iridium 56
* Kakehashi
* SNOE
* Teledesic 1
* Hot Bird 4
* Intelsat 806
* Progress M-38 (VDU-2)
* USA-138
* SPOT 4
* Iridium 51
* Iridium 61
* Iridium 55
* Iridium 57
* Iridium 58
* Iridium 59
* Iridium 60
* TRACE
* Iridium 62
* Iridium 63
* Iridium 64
* Iridium 65
* Iridium 66
* Iridium 67
* Iridium 68
* STS-90
* Globalstar 6
* Globalstar 8
* Globalstar 14
* Globalstar 15
* Nilesat 101
* BSat-1B
* Kosmos 2350
* Iridium 69
* Iridium 71
* Kosmos 2351
* EchoStar IV
* USA-139
* NOAA-15
* Progress M-39
* Iridium 70
* Iridium 72
* Iridium 73
* Iridium 74
* Iridium 75
* Zhongwei 1
* STS-91
* Thor 3
* Kosmos 2352
* Kosmos 2353
* Kosmos 2354
* Kosmos 2355
* Kosmos 2356
* Kosmos 2357
* Intelsat 805
* Kosmos 2358
* Kosmos 2359
* Molniya 3-49
* Nozomi
* Shtil-1
* Tubsat-N
* Tubsat-N1
* Resurs-O1 #4
* Fasat-Bravo
* TMSAT
* Gurwin Techsat 1B
* WESTPAC
* SAFIR-2
* Sinosat-1
* Kosmos 2360
* Orbcomm FM13
* Orbcomm FM14
* Orbcomm FM15
* Orbcomm FM16
* Orbcomm FM17
* Orbcomm FM18
* Orbcomm FM19
* Orbcomm FM20
* Mercury 3
* Soyuz TM-28
* Iridium 3
* Iridium 76
* ST-1
* Galaxy 10
* Astra 2A
* Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1
* Iridium 79
* Iridium 80
* Iridium 81
* Iridium 82
* Globalstar 5
* Globalstar 7
* Globalstar 9
* Globalstar 10
* Globalstar 11
* Globalstar 12
* Globalstar 13
* Globalstar 16
* Globalstar 17
* Globalstar 18
* Globalstar 20
* Globalstar 21
* PAS-7
* Orbcomm FM21
* Orbcomm FM22
* Orbcomm FM23
* Orbcomm FM24
* Orbcomm FM25
* Orbcomm FM26
* Orbcomm FM27
* Orbcomm FM28
* Molniya-1T #99
* STEX (USA-141)
* Eutelsat W2
* Sirius 3
* Hot Bird 5
* USA-140
* Maqsat 3
* Deep Space 1
* SEDSAT-1
* Progress M-40 (Sputnik 41)
* AfriStar
* GE-5
* STS-95 (SPARTAN-201, PANSAT)
* PAS-8
* Iridium 2
* Iridium 83
* Iridium 84
* Iridium 85
* Iridium 86
* Zarya / ISS
* Bonum 1
* STS-88 (Unity, PMA-1
* PMA-2
* SAC-A
* MightySat-1
* Satmex 5
* SWAS
* Nadezhda 5
* Astrid 2
* Mars Climate Orbiter
* Iridium 11
* Iridium 20
* PAS-6B
* Kosmos 2361
* Kosmos 2362
* Kosmos 2363
* Kosmos 2364

Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes ( | ). Crewed flights are indicated in underline. Uncatalogued launch failures are listed in italics. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are denoted in (brackets).
*[no.]: number
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template