Metabolism

Set of chemical reactions in organisms

"Cellular metabolism" redirects here. For the journal, see Cell Metabolism.

For calories burned at rest, see Basal metabolic rate. For other uses, see Metabolism (disambiguation).

Simplified view of cellular metabolism Part of a series on

Biochemistry

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* Biomolecules
* Enzymes
* Gene expression
* Metabolism

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* Carbohydrates:
* Alcohols
* Glycoproteins
* Glycosides
* Lipids:
* Eicosanoids
* Fatty acids
* Fatty-acid metabolism
* Glycerides
* Phospholipids
* Sphingolipids
* Cholesterol
* Steroids
* Nucleic acids:
* Nucleobases
* Nucleosides
* Nucleotides
* Nucleotide metabolism
* Proteins:
* Amino acids
* Amino acid metabolism
* Other:
* Tetrapyrroles
* Heme

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* Solvothermal synthesis
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Biochemistry fields

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Metabolism (/məˈtæbəlɪzəm/, from Greek: μεταβολή metabolē, "change") refers to the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions that occur within organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: converting the energy in food into a usable form for cellular processes; converting food to building blocks of macromolecules (biopolymers) such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and eliminating metabolic wastes. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word metabolism can also refer to all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, including digestion and the transportation of substances into and between different cells. In a broader sense, the set of reactions occurring within the cells is called intermediary (or intermediate) metabolism.

Metabolic reactions may be categorized as catabolic—the breaking down of compounds (for example, of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration); or anabolic—the building up (synthesis) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.

The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy and will not occur by themselves, by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts—they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly—and they also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.

The metabolic system of a particular organism determines which substances it will find nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals.[1] The basal metabolic rate of an organism is the measure of the amount of energy consumed by all of these chemical reactions.

A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways among vastly different species.[2] For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium Escherichia coli and huge multicellular organisms like elephants.[3] These similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in evolutionary history, and their retention is likely due to their efficacy.[4][5] In various diseases, such as type II diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cancer, normal metabolism is disrupted.[6] The metabolism of cancer cells is also different from the metabolism of normal cells, and these differences can be used to find targets for therapeutic intervention in cancer.[7]

## Key biochemicals

[edit]

Further information: Biomolecule, Cell (biology), and Biochemistry

Structure of a triacylglycerol lipid

Most of the structures that make up animals, plants and microbes are made from four basic classes of molecules: amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid and lipids (often called fats). As these molecules are vital for life, metabolic reactions either focus on making these molecules during the construction of cells and tissues, or on breaking them down and using them to obtain energy, by their digestion. These biochemicals can be joined to make polymers such as DNA and proteins, essential macromolecules of life.[8]

Type of molecule  | Name of monomer forms  | Name of polymer forms  | Examples of polymer forms

|
|
|

Amino acids | Amino acids  | Proteins (made of polypeptides)  | Fibrous proteins and globular proteins
Carbohydrates | Monosaccharides | Polysaccharides | Starch, glycogen and cellulose
Nucleic acids | Nucleotides | Polynucleotides | DNA and RNA

### Amino acids and proteins

[edit]

Main article: Protein

Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape.[9] Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle.[10] Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle),[11] especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress.[12]

### Lipids

[edit]

Main article: Biolipid

Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of internal and external biological membranes, such as the cell membrane.[10] Their chemical energy can also be used. Lipids contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as ethanol, benzene or chloroform.[13] The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids by ester linkages is called a triacylglyceride.[14] Several variations of the basic structure exist, including backbones such as sphingosine in sphingomyelin, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate in phospholipids. Steroids such as sterol are another major class of lipids.[15]

### Carbohydrates

[edit]

Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.

Main article: Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals).[10] The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways.[16]

### Nucleotides

[edit]

Main article: Nucleotide

The two nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of a phosphate attached to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar group which is attached to a nitrogenous base. Nucleic acids are critical for the storage and use of genetic information, and its interpretation through the processes of transcription and protein biosynthesis.[10] This information is protected by DNA repair mechanisms and propagated through DNA replication. Many viruses have an RNA genome, such as HIV, which uses reverse transcription to create a DNA template from its viral RNA genome.[17] RNA in ribozymes such as spliceosomes and ribosomes is similar to enzymes as it can catalyze chemical reactions. Individual nucleosides are made by attaching a nucleobase to a ribose sugar. These bases are heterocyclic rings containing nitrogen, classified as purines or pyrimidines. Nucleotides also act as coenzymes in metabolic-group-transfer reactions.[18]

### Coenzymes

[edit]

Structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a central intermediate in energy metabolism

Main article: Coenzyme

Metabolism involves a vast array of chemical reactions, but most fall under a few basic types of reactions that involve the transfer of functional groups of atoms and their bonds within molecules.[19] This common chemistry allows cells to use a small set of metabolic intermediates to carry chemical groups between different reactions.[18] These group-transfer intermediates are called coenzymes. Each class of group-transfer reactions is carried out by a particular coenzyme, which is the substrate for a set of enzymes that produce it, and a set of enzymes that consume it. These coenzymes are therefore continuously made, consumed and then recycled.[20]

One central coenzyme is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of cells. This nucleotide is used to transfer chemical energy between different chemical reactions. There is only a small amount of ATP in cells, but as it is continuously regenerated, the human body can use about its own weight in ATP per day.[20] ATP acts as a bridge between catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism breaks down molecules, and anabolism puts them together. Catabolic reactions generate ATP, and anabolic reactions consume it. It also serves as a carrier of phosphate groups in phosphorylation reactions.[21]

A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells.[22] Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a derivative of vitamin B3 (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD+ into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to transfer hydrogen atoms to their substrates.[23] Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD+/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP+/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.[24]

The structure of iron-containing hemoglobin. The protein subunits are in red and blue, and the iron-containing heme groups in green. From PDB: 1GZX​.

### Mineral and cofactors

[edit]

Further information: Bioinorganic chemistry

Inorganic elements play critical roles in metabolism; some are abundant (e.g. sodium and potassium) while others function at minute concentrations. About 99% of a human's body weight is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, chlorine, potassium, hydrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and sulfur. Organic compounds (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) contain the majority of the carbon and nitrogen; most of the oxygen and hydrogen is present as water.[25]

The abundant inorganic elements act as electrolytes. The most important ions are sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate and the organic ion bicarbonate. The maintenance of precise ion gradients across cell membranes maintains osmotic pressure and pH.[26] Ions are also critical for nerve and muscle function, as action potentials in these tissues are produced by the exchange of electrolytes between the extracellular fluid and the cell's fluid, the cytosol.[27] Electrolytes enter and leave cells through proteins in the cell membrane called ion channels. For example, muscle contraction depends upon the movement of calcium, sodium and potassium through ion channels in the cell membrane and T-tubules.[28]

Transition metals are usually present as trace elements in organisms, with zinc and iron being most abundant of those.[29] Metal cofactors are bound tightly to specific sites in proteins; although enzyme cofactors can be modified during catalysis, they always return to their original state by the end of the reaction catalyzed. Metal micronutrients are taken up into organisms by specific transporters and bind to storage proteins such as ferritin or metallothionein when not in use.[30][31]

## Catabolism

[edit]

Main article: Catabolism

Catabolism is the set of metabolic processes that break down large molecules. These include breaking down and oxidizing food molecules. The purpose of the catabolic reactions is to provide the energy and components needed by anabolic reactions which build molecules.[32] The exact nature of these catabolic reactions differ from organism to organism, and organisms can be classified based on their sources of energy, hydrogen, and carbon (their primary nutritional groups), as shown in the table below. Organic molecules are used as a source of hydrogen atoms or electrons by organotrophs, while lithotrophs use inorganic substrates. Whereas phototrophs convert sunlight to chemical energy,[33] chemotrophs depend on redox reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from reduced donor molecules such as organic molecules, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide or ferrous ions to oxygen, nitrate or sulfate. In animals, these reactions involve complex organic molecules that are broken down to simpler molecules, such as carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria, use similar electron-transfer reactions to store energy absorbed from sunlight.[34]

Classification of organisms based on their metabolism[35] Energy source | sunlight | photo- |  | -troph

|
|
|
|

molecules | chemo-
Hydrogen or electron donor | organic compound |  | organo- |
inorganic compound | litho-
Carbon source | organic compound |  | hetero-
inorganic compound | auto-

The most common set of catabolic reactions in animals can be separated into three main stages. In the first stage, large organic molecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides or lipids, are digested into their smaller components outside cells. Next, these smaller molecules are taken up by cells and converted to smaller molecules, usually acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), which releases some energy. Finally, the acetyl group on acetyl-CoA is oxidized to water and carbon dioxide in the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain, releasing more energy while reducing the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) into NADH.[32]

### Digestion

[edit]

Further information: Digestion and Gastrointestinal tract

Macromolecules cannot be directly processed by cells. Macromolecules must be broken into smaller units before they can be used in cell metabolism. Different classes of enzymes are used to digest these polymers. These digestive enzymes include proteases that digest proteins into amino acids, as well as glycoside hydrolases that digest polysaccharides into simple sugars known as monosaccharides.[36]

Microbes simply secrete digestive enzymes into their surroundings,[37][38] while animals only secrete these enzymes from specialized cells in their guts, including the stomach and pancreas, and in salivary glands.[39] The amino acids or sugars released by these extracellular enzymes are then pumped into cells by active transport proteins.[40][41]

A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats[42][43]

### Energy from organic compounds

[edit]

Further information: Cellular respiration, Fermentation (biochemistry), Carbohydrate catabolism, Fat catabolism, and Protein catabolism

Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. Carbohydrates are usually taken into cells after they have been digested into monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose.[44] Once inside, the major route of breakdown is glycolysis, in which glucose is converted into pyruvate. This process generates the energy-conveying molecule NADH from NAD+, and generates ATP from ADP for use in powering many processes within the cell.[45] Pyruvate is an intermediate in several metabolic pathways, but the majority is converted to acetyl-CoA and fed into the citric acid cycle, which enables more ATP production by means of oxidative phosphorylation. This oxidation consumes molecular oxygen and releases water and the waste product carbon dioxide. When oxygen is lacking, or when pyruvate is temporarily produced faster than it can be consumed by the citric acid cycle (as in intense muscular exertion), pyruvate is converted to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase, a process that also oxidizes NADH back to NAD+ for re-use in further glycolysis, allowing energy production to continue.[46] The lactate is later converted back to pyruvate for ATP production where energy is needed, or back to glucose in the Cori cycle. An alternative route for glucose breakdown is the pentose phosphate pathway, which produces less energy but supports anabolism (biomolecule synthesis). This pathway reduces the coenzyme NADP+ to NADPH and produces pentose compounds such as ribose 5-phosphate for synthesis of many biomolecules such as nucleotides and aromatic amino acids.[47]

Carbon Catabolism pathway map for free energy including carbohydrate and lipid sources of energy

Fats are catabolized by hydrolysis to free fatty acids and glycerol. The glycerol enters glycolysis and the fatty acids are broken down by beta oxidation to release acetyl-CoA, which then is fed into the citric acid cycle. Fatty acids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates. Steroids are also broken down by some bacteria in a process similar to beta oxidation, and this breakdown process involves the release of significant amounts of acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, and pyruvate, which can all be used by the cell for energy. M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid cholesterol as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol-use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis.[48]

Amino acids are either used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules, or oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide to produce energy.[49] The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase. The amino group is fed into the urea cycle, leaving a deaminated carbon skeleton in the form of a keto acid. Several of these keto acids are intermediates in the citric acid cycle, for example α-ketoglutarate formed by deamination of glutamate.[50] The glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis.[51]

## Energy transformations

[edit]

### Oxidative phosphorylation

[edit]

Further information: Oxidative phosphorylation, Chemiosmosis, and Mitochondrion

In oxidative phosphorylation, the electrons removed from organic molecules in areas such as the citric acid cycle are transferred to oxygen and the energy released is used to make ATP. This is done in eukaryotes by a series of proteins in the membranes of mitochondria called the electron transport chain. In prokaryotes, these proteins are found in the cell's inner membrane.[52] These proteins use the energy from reduced molecules like NADH to pump protons across a membrane.[53]

Mechanism of ATP synthase. ATP is shown in red, ADP and phosphate in pink and the rotating stalk subunit in black.

Pumping protons out of the mitochondria creates a proton concentration difference across the membrane and generates an electrochemical gradient.[54] This force drives protons back into the mitochondrion through the base of an enzyme called ATP synthase. The flow of protons makes the stalk subunit rotate, causing the active site of the synthase domain to change shape and phosphorylate adenosine diphosphate—turning it into ATP.[20]

### Energy from inorganic compounds

[edit]

Further information: Microbial metabolism and Nitrogen cycle

Chemolithotrophy is a type of metabolism found in prokaryotes where energy is obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds. These organisms can use hydrogen,[55] reduced sulfur compounds (such as sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and thiosulfate),[1] ferrous iron (Fe(II))[56] or ammonia[57] as sources of reducing power and they gain energy from the oxidation of these compounds.[58] These microbial processes are important in global biogeochemical cycles such as acetogenesis, nitrification and denitrification and are critical for soil fertility.[59][60]

### Energy from light

[edit]

Further information: Phototroph, Photophosphorylation, and Chloroplast

The energy in sunlight is captured by plants, cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, green sulfur bacteria and some protists. This process is often coupled to the conversion of carbon dioxide into organic compounds, as part of photosynthesis, which is discussed below. The energy capture and carbon fixation systems can, however, operate separately in prokaryotes, as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria can use sunlight as a source of energy, while switching between carbon fixation and the fermentation of organic compounds.[61][62]

In many organisms, the capture of solar energy is similar in principle to oxidative phosphorylation, as it involves the storage of energy as a proton concentration gradient. This proton motive force then drives ATP synthesis.[63] The electrons needed to drive this electron transport chain come from light-gathering proteins called photosynthetic reaction centres. Reaction centers are classified into two types depending on the nature of photosynthetic pigment present, with most photosynthetic bacteria only having one type, while plants and cyanobacteria have two.[64]

In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosystem II uses light energy to remove electrons from water, releasing oxygen as a waste product. The electrons then flow to the cytochrome b6f complex, which uses their energy to pump protons across the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast.[34] These protons move back through the membrane as they drive the ATP synthase, as before. The electrons then flow through photosystem I and can then be used to reduce the coenzyme NADP+.[65] This coenzyme can enter the Calvin cycle or be recycled for further ATP generation.[66]

## Anabolism

[edit]

Further information: Anabolism

Anabolism is the set of constructive metabolic processes where the energy released by catabolism is used to synthesize complex molecules. In general, the complex molecules that make up cellular structures are constructed step-by-step from smaller and simpler precursors. Anabolism involves three basic stages. First, the production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides, isoprenoids and nucleotides, secondly, their activation into reactive forms using energy from ATP, and thirdly, the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.[67]

Anabolism in organisms can be different according to the source of constructed molecules in their cells. Autotrophs such as plants can construct the complex organic molecules in their cells such as polysaccharides and proteins from simple molecules like carbon dioxide and water. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, require a source of more complex substances, such as monosaccharides and amino acids, to produce these complex molecules. Organisms can be further classified by ultimate source of their energy: photoautotrophs and photoheterotrophs obtain energy from light, whereas chemoautotrophs and chemoheterotrophs obtain energy from oxidation reactions.[67]

### Carbon fixation

[edit]

Further information: Photosynthesis, Carbon fixation, and Chemosynthesis

Plant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the synthesis of carbohydrates from sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2). In plants, cyanobacteria and algae, oxygenic photosynthesis splits water, with oxygen produced as a waste product. This process uses the ATP and NADPH produced by the photosynthetic reaction centres, as described above, to convert CO2 into glycerate 3-phosphate, which can then be converted into glucose. This carbon-fixation reaction is carried out by the enzyme RuBisCO as part of the Calvin–Benson cycle.[68] Three types of photosynthesis occur in plants, C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation and CAM photosynthesis. These differ by the route that carbon dioxide takes to the Calvin cycle, with C3 plants fixing CO2 directly, while C4 and CAM photosynthesis incorporate the CO2 into other compounds first, as adaptations to deal with intense sunlight and dry conditions.[69]

In photosynthetic prokaryotes the mechanisms of carbon fixation are more diverse. Here, carbon dioxide can be fixed by the Calvin–Benson cycle, a reversed citric acid cycle,[70] or the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA.[71][72] Prokaryotic chemoautotrophs also fix CO2 through the Calvin–Benson cycle, but use energy from inorganic compounds to drive the reaction.[73]

### Carbohydrates and glycans

[edit]

Further information: Gluconeogenesis, Glyoxylate cycle, Glycogenesis, and Glycosylation

In carbohydrate anabolism, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch. The generation of glucose from compounds like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glycerate 3-phosphate and amino acids is called gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis converts pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate through a series of intermediates, many of which are shared with glycolysis.[45] However, this pathway is not simply glycolysis run in reverse, as several steps are catalyzed by non-glycolytic enzymes. This is important as it allows the formation and breakdown of glucose to be regulated separately, and prevents both pathways from running simultaneously in a futile cycle.[74][75]

Although fat is a common way of storing energy, in vertebrates such as humans the fatty acids in these stores cannot be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis as these organisms cannot convert acetyl-CoA into pyruvate; plants do, but animals do not, have the necessary enzymatic machinery.[76] As a result, after long-term starvation, vertebrates need to produce ketone bodies from fatty acids to replace glucose in tissues such as the brain that cannot metabolize fatty acids.[77] In other organisms such as plants and bacteria, this metabolic problem is solved using the glyoxylate cycle, which bypasses the decarboxylation step in the citric acid cycle and allows the transformation of acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate, where it can be used for the production of glucose.[76][78] Other than fat, glucose is stored in most tissues, as an energy resource available within the tissue through glycogenesis which was usually being used to maintained glucose level in blood.[79]

Polysaccharides and glycans are made by the sequential addition of monosaccharides by glycosyltransferase from a reactive sugar-phosphate donor such as uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-Glc) to an acceptor hydroxyl group on the growing polysaccharide. As any of the hydroxyl groups on the ring of the substrate can be acceptors, the polysaccharides produced can have straight or branched structures.[80] The polysaccharides produced can have structural or metabolic functions themselves, or be transferred to lipids and proteins by the enzymes oligosaccharyltransferases.[81][82]

### Fatty acids, isoprenoids and sterol

[edit]

Further information: Fatty acid synthesis and Steroid metabolism

Simplified version of the steroid synthesis pathway with the intermediates isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) and squalene shown. Some intermediates are omitted for clarity.

Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl-CoA units. The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acyl group, reduce it to an alcohol, dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group. The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups: in animals and fungi, all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional type I protein,[83] while in plant plastids and bacteria separate type II enzymes perform each step in the pathway.[84][85]

Terpenes and isoprenoids are a large class of lipids that include the carotenoids and form the largest class of plant natural products.[86] These compounds are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate.[87] These precursors can be made in different ways. In animals and archaea, the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl-CoA,[88] while in plants and bacteria the non-mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as substrates.[87][89] One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is sterol biosynthesis. Here, the isoprene units are joined to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol.[90] Lanosterol can then be converted into other sterols such as cholesterol and ergosterol.[90][91]

### Proteins

[edit]

Further information: Protein biosynthesis and Amino acid synthesis

Organisms vary in their ability to synthesize the 20 common amino acids. Most bacteria and plants can synthesize all twenty, but mammals can only synthesize eleven nonessential amino acids, so nine essential amino acids must be obtained from food.[10] Some simple parasites, such as the bacteria Mycoplasma pneumoniae, lack all amino acid synthesis and take their amino acids directly from their hosts.[92] All amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, or the pentose phosphate pathway. Nitrogen is provided by glutamate and glutamine. Nonessential amino acid synthesis depends on the formation of the appropriate alpha-keto acid, which is then transaminated to form an amino acid.[93]

Amino acids are made into proteins by being joined in a chain of peptide bonds. Each different protein has a unique sequence of amino acid residues: this is its primary structure. Just as the letters of the alphabet can be combined to form an almost endless variety of words, amino acids can be linked in varying sequences to form a huge variety of proteins. Proteins are made from amino acids that have been activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA precursor is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase.[94] This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which joins the amino acid onto the elongating protein chain, using the sequence information in a messenger RNA.[95]

### Nucleotide synthesis and salvage

[edit]

Further information: Nucleotide salvage, Pyrimidine biosynthesis, and Purine § Metabolism

Nucleotides are made from amino acids, carbon dioxide and formic acid in pathways that require large amounts of metabolic energy.[96] Consequently, most organisms have efficient systems to salvage preformed nucleotides.[96][97] Purines are synthesized as nucleosides (bases attached to ribose).[98] Both adenine and guanine are made from the precursor nucleoside inosine monophosphate, which is synthesized using atoms from the amino acids glycine, glutamine, and aspartic acid, as well as formate transferred from the coenzyme tetrahydrofolate. Pyrimidines, on the other hand, are synthesized from the base orotate, which is formed from glutamine and aspartate.[99]

## Xenobiotics and redox metabolism

[edit]

Further information: Xenobiotic metabolism, Drug metabolism, Alcohol metabolism, and Antioxidant

All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and that would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics.[100] Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases,[101] UDP-glucuronosyltransferases,[102] and glutathione S-transferases.[103] This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills.[104] Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds.[105]

A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress.[106] Here, processes including oxidative phosphorylation and the formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding produce reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide.[107] These damaging oxidants are removed by antioxidant metabolites such as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases.[108][109]

## Thermodynamics of living organisms

[edit]

Further information: Biological thermodynamics

Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any isolated system, the amount of entropy (disorder) cannot decrease. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings. Living systems are not in equilibrium, but instead are dissipative systems that maintain their state of high complexity by causing a larger increase in the entropy of their environments.[110] The metabolism of a cell achieves this by coupling the spontaneous processes of catabolism to the non-spontaneous processes of anabolism. In thermodynamic terms, metabolism maintains order by creating disorder.[111]

## Regulation and control

[edit]

Further information: Metabolic pathway, Metabolic control analysis, Hormone, Regulatory enzymes, and Cell signaling

As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis.[112][113] Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments.[114] Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway).[115] For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.[116]

Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1), which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6).[117]

There are multiple levels of metabolic regulation. In intrinsic regulation, the metabolic pathway self-regulates to respond to changes in the levels of substrates or products; for example, a decrease in the amount of product can increase the flux through the pathway to compensate.[115] This type of regulation often involves allosteric regulation of the activities of multiple enzymes in the pathway.[118] Extrinsic control involves a cell in a multicellular organism changing its metabolism in response to signals from other cells. These signals are usually in the form of water-soluble messengers such as hormones and growth factors and are detected by specific receptors on the cell surface.[119] These signals are then transmitted inside the cell by second messenger systems that often involved the phosphorylation of proteins.[120]

A very well understood example of extrinsic control is the regulation of glucose metabolism by the hormone insulin.[121] Insulin is produced in response to rises in blood glucose levels. Binding of the hormone to insulin receptors on cells then activates a cascade of protein kinases that cause the cells to take up glucose and convert it into storage molecules such as fatty acids and glycogen.[122] The metabolism of glycogen is controlled by activity of phosphorylase, the enzyme that breaks down glycogen, and glycogen synthase, the enzyme that makes it. These enzymes are regulated in a reciprocal fashion, with phosphorylation inhibiting glycogen synthase, but activating phosphorylase. Insulin causes glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatases and producing a decrease in the phosphorylation of these enzymes.[123]

## Evolution

[edit]

Further information: Proto-metabolism, Molecular evolution, and Phylogenetics

Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestry of organisms from all three domains of life. Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, and archaea green. Relative positions of some of the phyla included are shown around the tree.

The central pathways of metabolism described above, such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, are present in all three domains of living things and were present in the last universal common ancestor.[3][124] This universal ancestral cell was prokaryotic and probably a methanogen that had extensive amino acid, nucleotide, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.[125][126] The retention of these ancient pathways during later evolution may be the result of these reactions having been an optimal solution to their particular metabolic problems, with pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle producing their end products highly efficiently and in a minimal number of steps.[4][5] The first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism may have been parts of purine nucleotide metabolism, while previous metabolic pathways were a part of the ancient RNA world.[127]

Many models have been proposed to describe the mechanisms by which novel metabolic pathways evolve. These include the sequential addition of novel enzymes to a short ancestral pathway, the duplication and then divergence of entire pathways as well as the recruitment of pre-existing enzymes and their assembly into a novel reaction pathway.[128] The relative importance of these mechanisms is unclear, but genomic studies have shown that enzymes in a pathway are likely to have a shared ancestry, suggesting that many pathways have evolved in a step-by-step fashion with novel functions created from pre-existing steps in the pathway.[129] An alternative model comes from studies that trace the evolution of proteins' structures in metabolic networks, this has suggested that enzymes are pervasively recruited, borrowing enzymes to perform similar functions in different metabolic pathways (evident in the MANET database)[130] These recruitment processes result in an evolutionary enzymatic mosaic.[131] A third possibility is that some parts of metabolism might exist as "modules" that can be reused in different pathways and perform similar functions on different molecules.[132]

As well as the evolution of new metabolic pathways, evolution can also cause the loss of metabolic functions. For example, in some parasites metabolic processes that are not essential for survival are lost and preformed amino acids, nucleotides and carbohydrates may instead be scavenged from the host.[133] Similar reduced metabolic capabilities are seen in endosymbiotic organisms.[134]

## Investigation and manipulation

[edit]

Further information: Protein methods, Proteomics, Metabolomics, and Metabolic network modelling

Metabolic network of the Arabidopsis thaliana citric acid cycle. Enzymes and metabolites are shown as red squares and the interactions between them as black lines.

Classically, metabolism is studied by a reductionist approach that focuses on a single metabolic pathway. Particularly valuable is the use of radioactive tracers at the whole-organism, tissue and cellular levels, which define the paths from precursors to final products by identifying radioactively labelled intermediates and products.[135] The enzymes that catalyze these chemical reactions can then be purified and their kinetics and responses to inhibitors investigated. A parallel approach is to identify the small molecules in a cell or tissue; the complete set of these molecules is called the metabolome. Overall, these studies give a good view of the structure and function of simple metabolic pathways, but are inadequate when applied to more complex systems such as the metabolism of a complete cell.[136]

An idea of the complexity of the metabolic networks in cells that contain thousands of different enzymes is given by the figure showing the interactions between just 43 proteins and 40 metabolites to the right: the sequences of genomes provide lists containing anything up to 26.500 genes.[137] However, it is now possible to use this genomic data to reconstruct complete networks of biochemical reactions and produce more holistic mathematical models that may explain and predict their behavior.[138] These models are especially powerful when used to integrate the pathway and metabolite data obtained through classical methods with data on gene expression from proteomic and DNA microarray studies.[139] Using these techniques, a model of human metabolism has now been produced, which will guide future drug discovery and biochemical research.[140] These models are now used in network analysis, to classify human diseases into groups that share common proteins or metabolites.[141][142]

Bacterial metabolic networks are a striking example of bow-tie[143][144][145] organization, an architecture able to input a wide range of nutrients and produce a large variety of products and complex macromolecules using a relatively few intermediate common currencies.[146]

A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid.[147][148][149] These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes.[150]

## History

[edit]

Further information: History of biochemistry and History of molecular biology

The term metabolism is derived from the Ancient Greek word μεταβολή—"metabole" for "a change" which is derived from μεταβάλλειν—"metaballein", meaning "to change"[151]

Aristotle's metabolism as an open flow model

### Greek philosophy

[edit]

Aristotle's The Parts of Animals sets out enough details of his views on metabolism for an open flow model to be made. He believed that at each stage of the process, materials from food were transformed, with heat being released as the classical element of fire, and residual materials being excreted as urine, bile, or faeces.[152]

Ibn al-Nafis described metabolism in his 1260 AD work titled Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah (The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography) which included the following phrase "Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change."[153]

### Application of the scientific method

[edit]

The history of the scientific study of metabolism spans several centuries and has moved from examining whole animals in early studies, to examining individual metabolic reactions in modern biochemistry. The first controlled experiments in human metabolism were published by Santorio Santorio in 1614 in his book Ars de statica medicina. He described how he weighed himself before and after eating, sleep, working, sex, fasting, drinking, and excreting. He found that most of the food he took in was lost through what he called "insensible perspiration".[154]

Santorio Santorio in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medicina, first published 1614

In these early studies, the mechanisms of these metabolic processes had not been identified and a vital force was thought to animate living tissue.[155] In the 19th century, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that fermentation was catalyzed by substances within the yeast cells he called "ferments". He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells."[156] This discovery, along with the publication by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828 of a paper on the chemical synthesis of urea, and is notable for being the first organic compound prepared from wholly inorganic precursors.[157] Wöhler's urea synthesis showed that organic compounds could be created from inorganic precursors, disputing the vital force theory that dominated early 19th-century science. Modern analyses consider this achievement as foundational for unifying organic and inorganic chemistry.[158]

It was the discovery of enzymes at the beginning of the 20th century by Eduard Buchner that separated the study of the chemical reactions of metabolism from the biological study of cells, and marked the beginnings of biochemistry.[159] The mass of biochemical knowledge grew rapidly throughout the early 20th century. One of the most prolific of these modern biochemists was Hans Krebs who made huge contributions to the study of metabolism.[160] He discovered the urea cycle and later, working with Hans Kornberg, the citric acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle.[161][162][78] Modern biochemical research has been greatly aided by the development of new techniques such as chromatography, NMR spectroscopy, electron microscopy and molecular dynamics simulations. These techniques have allowed the discovery and detailed analysis of the many molecules and metabolic pathways in cells.[163]

## See also

[edit]

* Anthropogenic metabolism – Material and energy turnover of human society
* Antimetabolite – Chemical that inhibits the use of a metabolite
* Calorimetry – Determining heat transfer in a system by measuring its other properties
* Isothermal microcalorimetry – Measuring versus elapsed time the net rate of heat flow
* Inborn errors of metabolism – Class of genetic diseases
* Iron–sulfur world hypothesis – Hypothetical scenario for the origin of life, a "metabolism first" theory of the origin of life
* Metabolic disorder – Any disease hindering the body's ability to process and distribute nutrients
* Microphysiometry
* Primary nutritional groups – Group of organisms
* Proto-metabolism – Chemical reactions which turn into modern metabolism
* Respirometry – Estimation of metabolic rates by measuring heat production
* Stream metabolism
* Sulfur metabolism – Set of chemical reactions involving sulfur in living organisms
* Thermic effect of food – Energy expenditure for processing food
* Urban metabolism – Model of the flows of materials and energy in cities
* Water metabolism – Aspect of homeostasis concerning control of the amount of water in an organism
* Overflow metabolism – Cellular phenomena
* Oncometabolism
* Reactome
* KEGG – Collection of bioinformatics databases

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157. ^ Kinne-Saffran E, Kinne RK (1999). "Vitalism and synthesis of urea. From Friedrich Wöhler to Hans A. Krebs". American Journal of Nephrology. 19 (2): 290–4\. doi:10.1159/000013463. PMID 10213830. S2CID 71727190.
158. ^ Kinne-Saffran, E.; Kinne, R. K. (1999). "Vitalism and synthesis of urea. From Friedrich Wöhler to Hans A. Krebs". American Journal of Nephrology. 19 (2): 290–294\. doi:10.1159/000013463. ISSN 0250-8095. PMID 10213830.
159. ^ Eduard Buchner's 1907 Nobel lecture Archived 8 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine at http://nobelprize.org Archived 5 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 20 March 2007
160. ^ Kornberg H (December 2000). "Krebs and his trinity of cycles". Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology. 1 (3): 225–8\. doi:10.1038/35043073. PMID 11252898. S2CID 28092593.
161. ^ Krebs HA, Henseleit K (1932). "Untersuchungen über die Harnstoffbildung im tierkorper". Z. Physiol. Chem. 210 (1–2): 33–66\. doi:10.1515/bchm2.1932.210.1-2.33.1–2&rft.pages=33-66&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info:doi/10.1515/bchm2.1932.210.1-2.33&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=HA&rft.au=Henseleit,+K&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Metabolism" class="Z3988">
162. ^ Krebs HA, Johnson WA (April 1937). "Metabolism of ketonic acids in animal tissues". The Biochemical Journal. 31 (4): 645–60\. doi:10.1042/bj0310645. PMC 1266984. PMID 16746382.
163. ^ Das, Bidisha; Chakraborty, Joy; Chattopadhyay, Krishnananda (2025). "Emerging Techniques in Cellular and Biomolecular Research". Biochemical and Biophysical Methods in Molecular and Cellular Biology. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. p. 1–28. doi:10.1007/978-981-96-2088-3_1. ISBN 978-981--962087-6. Retrieved 17 April 2025.

## Further reading

[edit]

Library resources about
Metabolism

* * *

* Online books
* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

Introductory

* Rose S, Mileusnic R (1999). The Chemistry of Life. Penguin Press Science. ISBN 0-14-027273-9.
* Schneider EC, Sagan D (2005). Into the Cool: Energy Flow, Thermodynamics, and Life. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-73936-8.
* Lane N (2004). Oxygen: The Molecule that Made the World. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860783-0.

Advanced

* Price N, Stevens L (1999). Fundamentals of Enzymology: Cell and Molecular Biology of Catalytic Proteins. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850229-X.
* Berg J, Tymoczko J, Stryer L (2002). Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-4955-6.
* Cox M, Nelson DL (2004). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6.
* Brock TD, Madigan MR, Martinko J, Parker J (2002). Brock's Biology of Microorganisms. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-13-066271-2.
* Da Silva JJ, Williams RJ (1991). The Biological Chemistry of the Elements: The Inorganic Chemistry of Life. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-855598-9.
* Nicholls DG, Ferguson SJ (2002). Bioenergetics. Academic Press Inc. ISBN 0-12-518121-3.
* Wood HG (February 1991). "Life with CO or CO2 and H2 as a source of carbon and energy". FASEB Journal. 5 (2): 156–63\. doi:10.1096/fasebj.5.2.1900793. PMID 1900793. S2CID 45967404.

## External links

[edit]

Wikiversity has learning resources about Topic:Biochemistry

Wikibooks has more on the topic of: Metabolism

Look up metabolism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Metabolism.

General information

* The Biochemistry of Metabolism (archived 8 March 2005)
* Sparknotes SAT biochemistry Overview of biochemistry. School level.
* MIT Biology Hypertextbook Archived 19 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive Undergraduate-level guide to molecular biology.

Human metabolism

* Topics in Medical Biochemistry Guide to human metabolic pathways. School level.
* THE Medical Biochemistry Page Comprehensive resource on human metabolism.

Databases

* Flow Chart of Metabolic Pathways at ExPASy
* IUBMB-Nicholson Metabolic Pathways Chart
* SuperCYP: Database for Drug-Cytochrome-Metabolism Archived 3 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine

Metabolic pathways

* Metabolism reference Pathway Archived 23 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
* The Nitrogen cycle and Nitrogen fixation at the Wayback Machine (archive index)

Articles related to Metabolism

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism map

Carbon
fixation

Photo-
respiration

Pentose
phosphate
pathway

Citric
acid cycle

Glyoxylate
cycle

Urea
cycle

Fatty
acid
synthesis

Fatty
acid
elongation

Beta
oxidation

Peroxisomal

beta
oxidation

Glyco-
genolysis

Glyco-
genesis

Glyco-
lysis

Gluconeo-
genesis

Pyruvate
decarb-
oxylation

Fermentation

Keto-
lysis

Keto-
genesis

feeders to
gluconeo-
genesis

Direct / C4 / CAM
carbon intake

Light reaction

Oxidative
phosphorylation

Amino acid
deamination

Citrate
shuttle

Lipogenesis

Lipolysis

Steroidogenesis

MVA pathway

MEP pathway

Shikimate
pathway

Transcription &
replication

Translation

Proteolysis

Glycosyl-
ation

Sugar
acids

Double/multiple
sugars & glycans

Simple
sugars

Inositol-P

Amino sugars
& sialic acids

Nucleotide sugars

Hexose-P

Triose-P

Glycerol

P-glycerates

Pentose-P

Tetrose-P

Propionyl
-CoA

Succinate

Acetyl
-CoA

Pentose-P

P-glycerates

Glyoxylate

Photosystems

Pyruvate

Lactate

Acetyl
-CoA

Citrate

Oxalo-
acetate

Malate

Succinyl
-CoA

α-Keto-
glutarate

Ketone
bodies

Respiratory
chain

Serine group

Alanine

Branched-chain
amino acids

Aspartate
group

Homoserine
group
& lysine

Glutamate
group
& proline

Arginine

Creatine
& polyamines

Ketogenic &
glucogenic
amino acids

Amino acids

Shikimate

Aromatic amino
acids & histidine

Ascorbate
(vitamin C)

δ-ALA

Bile
pigments

Hemes

Cobalamins (vitamin B12)

Various
vitamin Bs

Calciferols
(vitamin D)

Retinoids
(vitamin A)

Quinones (vitamin K)
& tocopherols (vitamin E)

Cofactors

Vitamins
& minerals

Antioxidants

PRPP

Nucleotides

Nucleic
acids

Proteins

Glycoproteins
& proteoglycans

Chlorophylls

MEP

MVA

Acetyl
-CoA

Polyketides

Terpenoid
backbones

Terpenoids
& carotenoids (vitamin A)

Cholesterol

Bile acids

Glycero-
phospholipids

Glycerolipids

Acyl-CoA

Fatty
acids

Glyco-
sphingolipids

Sphingolipids

Waxes

Polyunsaturated
fatty acids

Neurotransmitters
& thyroid hormones

Steroids

Endo-
cannabinoids

Eicosanoids

Major metabolic pathways in metro-style map. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article.
Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes).  Orange nodes: carbohydrate metabolism. Violet nodes: photosynthesis. Red nodes: cellular respiration. Pink nodes: cell signaling. Blue nodes: amino acid metabolism. Grey nodes: vitamin and cofactor metabolism. Brown nodes: nucleotide and protein metabolism. Green nodes: lipid metabolism.

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism, catabolism, anabolism

General|

* Metabolic pathway
* Metabolic network
* Primary nutritional groups

Energy
metabolism|

| Aerobic respiration|

* Glycolysis → Pyruvate decarboxylation → Citric acid cycle → Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain \+ ATP synthase)

|

Anaerobic respiration|

* Electron acceptors other than oxygen

Fermentation|

* Glycolysis → Substrate-level phosphorylation
* ABE
* Ethanol
* Lactic acid

Specific
paths|

| Protein metabolism|

* Protein synthesis
* Catabolism (protein→peptide→amino acid)

| Amino acid|

* Amino acid synthesis
* Amino acid degradation (amino acid→pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or TCA intermediate)
* Urea cycle

|

Nucleotide
metabolism|

* Purine metabolism
* Nucleotide salvage
* Pyrimidine metabolism
* Purine nucleotide cycle

Carbohydrate metabolism
(carbohydrate catabolism
and anabolism)|

| Human|

* Glycolysis ⇄ Gluconeogenesis

* Glycogenolysis ⇄ Glycogenesis

* Pentose phosphate pathway
* Fructolysis
* Polyol pathway
* Galactolysis
* Leloir pathway

* Glycosylation
* N-linked
* O-linked

Nonhuman|

* Photosynthesis
* Anoxygenic photosynthesis
* Chemosynthesis
* Carbon fixation
* DeLey-Doudoroff pathway
* Entner-Doudoroff pathway

* Xylose metabolism
* Radiotrophism

Lipid metabolism
(lipolysis, lipogenesis)|

| Fatty acid metabolism|

* Fatty acid degradation (Beta oxidation)
* Fatty acid synthesis

|

Other|

* Steroid metabolism
* Sphingolipid metabolism
* Eicosanoid metabolism
* Ketosis
* Reverse cholesterol transport

Other|

* Metal metabolism
* Iron metabolism
* Ethanol metabolism
* Phospagen system (ATP-PCr)
* Chlororespiration

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism: glycolysis/gluconeogenesis enzymes

Glycolysis|

* Hexokinase (HK1, HK2, HK3, Glucokinase)→/Glucose 6-phosphatase←
* Glucose isomerase
* Phosphofructokinase 1 (Liver, Muscle, Platelet)→/Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase←

* Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (Aldolase A, B, C)
* Triosephosphate isomerase

* Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
* Phosphoglycerate kinase
* Phosphoglycerate mutase
* Enolase
* Pyruvate kinase (PKLR, PKM2)

Gluconeogenesis only|

| to oxaloacetate:|

* Pyruvate carboxylase
* Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase

|

from lactate (Cori cycle):|

* Lactate dehydrogenase

from alanine (Alanine cycle):|

* Alanine transaminase

from glycerol:|

* Glycerol kinase
* Glycerol dehydrogenase

Regulatory|

* Fructose 6-P,2-kinase:fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase
* PFKFB1, PFKFB2, PFKFB3, PFKFB4
* Bisphosphoglycerate mutase

* v
* t
* e

* Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism
* fructose and galactose enzymes

Fructose / Fructolysis|

* Hepatic fructokinase
* Aldolase B
* Triokinase

Sorbitol|

* Sorbitol dehydrogenase
* Aldose reductase

Galactose / Galactolysis|

* Galactokinase
* Galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase/UDP-glucose 4-epimerase
* Aldose reductase
* Galactose mutarotase

Lactose|

* Lactose synthase
* Lactase

Mannose|

* Mannose phosphate isomerase

* v
* t
* e

* Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism
* proteoglycan enzymes

glycosaminoglycan anabolism|

* L-xylulose reductase
* L-gulonolactone oxidase
* UDP-glucuronate 5'-epimerase
* Xylosyltransferase
* Sulfotransferase

Heparan sulfate
EXT1
EXT2

Chondroitin sulfate
PAPSS1
PAPSS2

glycosaminoglycan catabolism|

| Hunter, Hurler|

* Iduronate-2-sulfatase
* Iduronidase

|

Sanfilippo, Sly|

* Heparan sulfamidase
* N-acetyltransferase
* Alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase
* Glucuronidase
* N-acetylglucosamine-6-sulfatase

Morquio/Maroteaux-Lamy|

* Arylsulfatase B
* Galactosamine-6 sulfatase
* Beta-galactosidase (GLB1)

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism * glycoprotein enzymes

Anabolism|

* Dolichol kinase
* GCS1
* Oligosaccharyltransferase

Catabolism|

* Neuraminidase
* Beta-galactosidase
* Hexosaminidase
* mannosidase
* alpha-Mannosidase
* beta-mannosidase
* Aspartylglucosaminidase
* Fucosidase
* NAGA

Transport|

* SLC17A5

M6P tagging|

* N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism, lipid metabolism, glycolipid enzymes

Sphingolipid|

| To glycosphingolipid|

* Glycosyltransferase
* Sulfotransferase

|

To ceramide|

From ganglioside
Beta-galactosidase
Hexosaminidase A
Neuraminidase
Glucocerebrosidase

From globoside
Hexosaminidase B
Alpha-galactosidase
Beta-galactosidase
Glucocerebrosidase

From sphingomyelin
Sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase

Sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 1

From sulfatide
Arylsulfatase A
Galactosylceramidase

To sphingosine|

* Ceramidase
* ACER1
* ACER2
* ACER3
* ASAH1
* ASAH2
* ASAH2B
* ASAH2C

Other|

* Sphingosine kinase

NCL|

* Palmitoyl protein thioesterase
* Tripeptidyl peptidase I
* CLN3
* CLN5
* CLN6
* CLN8

Ceramide synthesis|

* Serine C-palmitoyltransferase (SPTLC1)
* Ceramide glucosyltransferase (UGCG)

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism: lipid metabolism – eicosanoid metabolism enzymes

Precursor|

* Phospholipase A2

* Phospholipase C
* Diacylglycerol lipase

Prostanoids|

* Cyclooxygenase
* PTGS1
* PTGS2

* PGD2 synthase

* PGE synthase
* Prostaglandin-E2 9-reductase

* PGI2 synthase

* TXA synthase

Leukotrienes|

* 5-Lipoxygenase activating protein/Arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase

* LTA4 hydrolase (B4 synthesis)

* LTC4 synthase
* Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase
* LTD4 hydrolase

Ungrouped|

* HPGD

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism: lipid metabolism / fatty acid metabolism, triglyceride and fatty acid enzymes

Synthesis|

| Malonyl-CoA synthesis|

* ATP citrate lyase
* Acetyl-CoA carboxylase

|

Fatty acid synthesis/
Fatty acid synthase|

* Beta-ketoacyl-ACP synthase
* Β-Ketoacyl ACP reductase
* 3-Hydroxyacyl ACP dehydrase
* Enoyl ACP reductase

Fatty acid desaturases|

* Stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1

Triacyl glycerol|

* Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
* Thiokinase

Degradation|

| Acyl transport|

* Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I
* Carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase
* Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II

|

Beta oxidation|

| General|

* Acyl CoA dehydrogenase (ACADL
* ACADM
* ACADS
* ACADVL
* ACADSB)
* Enoyl-CoA hydratase

* MTP: HADH
* HADHA
* HADHB

* Acetyl-CoA C-acyltransferase

|

Unsaturated|

* Enoyl CoA isomerase
* 2,4 Dienoyl-CoA reductase

Odd chain|

* Propionyl-CoA carboxylase

Other|

* Hydroxyacyl-Coenzyme A dehydrogenase

To acetyl-CoA|

* Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase

Aldehydes|

* Long-chain-aldehyde dehydrogenase

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism: amino acid metabolism \- urea cycle enzymes

Main cycle|

| mitochondrial matrix:|

* Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I
* Ornithine transcarbamylase

|

cytosol:|

* Argininosuccinate synthetase
* Argininosuccinate lyase
* Arginase

Regulatory/transport|

* N-Acetylglutamate synthase
* Ornithine translocase

* v
* t
* e

Enzymes involved in neurotransmission

monoamine|

| histidine → histamine|

| anabolism:|

* Histidine decarboxylase

|

catabolism:|

* Histamine N-methyltransferase
* Diamine oxidase

tyrosine→dopamine→epinephrine|

| anabolism:|

* Tyrosine hydroxylase
* Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase
* Dopamine beta-hydroxylase
* Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase

|

catabolism:|

* Catechol-O-methyl transferase
* Monoamine oxidase
* A
* B

glutamate→GABA|

| anabolism:|

* Glutamate decarboxylase

|

catabolism:|

* 4-aminobutyrate transaminase

tryptophan→serotonin→melatonin|

* Tryptophan hydroxylase
* Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase
* Aralkylamine N-acetyltransferase
* Acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase

arginine→NO|

* Nitric oxide synthase (NOS1, NOS2, NOS3)

choline→Acetylcholine|

| anabolism:|

* Choline acetyltransferase

|

catabolism:|

* Cholinesterase (Acetylcholinesterase, Butyrylcholinesterase)

* v
* t
* e

Enzymes involved in the metabolism of heme and porphyrin

Porphyrin biosynthesis|

| early mitochondrial:|

* Aminolevulinic acid synthase
* ALAS1
* ALAS2

|

cytosolic:|

* Porphobilinogen synthase
* Porphobilinogen deaminase
* Uroporphyrinogen III synthase
* Uroporphyrinogen III decarboxylase

late mitochondrial:|

* Coproporphyrinogen III oxidase
* Protoporphyrinogen oxidase
* Ferrochelatase

Heme degradation
to bile|

| spleen:|

* Heme oxygenase
* Biliverdin reductase

|

liver:|

* glucuronosyltransferase
* UGT1A1

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism of vitamins, coenzymes, and cofactors

Fat soluble vitamins|

| Vitamin A|

* Retinol binding protein

|

Vitamin E|

* Alpha-tocopherol transfer protein

Vitamin D|

* liver (Sterol 27-hydroxylase or CYP27A1)
* renal (25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase or CYP27B1)
* degradation (1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 24-hydroxylase or CYP24A1)

Vitamin K|

* Vitamin K epoxide reductase

Water soluble vitamins|

| Thiamine (B1)|

* Thiamine diphosphokinase

|

Niacin (B3)|

* Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase
* Formamidase

Pantothenic acid (B5)|

* Pantothenate kinase

Folic acid (B9)|

* Dihydropteroate synthase
* Dihydrofolate reductase
* Serine hydroxymethyltransferase

* Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase

Vitamin B12|

* MMAA
* MMAB
* MMACHC
* MMADHC

Vitamin C|

* L-gulonolactone oxidase

Riboflavin (B2)|

* Riboflavin kinase

Nonvitamin cofactors|

| Tetrahydrobiopterin|

* GTP cyclohydrolase I
* 6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase
* Sepiapterin reductase

* PCBD1
* PTS
* QDPR

Molybdopterin|

* MOCS1
* MOCS2
* MOCS3
* Gephyrin

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism: Protein metabolism, synthesis and catabolism enzymes

Essential amino acids are in Capitals

K→acetyl-CoA|

| LYSINE→|

* Saccharopine dehydrogenase
* Glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase

|

LEUCINE→|

* 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase
* Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase
* Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex
* Enoyl-CoA hydratase
* HMG-CoA lyase
* HMG-CoA reductase
* Isovaleryl coenzyme A dehydrogenase
* α-Ketoisocaproate dioxygenase
* Leucine 2,3-aminomutase
* Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase
* Methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase

(See Template:Leucine metabolism in humans – this diagram does not include the pathway for β-leucine synthesis via leucine 2,3-aminomutase)

TRYPTOPHAN→|

* Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase/Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase
* Arylformamidase
* Kynureninase
* 3-hydroxyanthranilate oxidase
* Aminocarboxymuconate-semialdehyde decarboxylase
* Aminomuconate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase

PHENYLALANINE→tyrosine→|

* (see below)

| G→pyruvate
→citrate|

| glycine→serine→|

* Serine hydroxymethyltransferase
* Serine dehydratase

* glycine→creatine: Guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase
* Creatine kinase

|

alanine→|

* Alanine transaminase

cysteine→|

* D-cysteine desulfhydrase

threonine→|

* L-threonine dehydrogenase

G→glutamate→
α-ketoglutarate|

| HISTIDINE→|

* Histidine ammonia-lyase
* Urocanate hydratase
* Formiminotransferase cyclodeaminase

|

proline→|

* Proline oxidase
* Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase
* 1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase/ALDH4A1
* PYCR1

arginine→|

* Ornithine aminotransferase
* Ornithine decarboxylase
* Agmatinase

→alpha-ketoglutarate→TCA|

* Glutamate dehydrogenase

Other|

* cysteine+glutamate→glutathione: Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase
* Glutathione synthetase
* Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase

* glutamate→glutamine: Glutamine synthetase
* Glutaminase

G→propionyl-CoA→
succinyl-CoA|

| VALINE→|

* Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase
* Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex
* Enoyl-CoA hydratase
* 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase
* 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase
* Methylmalonate semialdehyde dehydrogenase

|

ISOLEUCINE→|

* Branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase
* Branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex
* 3-hydroxy-2-methylbutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase

METHIONINE→|

* generation of homocysteine: Methionine adenosyltransferase
* Adenosylhomocysteinase

* regeneration of methionine: Methionine synthase/Homocysteine methyltransferase
* Betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase

* conversion to cysteine: Cystathionine beta synthase
* Cystathionine gamma-lyase

THREONINE→|

* Threonine aldolase

→succinyl-CoA→TCA|

* Propionyl-CoA carboxylase
* Methylmalonyl CoA epimerase
* Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase

G→fumarate|

| PHENYLALANINE→tyrosine→|

* Phenylalanine hydroxylase
* Tyrosine aminotransferase
* 4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase
* Homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase
* Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase

* tyrosine→melanin: Tyrosinase

|

G→oxaloacetate|

| asparagine→aspartate→|

* Asparaginase/Asparagine synthetase
* Aspartate transaminase

|

* v
* t
* e

* Metabolism: amino acid metabolism
* nucleotide enzymes

Purine metabolism|

| Anabolism|

| R5P→IMP:|

* Ribose-phosphate diphosphokinase
* Amidophosphoribosyltransferase
* Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase
* AIR synthetase (FGAM cyclase)
* Phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase
* Phosphoribosylaminoimidazolesuccinocarboxamide synthase
* IMP synthase

|

IMP→AMP:|

* Adenylosuccinate synthase
* Adenylosuccinate lyase
* reverse
* AMP deaminase

IMP→GMP:|

* IMP dehydrogenase
* GMP synthase
* reverse
* GMP reductase

Nucleotide salvage|

* Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase
* Adenine phosphoribosyltransferase

Catabolism|

* Adenosine deaminase
* Purine nucleoside phosphorylase
* Guanine deaminase
* Xanthine oxidase
* Urate oxidase

Pyrimidine metabolism|

| Anabolism|

* CAD
* Carbamoyl phosphate synthase II
* Aspartate carbamoyltransferase
* Dihydroorotase

* Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase
* Orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase/Uridine monophosphate synthetase

* CTP synthetase

Catabolism|

* Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase
* Dihydropyrimidinase/DPYS
* Beta-ureidopropionase/UPB1

Deoxyribonucleotides|

* Ribonucleotide reductase
* Nucleoside-diphosphate kinase
* DCMP deaminase
* Thymidylate synthase
* Dihydrofolate reductase

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism: lipid metabolism – ketones/cholesterol synthesis enzymes/steroid metabolism

Mevalonate pathway|

| To HMG-CoA|

* Acetyl-Coenzyme A acetyltransferase
* HMG-CoA synthase (regulated step)

|

Ketogenesis|

* HMG-CoA lyase
* 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase
* Thiophorase

To Mevalonic acid|

* HMG-CoA reductase

To DMAPP|

* Mevalonate kinase
* Phosphomevalonate kinase
* Pyrophosphomevalonate decarboxylase
* Isopentenyl-diphosphate delta isomerase

Geranyl-|

* Dimethylallyltranstransferase
* Geranyl pyrophosphate

To cholesterol|

| To lanosterol|

* Farnesyl-diphosphate farnesyltransferase
* Squalene monooxygenase
* Lanosterol synthase

|

7-Dehydrocholesterol path|

* Lanosterol 14α-demethylase
* Sterol-C5-desaturase-like
* 7-Dehydrocholesterol reductase

Desmosterol path|

* 24-Dehydrocholesterol reductase

To Bile acids|

* Cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase
* Sterol 27-hydroxylase

Steroidogenesis|

| To pregnenolone|

* Cholesterol side-chain cleavage

|

To corticosteroids|

* aldosterone: 18-Hydroxylase

* cortisol/cortisone: 17α-Hydroxylase
* 11β-HSD
* 1
* 2

* both: 3β-HSD
* 1
* 2
* 21-Hydroxylase
* 11β-Hydroxylase

To sex hormones|

| To androgens|

* 17α-Hydroxylase
* 17,20-Lyase
* 3β-HSD
* 17β-HSD
* 5α-Reductase
* 1
* 2

|

To estrogens|

* Aromatase
* 17β-HSD

Other/ungrouped|

* Steroid metabolism: sulfatase
* Steroid sulfatase
* sulfotransferase
* SULT1A1
* SULT2A1

* Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein
* Cholesterol total synthesis
* Reverse cholesterol transport

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism * pentose phosphate pathway enzymes

oxidative|

* Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
* 6-phosphogluconolactonase
* Phosphogluconate dehydrogenase

nonoxidative|

* Phosphopentose isomerase
* Phosphopentose epimerase
* Transketolase
* Transaldolase

* v
* t
* e

Metabolism \- non-mevalonate pathway enzymes

* DXP synthase
* DXP reductoisomerase
* 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidylyltransferase
* 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase
* 4-(cytidine 5'-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase
* 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate synthase
* 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate reductase

* v
* t
* e

Food science

General|

* Allergy
* Engineering
* Food
* Human
* Nutritional rating systems
* Glycemic index
* Insulin index
* Satiety value
* Microbiology
* Nutrition
* Diet
* Clinical
* Processing
* Processing aids
* Psychology
* Quality
* Sensory analysis
* Discrimination testing
* Rheology
* Storage
* Technology

* v
* t
* e

Food chemistry

* Additives
* Carbohydrates
* Coloring
* Enzymes
* Essential fatty acids
* Flavors
* Fortification
* Lipids
* "Minerals" (Chemical elements)
* Proteins
* Vitamins
* Water

* v
* t
* e

Food preservation

* Biopreservation
* Burying in ground
* Canning
* Cold chain
* Curing
* Drying
* Fermentation
* Freeze-drying
* Freezing
* Hurdle technology
* Irradiation
* Jamming
* Jellying
* Jugging
* Modified atmosphere
* Pascalization
* Pickling
* Potting
* Confit
* Potjevleesch
* Rillettes
* Salting
* Smoking
* Sugaring
* Tyndallization
* Vacuum packing

* Food portal
* Category: Food preservation

Food industry|

* Manufacturing
* Packaging
* Marketing
* Foodservice
* Fortification

* v
* t
* e

Consumer food safety

Adulterants, food contaminants|

* 3-MCPD
* Aldicarb
* Antibiotic use in livestock
* Cyanide
* Formaldehyde
* HGH controversies
* Lead poisoning
* Melamine
* Mercury in fish
* Sudan I

Food additives|

* Flavorings
* Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
* Salt
* Sugar
* High-fructose corn syrup
* Vegetable oil
* controversy

Intestinal parasites, parasitic disease|

* Amoebiasis
* Anisakiasis
* Cryptosporidiosis
* Cyclosporiasis
* Diphyllobothriasis
* Enterobiasis
* Fasciolopsiasis
* Fasciolosis
* Giardiasis
* Gnathostomiasis
* Paragonimiasis
* Toxocariasis
* Toxoplasmosis
* Trichinosis
* Trichuriasis

Microorganisms|

* Botulism
* Campylobacter jejuni
* Clostridium perfringens
* Cronobacter
* Enterovirus
* Escherichia coli O104:H4
* Escherichia coli O157:H7
* Hepatitis A
* Hepatitis E
* Listeria
* Norovirus
* Rotavirus
* Salmonella
* Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic E. coli
* Vibrio cholerae

Pesticides|

* Chlorpyrifos
* DDT
* Lindane
* Malathion
* Methamidophos

Preservatives|

* Benzoic acid
* Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
* Sodium benzoate

Sugar substitutes|

* Acesulfame potassium
* Aspartame
* controversy
* Saccharin
* Sodium cyclamate
* Sorbitol
* Sucralose

Toxins, poisons, environment pollution|

* Aflatoxin
* Arsenic contamination of groundwater
* Benzene in soft drinks
* Bisphenol A
* Dieldrin
* Diethylstilbestrol
* Dioxins
* Mycotoxins
* Nonylphenol
* Shellfish poisoning

Food fraud|

* Bread
* Breast milk
* Egg
* Olive oil
* Prawn
* Seafood
* Shrimp
* Tea
* Wine

Food processing|

* 4-Hydroxynonenal
* Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein
* Acrylamide
* Food additives
* Food irradiation
* Heterocyclic amines
* Modified starch
* Nitrosamines
* Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
* Shortening
* Trans fat
* Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
* Water fluoridation controversy

Food contamination incidents|

* Devon colic
* Swill milk scandal
* Esing Bakery incident
* 1858 Bradford sweets poisoning
* 1900 English beer poisoning
* Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident
* Minamata disease
* 1959 Moroccan oil poisoning disaster [ar]
* 1971 Iraq poison grain disaster
* Toxic oil syndrome
* 1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal
* United Kingdom BSE outbreak
* Australian meat substitution scandal
* Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak
* 1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak
* 2006 North American E. coli outbreaks
* ICA meat repackaging controversy
* 2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak
* 2008 Chinese milk scandal
* 2008 Irish pork crisis
* 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak
* 2011 Germany E. coli outbreak
* 2011 United States listeriosis outbreak
* Bihar school meal poisoning
* 2013 horse meat scandal
* 2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning
* 2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat
* 2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak
* 2018 Australian strawberry contamination
* 2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak
* Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal
* Food safety incidents in China
* Food safety incidents in Taiwan
* Foodborne illness
* outbreaks
* death toll
* United States

Regulation, standards, watchdogs|

* Acceptable daily intake
* E number
* Food labeling regulations
* Food libel laws
* Food safety in Australia
* International Food Safety Network
* ISO 22000
* Nutrition facts label
* Organic certification
* Quality Assurance International
* United Kingdom food information regulations

Institutions|

* Centre for Food Safety (Hong Kong)
* European Food Safety Authority
* Food and Drug Administration
* Food Information and Control Agency (Spain)
* Food Standards Agency (United Kingdom)
* Institute for Food Safety and Health
* International Food Safety Network
* Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (South Korea)
* Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition

Related topics|

* Curing (food preservation)
* Food and drink prohibitions
* Food marketing
* Food politics
* Food preservation
* Food quality
* Genetically modified food
* Conspiracy theories

* Food portal Drink portal
* Category
* Commons
* Cookbook
* WikiProject

* v
* t
* e

Artificial foods

Artificial fat substitutes|

* Olestra

Artificial protein substitutes|

* Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein

Artificial sugar substitutes|

* Acesulfame potassium
* Alitame
* Advantame
* Aspartame
* Aspartame-acesulfame salt
* Carrelame
* Dulcin
* Glucin
* Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates
* Lugduname
* Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone
* Neotame
* Saccharin
* Sodium cyclamate
* Sucralose

Natural food substitutes|

* Cheese analogues
* Coffee substitutes
* Egg substitutes
* Meat substitutes
* bacon
* list
* Milk substitutes
* Phyllodulcin
* Salt substitutes

Brands|

* Tang

Related topics|

* Food safety
* List of food additives

Food politics|

* Food power
* Food security
* Famine
* Food desert
* Food swamp
* List of nutrition guides
* Malnutrition
* Overnutrition

Institutions|

* International Association for Food Protection
* Food and Drug Administration
* Food and Agriculture Organization
* National Agriculture and Food Research Organization
* National Food and Drug Authority

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Czech Republic
* Latvia
* Israel

Other|

* Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
* Yale LUX

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*[e]: Edit this template
*[HSD]: Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase