Meteor shower

Celestial event caused by streams of meteoroids entering Earth's atmosphere

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This article is about the falling of meteors. For the TV program, see Meteor Shower (TV series). For the play by Steve Martin, see Meteor Shower (play). For the Owl City song, see Ocean Eyes (album).

Eta Aquariids meteor shower, with zodiacal light and planets marked and labeled

A meteor shower is a celestial event in which a number of meteors are observed to radiate, or originate, from one point in the night sky. These meteors are caused by streams of cosmic debris called meteoroids entering Earth's atmosphere at extremely high speeds on parallel trajectories. Most meteors are smaller than a grain of sand, so almost all of them disintegrate and never hit the Earth's surface. Very intense or unusual meteor showers are known as meteor outbursts and meteor storms, which produce at least 1,000 meteors an hour, most notably from the Leonids.[1] The Meteor Data Centre lists over 900 suspected meteor showers of which about 100 are well established.[2] Several organizations point to viewing opportunities on the Internet.[3] NASA maintains a daily map of active meteor showers.[4]

## Historical developments

[edit]

Diagram from 1872

A meteor shower in August 1583 was recorded in the Timbuktu manuscripts.[5][6][7] In the modern era, the first great meteor storm was the Leonids of November 1833. One estimate is a peak rate of over one hundred thousand meteors an hour,[8] but another, done as the storm abated, estimated more than two hundred thousand meteors during the 9 hours of the storm,[9] over the entire region of North America east of the Rocky Mountains. American Denison Olmsted (1791–1859) explained the event most accurately. After spending the last weeks of 1833 collecting information, he presented his findings in January 1834 to the American Journal of Science and Arts, published in January–April 1834,[10] and January 1836.[11] He noted the shower was of short duration and was not seen in Europe, and that the meteors radiated from a point in the constellation of Leo. He speculated the meteors had originated from a cloud of particles in space.[12] Work continued, yet coming to understand the annual nature of showers though the occurrences of storms perplexed researchers.[13]

The actual nature of meteors was still debated during the 19th century. Meteors were conceived as an atmospheric phenomenon by many scientists (Alexander von Humboldt, Adolphe Quetelet, Julius Schmidt) until the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli ascertained the relation between meteors and comets in his work "Notes upon the astronomical theory of the falling stars" (1867). In the 1890s, Irish astronomer George Johnstone Stoney (1826–1911) and British astronomer Arthur Matthew Weld Downing (1850–1917) were the first to attempt to calculate the position of the dust at Earth's orbit. They studied the dust ejected in 1866 by comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle before the anticipated Leonid shower return of 1898 and 1899. Meteor storms were expected, but the final calculations showed that most of the dust would be far inside Earth's orbit. The same results were independently arrived at by Adolf Berberich of the Königliches Astronomisches Rechen Institut (Royal Astronomical Computation Institute) in Berlin, Germany. Although the absence of meteor storms that season confirmed the calculations, the advance of much better computing tools was needed to arrive at reliable predictions.

In 1981, Donald K. Yeomans of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory reviewed the history of meteor showers for the Leonids and the history of the dynamic orbit of Comet Tempel-Tuttle.[14] A graph[15] from it was adapted and re-published in Sky and Telescope.[16] It showed relative positions of the Earth and Tempel-Tuttle and marks where Earth encountered dense dust. This showed that the meteoroids are mostly behind and outside the path of the comet, but paths of the Earth through the cloud of particles resulting in powerful storms were very near paths of nearly no activity.

In 1985, E. D. Kondrat'eva and E. A. Reznikov of Kazan State University first correctly identified the years when dust was released which was responsible for several past Leonid meteor storms. In 1995, Peter Jenniskens predicted the 1995 Alpha Monocerotids outburst from dust trails.[17] In anticipation of the 1999 Leonid storm, Robert H. McNaught,[18] David Asher,[19] and Finland's Esko Lyytinen were the first to apply this method in the West.[20][21] In 2006 Jenniskens published predictions for future dust trail encounters covering the next 50 years.[22] Jérémie Vaubaillon continues to update predictions based on observations each year for the Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul des Éphémérides (IMCCE).[23]

## Radiant point

[edit]

Main article: Radiant (meteor shower)

Meteor shower on chart

Because meteor shower particles are all traveling in parallel paths and at the same velocity, they will appear to an observer below to radiate away from a single point in the sky. This radiant point is caused by the effect of perspective, similar to parallel railroad tracks converging at a single vanishing point on the horizon. Meteor showers are normally named after the constellation from which the meteors appear to originate. This "fixed point" slowly moves across the sky during the night due to the Earth turning on its axis, the same reason the stars appear to slowly march across the sky. The radiant also moves slightly from night to night against the background stars (radiant drift) due to the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun. See IMO Meteor Shower Calendar 2017 (International Meteor Organization) for maps of drifting "fixed points".

When the moving radiant is at the highest point, it will reach the observer's sky that night. The Sun will be just clearing the eastern horizon. For this reason, the best viewing time for a meteor shower is generally slightly before dawn — a compromise between the maximum number of meteors available for viewing and the brightening sky, which makes them harder to see.

## Naming

[edit]

Meteor showers are named after the nearest constellation, or bright star with a Greek or Roman letter assigned that is close to the radiant position at the peak of the shower, whereby the grammatical declension of the Latin possessive form is replaced by "id" or "ids." Hence, meteors radiating from near the star Delta Aquarii (declension "-i") are called the Delta Aquariids. The International Astronomical Union's Task Group on Meteor Shower Nomenclature and the IAU's Meteor Data Center keep track of meteor shower nomenclature and which showers are established.

## Origin of meteoroid streams

[edit]

Comet Encke's meteoroid trail is the diagonal red glow. Meteoroid trail between fragments of Comet 73P

A meteor shower results from an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams of debris from a comet (or occasionally an asteroid). Comets can produce debris by water vapor drag, as demonstrated by Fred Whipple in 1951,[24] and by breakup. Whipple envisioned comets as "dirty snowballs", made up of rock embedded in ice, orbiting the Sun. The "ice" may be water, methane, ammonia, or other volatiles, alone or in combination. The "rock" may vary in size from a dust mote to a small boulder. Dust mote sized solids are orders of magnitude more common than those the size of sand grains, which, in turn, are similarly more common than those the size of pebbles, and so on. When the ice warms and sublimates, the vapor can drag along dust, sand, and pebbles.

Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes, and a certain number of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire trajectory of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "gas tail" caused by the tiny particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).

Recently, Peter Jenniskens[22] has argued that most of our short-period meteor showers are not from the normal water vapor drag of active comets, but the product of infrequent disintegrations, when large chunks break off a mostly dormant comet. Examples are the Quadrantids and Geminids, which originated from a breakup of asteroid-looking objects, (196256) 2003 EH1 and 3200 Phaethon, respectively, about 500 and 1000 years ago. The fragments tend to fall apart quickly into dust, sand, and pebbles and spread out along the comet's orbit to form a dense meteoroid stream, which subsequently evolves into Earth's path.

## Dynamical evolution of meteoroid streams

[edit]

Shortly after Whipple predicted that dust particles traveled at low speeds relative to the comet, Milos Plavec was the first to offer the idea of a dust trail, when he calculated how meteoroids, once freed from the comet, would drift mostly in front of or behind the comet after completing one orbit. The effect is simple celestial mechanics – the material drifts only a little laterally away from the comet while drifting ahead or behind the comet because some particles make a wider orbit than others.[22] These dust trails are sometimes observed in comet images taken at mid infrared wavelengths (heat radiation), where dust particles from the previous return to the Sun are spread along the orbit of the comet (see figures).

The gravitational pull of the planets determines where the dust trail would pass by Earth orbit, much like a gardener directing a hose to water a distant plant. Most years, those trails would miss the Earth altogether, but in some years, the Earth is showered by meteors. This effect was first demonstrated from observations of the 1995 alpha Monocerotids,[25][26] and from earlier not widely known identifications of past Earth storms.

Over more extended periods, the dust trails can evolve in complicated ways. For example, the orbits of some repeating comets, and meteoroids leaving them, are in resonant orbits with Jupiter or one of the other large planets – so many revolutions of one will equal another number of the other. This creates a shower component called a filament.

A second effect is a close encounter with a planet. When the meteoroids pass by Earth, some are accelerated (making wider orbits around the Sun), others are decelerated (making shorter orbits), resulting in gaps in the dust trail in the next return (like opening a curtain, with grains piling up at the beginning and end of the gap). Also, Jupiter's perturbation can dramatically change sections of the dust trail, especially for a short period comets, when the grains approach the giant planet at their furthest point along the orbit around the Sun, moving most slowly. As a result, the trail has a clumping, a braiding or a tangling of crescents, of each release of material.

The third effect is that of radiation pressure which will push less massive particles into orbits further from the Sun – while more massive objects (responsible for bolides or fireballs) will tend to be affected less by radiation pressure. This makes some dust trail encounters rich in bright meteors, others rich in faint meteors. Over time, these effects disperse the meteoroids and create a broader stream. The meteors we see from these streams are part of annual showers, because Earth encounters those streams every year at much the same rate.

When the meteoroids collide with other meteoroids in the zodiacal cloud, they lose their stream association and become part of the "sporadic meteors" background. Long since dispersed from any stream or trail, they form isolated meteors, not a part of any shower. These random meteors will not appear to come from the radiant of the leading shower.

## Famous meteor showers

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### Perseids and Leonids

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In most years, the most visible meteor shower is the Perseids, which peak on 12 August of each year at over one meteor per minute. NASA has a tool to calculate how many meteors per hour are visible from one's observing location.

The Leonid meteor shower peaks around 17 November of each year. The Leonid shower produces a meteor storm, peaking at rates of thousands of meteors per hour. Leonid storms gave birth to the term meteor shower when it was first realised that, during the November 1833 storm, the meteors radiated from near the star Gamma Leonis. The last Leonid storms were in 1999, 2001 (two), and 2002 (two). Before that, there were storms in 1767, 1799, 1833, 1866, 1867, and 1966. When the Leonid shower is not storming, it is less active than the Perseids.

See the Infographics on Meteor Shower Calendar-2021 on the right.

Meteor Shower Calendar shows the peak dates, Radiant Point, ZHR, and Origins of the meteors

### Other meteor showers

[edit]

Further information: List of meteor showers

#### Established meteor showers

[edit]

Official names are given in the International Astronomical Union's list of meteor showers.[27]

This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (August 2017)

|

Shower  | Time  | Parent object

|
|

Quadrantids | early January  | The same as the parent object of minor planet 2003 EH1,[28] and Comet C/1490 Y1.[29][30] Comet C/1385 U1 has also been studied as a possible source.[31]
Lyrids | late April  | Comet Thatcher
Pi Puppids (periodic)  | late April  | Comet 26P/Grigg–Skjellerup
Eta Aquariids | early May  | Comet 1P/Halley
Arietids | mid-June  | Comet 96P/Machholz, Marsden and Kracht comet groups complex[1][32]
Beta Taurids | late June  | Comet 2P/Encke
June Bootids (periodic)  | late June  | Comet 7P/Pons-Winnecke
Southern Delta Aquariids | late July  | Comet 96P/Machholz, Marsden and Kracht comet groups complex[1][32]
Alpha Capricornids | late July  | Comet 169P/NEAT[33]
Perseids | mid-August  | Comet 109P/Swift-Tuttle
Kappa Cygnids | mid-August  | Minor planet 2008 ED69[34]
Aurigids (periodic)  | early September  | Comet C/1911 N1 (Kiess)[35]
Draconids (periodic)  | early October  | Comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner
Orionids | late October  | Comet 1P/Halley
Southern Taurids | early November  | Comet 2P/Encke
Northern Taurids | mid-November  | Minor planet 2004 TG10 and others[1][36]
Andromedids (periodic)  | mid-November  | Comet 3D/Biela[37]
Alpha Monocerotids (periodic)  | mid-November  | unknown[38]
Leonids | mid-November  | Comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle
Phoenicids (periodic)  | early December  | Comet 289P/Blanpain[39]
Geminids | mid-December  | Minor planet 3200 Phaethon[40]
Ursids | late December  | Comet 8P/Tuttle[41]
Canis-Minorids  |  |

## Extraterrestrial meteor showers

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Mars meteor by MER Spirit rover

Any other Solar System body with a reasonably transparent atmosphere can also have meteor showers. As the Moon is in the neighborhood of Earth it can experience the same showers, but will have its own phenomena due to its lack of an atmosphere per se, such as vastly increasing its sodium tail.[42] NASA now maintains an ongoing database of observed impacts on the moon[43] maintained by the Marshall Space Flight Center whether from a shower or not.

Many planets and moons have impact craters dating back large spans of time. But new craters, perhaps even related to meteor showers are possible. Mars, and thus its moons, is known to have meteor showers.[44] These have not been observed on other planets as yet but may be presumed to exist. For Mars in particular, although these are different from the ones seen on Earth because of the different orbits of Mars and Earth relative to the orbits of comets. The Martian atmosphere has less than one percent of the density of Earth's at ground level, at their upper edges, where meteoroids strike; the two are more similar. Because of the similar air pressure at altitudes for meteors, the effects are much the same. Only the relatively slower motion of the meteoroids due to increased distance from the sun should marginally decrease meteor brightness. This is somewhat balanced because the slower descent means that Martian meteors have more time to ablate.[45]

On March 7, 2004, the panoramic camera on Mars Exploration Rover Spirit recorded a streak which is now believed to have been caused by a meteor from a Martian meteor shower associated with comet 114P/Wiseman-Skiff. A strong display from this shower was expected on December 20, 2007. Other showers speculated about are a "Lambda Geminid" shower associated with the Eta Aquariids of Earth (i.e., both associated with Comet 1P/Halley), a "Beta Canis Major" shower associated with Comet 13P/Olbers, and "Draconids" from 5335 Damocles.[46]

Isolated massive impacts have been observed at Jupiter: The 1994 Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 which formed a brief trail as well, and successive events since then (see List of Jupiter events.) Meteors or meteor showers have been discussed for most of the objects in the Solar System with an atmosphere: Mercury,[47] Venus,[48] Saturn's moon Titan,[49] Neptune's moon Triton,[50] and Pluto.[51]

## See also

[edit]

* American Meteor Society (AMS)
* Earth-grazing fireball
* International Meteor Organization (IMO)
* List of meteor showers
* Meteor procession
* North American Meteor Network (NAMN)
* Radiant – point in the sky from which meteors appear to originate
* Zenith hourly rate (ZHR)

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Jenniskens, P. (2006). Meteor Showers and their Parent Comets. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85349-1.
2. ^ Meteor Data Center list of Meteor Showers
3. ^ St. Fleur, Nicholas, "The Quadrantids and Other Meteor Showers That Will Light Up Night Skies in 2018", The New York Times, January 2, 2018
4. ^ NASA Meteor Shower Portal
5. ^ Holbrook, Jarita C.; Medupe, R. Thebe; Johnson Urama (2008). African Cultural Astronomy. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-6638-2.
6. ^ Abraham, Curtis. "Stars of the Sahara". New Scientist, issue 2617,15 August 2007, page 39–41
7. ^ Hammer, Joshua (2016). The Bad-Ass Librarians of Timbuktu And Their Race to Save the World's Most Precious Manuscripts. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 26–27\. ISBN 978-1-4767-7743-6.
8. ^ Space.com The 1833 Leonid Meteor Shower: A Frightening Flurry
9. ^ Leonid MAC Brief history of the Leonid shower
10. ^ Olmsted, Denison (1833). "Observations on the Meteors of November 13th, 1833". The American Journal of Science and Arts. 25: 363–411. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
11. ^ Olmsted, Denison (1836). "Facts respecting the Meteoric Phenomena of November 13th, 1834". The American Journal of Science and Arts. 29 (1): 168–170.
12. ^ Observing the Leonids Archived 2013-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Gary W. Kronk
13. ^ F.W. Russell, Meteor Watch Organizer, by Richard Taibi, May 19, 2013, accessed 21 May 2013
14. ^ Yeomans, Donald K. (September 1981). "Comet Tempel-Tuttle and the Leonid meteors". Icarus. 47 (3): 492–499\. Bibcode:1981Icar...47..492Y. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(81)90198-6.
15. ^ https://web.archive.org
16. ^ Comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle and the Leonid Meteors Archived 2007-06-30 at the Wayback Machine(1996, see p. 6)
17. ^ Article published in 1997, notes prediction in 1995 - Jenniskens, P.; Betlem, H.; De Lignie, M.; Langbroek, M. (1997). "The Detection of a Dust Trail in the Orbit of an Earth-threatening Long-Period Comet". Astrophysical Journal. 479 (1): 441. Bibcode:1997ApJ...479..441J. doi:10.1086/303853.
18. ^ Re: (meteorobs) Leonid Storm? Archived 2007-03-07 at the Wayback Machine By Rob McNaught,
19. ^ Blast from the Past Armagh Observatory press release Archived 2006-12-06 at the Wayback Machine 1999 April 21st.
20. ^ Royal Astronomical Society Press Notice Ref. PN 99/27, Issued by: Dr Jacqueline Mitton RAS Press Officer
21. ^ Voyage through a comet's trail, The 1998 Leonids sparkled over Canada  By BBC Science's Dr Chris Riley on board NASA's Leonid mission
22. ^ a b c Jenniskens P. (2006). Meteor Showers and their Parent Comets. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 790 pp.
23. ^ IMCCE Prediction page Archived 2012-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
24. ^ Whipple, F. L. (1951). "A Comet Model. II. Physical Relations for Comets and Meteors". Astrophys. J. 113: 464. Bibcode:1951ApJ...113..464W. doi:10.1086/145416.
25. ^ Jenniskens P., 1997. Meteor treamactivity IV. Meteor outbursts and the reflex motion of the Sun. Astron. Astrophys. 317, 953–961.
26. ^ Jenniskens P., Betlem, H., De Lignie, M., Langbroek, M. (1997). The detection of a dust trail in the orbit of an Earth-threatening long-period comet. Astrohys. J. 479, 441–447.
27. ^ "List of all meteor showers". International Astronomical Union. 15 August 2015.
28. ^ Jenniskens, P. (March 2004). "2003 EH1 is the Quadrantid shower parent comet". Astronomical Journal. 127 (5): 3018–3022\. Bibcode:2004AJ....127.3018J. doi:10.1086/383213.
29. ^ Ball, Phillip (2003). "Dead comet spawned New Year meteors". Nature. doi:10.1038/news031229-5.
30. ^ Haines, Lester, Meteor shower traced to 1490 comet break-up: Quadrantid mystery solved, The Register, January 8, 2008.
31. ^ Marco Micheli; Fabrizio Bernardi; David J. Tholen (May 16, 2008). "Updated analysis of the dynamical relation between asteroid 2003 EH1 and comets C/1490 Y1 and C/1385 U1". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 390 (1): L6 – L8. arXiv:0805.2452. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.390L...6M. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2008.00510.x. S2CID 119299384.2003+EH1+and+comets+C/1490+Y1+and+C/1385+U1&rft.volume=390&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=L6+-+L8&rft.date=2008-05-16&rft_id=info:arxiv/0805.2452&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119299384#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/j.1745-3933.2008.00510.x&rft_id=info:bibcode/2008MNRAS.390L...6M&rft.au=Marco+Micheli&rft.au=Fabrizio+Bernardi&rft.au=David+J.+Tholen&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-3933.2008.00510.x&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Meteor+shower" class="Z3988">
32. ^ a b Sekanina, Zdeněk; Chodas, Paul W. (December 2005). "Origin of the Marsden and Kracht Groups of Sunskirting Comets. I. Association with Comet 96P/Machholz and Its Interplanetary Complex". Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 161 (2): 551. Bibcode:2005ApJS..161..551S. doi:10.1086/497374.
33. ^ Jenniskens, P.; Vaubaillon, J. (2010). "Minor Planet 2002 EX12 (=169P/NEAT) and the Alpha Capricornid Shower". Astronomical Journal. 139 (5): 1822–1830\. Bibcode:2010AJ....139.1822J. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/139/5/1822. S2CID 59523258.
34. ^ Jenniskens, P.; Vaubaillon, J. (2008). "Minor Planet 2008 ED69 and the Kappa Cygnid Meteor Shower" (PDF). Astronomical Journal. 136 (2): 725–730\. Bibcode:2008AJ....136..725J. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/136/2/725. S2CID 122768057.
35. ^ Jenniskens, Peter; Vaubaillon, Jérémie (2007). "An Unusual Meteor Shower on 1 September 2007". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 88 (32): 317–318\. Bibcode:2007EOSTr..88..317J. doi:10.1029/2007EO320001.
36. ^ Porubčan, V.; Kornoš, L.; Williams, I.P. (2006). "The Taurid complex meteor showers and asteroids". Contributions of the Astronomical Observatory Skalnaté Pleso. 36 (2): 103–117\. arXiv:0905.1639. Bibcode:2006CoSka..36..103P.
37. ^ Jenniskens, P.; Vaubaillon, J. (2007). "3D/Biela and the Andromedids: Fragmenting versus Sublimating Comets" (PDF). The Astronomical Journal. 134 (3): 1037. Bibcode:2007AJ....134.1037J. doi:10.1086/519074. S2CID 18785028.
38. ^ Jenniskens, P.; Betlem, H.; De Lignie, M.; Langbroek, M. (1997). "The Detection of a Dust Trail in the Orbit of an Earth-threatening Long-Period Comet". Astrophysical Journal. 479 (1): 441. Bibcode:1997ApJ...479..441J. doi:10.1086/303853.
39. ^ Jenniskens, P.; Lyytinen, E. (2005). "Meteor Showers from the Debris of Broken Comets: D/1819 W1 (Blanpain), 2003 WY25, and the Phoenicids". Astronomical Journal. 130 (3): 1286–1290\. Bibcode:2005AJ....130.1286J. doi:10.1086/432469.
40. ^ Brian G. Marsden (1983-10-25). "IAUC 3881: 1983 TB AND THE GEMINID METEORS; 1983 SA; KR Aur". International Astronomical Union Circular. Retrieved 2011-07-05.
41. ^ Jenniskens, P.; Lyytinen, E.; De Lignie, M.C.; Johannink, C.; Jobse, K.; Schievink, R.; Langbroek, M.; Koop, M.; Gural, P.; Wilson, M.A.; Yrjölä, I.; Suzuki, K.; Ogawa, H.; De Groote, P. (2002). "Dust Trails of 8P/Tuttle and the Unusual Outbursts of the Ursid Shower". Icarus. 159 (1): 197–209\. Bibcode:2002Icar..159..197J. doi:10.1006/icar.2002.6855.
42. ^ Hunten, D. M. (1991). "A possible meteor shower on the Moon". Geophysical Research Letters. 18 (11): 2101–2104\. Bibcode:1991GeoRL..18.2101H. doi:10.1029/91GL02543.
43. ^ Mohon, Lee (13 February 2017). "Lunar Impacts". NASA. Archived from the original on 2023-03-15.
44. ^ "Meteor showers at Mars". Archived from the original on 2007-07-24. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
45. ^ "Can Meteors Exist at Mars?". Archived from the original on 2017-07-01. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
46. ^ "Meteor Showers and their Parent Bodies". Archived from the original on 2008-10-03. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
47. ^ Rosemary M. Killen; Joseph M. Hahn (December 10, 2014). "Impact Vaporization as a Possible Source of Mercury's Calcium Exosphere". Icarus. 250: 230–237\. Bibcode:2015Icar..250..230K. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.11.035. hdl:2060/20150010116.
48. ^ [Christou, Apostolos A. (2007). "The P/Halley Stream: Meteor Showers on Earth, Venus and Mars". Earth, Moon, and Planets. 102 (1–4): 125–131\. doi:10.1007/s11038-007-9201-3. S2CID 54709255.1–4&rft.pages=125-131&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s11038-007-9201-3&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54709255#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Christou&rft.aufirst=Apostolos+A.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Meteor+shower" class="Z3988">
49. ^ Lakdawalla, Emily. "Meteor showers on Titan: an example of why Twitter is awesome for scientists and the public". Retrieved 3 June 2013.
* Note also the Huygens lander was studied for its meteoric entry and an observation campaign was attempted: An Artificial meteor on Titan?, by Ralph D. Lorenz, journal??, vol 43, issue 5, October 2002, pp. 14–17 and Lorenz, Ralph D. (2006). "Huygens entry emission: Observation campaign, results, and lessons learned". Journal of Geophysical Research. 111 (E7). Bibcode:2006JGRE..111.7S11L. doi:10.1029/2005JE002603.
50. ^ Watching meteors on Triton Archived 2014-03-27 at the Wayback Machine, W. Dean Pesnell, J.M. Grebowsky, and Andrew L. Weisman, Icarus, issue 169, (2004) pp. 482–491
51. ^ IR Flashes induced by meteoroid impacts onto Pluto's surface, by I.B. Kosarev, I. V. Nemtchinov, Microsymposium, vol. 36, MS 050, 2002

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Meteor showers.

* Meteor Showers, by Sky and Telescope
* Six Not-So-Famous Summer Meteor Showers Joe Rao (SPACE.com)
* The American Meteor Society
* The International Meteor Organisation
* Meteor Shower Portal shows the direction of active showers each night on a celestial sphere.

* v
* t
* e

Meteor showers

By name|

* Andromedids
* Antihelion Source
* Aquariids
* eta Aquariids
* kappa Aquariids
* North delta Aquariids
* North iota Aquariids
* South iota Aquariids
* Southern Delta Aquariids
* tau Aquariids
* Aquilids
* South June Aquilids
* Arietids
* Daytime eps. Arietids
* Daytime May Arietids
* Aurigids
* alpha Aurigids
* delta Aurigids
* Nov. iota Aurigids
* Bootids (June Bootids)
* Canis-Minorids
* Cancrids (delta Cancrids)
* Capricornids
* alpha Capricornids
* Daytime Capri.-Sagitt.
* Carinids (eta Carinids)
* Cassiopeids (beta Cassiopeids)
* Centaurids
* alpha Centaurids
* theta Centaurids
* omicron Centaurids
* Cetids
* omega Cetids
* pi Cetids
* Comae Berenicids
* Cygnids (kappa Cygnids)
* Doradids (gamma Doradids)
* Draconids
* Eridanids (eta Eridanids)
* Geminids (epsilon Geminids)
* Herculids (tau Herculids)
* Hydrids (sigma Hydrids)
* Leonids
* Leonis Minorids (Dec. Leonis Minorids)
* Lyrids
* eta Lyrids
* June Lyrids
* Monocerotids
* alpha Monocerotids
* Normids (gamma Normids)
* Orionids
* Pegasids
* Perseids
* Daytime zeta Perseids
* September epsilon Perseids
* Phoenicids (July Phoenicids)
* Piscis Austrinids
* Puppids (pi Puppids)
* Puppid-Velids
* Quadrantids
* Scorpiids
* alpha Scorpiids
* North omega Scorpiids
* South omega Scorpiids
* Serpentids (kappa Serpentids)
* Sextantids (Daytime Sextantids)
* Taurids
* Daytime beta Taurids
* Northern Taurids
* Southern Taurids
* Ursids
* Virginids
* alpha Virginids
* gamma Virginids
* eta Virginids
* theta Virginids
* iota Virginids
* lambda Virginids
* mu Virginids
* pi Virginids
* psi Virginids
* March Virginids

By peak date|

* January 4
* February 8
* February 10
* March 14
* April 17
* April 22–23
* April 26
* May 6
* June 7
* June 27
* July 13
* July 28–29
* July 30
* July 31 – August 1
* August 13
* September 1
* October 8
* October 10
* October 21
* October 22
* November 9
* November 12
* November 18
* November 21–22
* December 5–6
* December 13–14
* December 15
* December 22

Related topics|

* American Meteor Society
* Earth-grazing fireball
* International Meteor Organization
* Meteor procession
* North American Meteor Network
* Population index
* Radiant
* Zenithal Hourly Rate

See also
List of meteor showers

* v
* t
* e

Modern impact events

On Earth|

| Pre-2000|

* 1490 Qingyang
* 1783 Great Meteor
* 1860 Great Meteor
* 1908 Tunguska
* 1913 Great Meteor Procession
* 1930 Curuçá River
* 1938 Chicora meteor
* 1947 Sikhote-Alin meteor
* 1969 Murchison meteor
* 1972 Great Daylight Fireball
* 1990 Earth-grazing meteoroid

|

Post-2000|

* 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event
* 2007 Carancas impact event
* 2008 TC3 impact
* 2008 Buzzard Coulee meteor
* 2009 Sulawesi superbolide
* 2012 Sutter's Mill meteor
* 2012 United Kingdom meteoroid
* 2012 Novato meteor
* 2013 Chelyabinsk meteor
* Chelyabinsk meteorite
* 2013 Braunschweig meteor
* 2014 AA impact
* 2014 Ontario fireball
* CNEOS 2014-01-08
* 2015 Kerala meteoroid
* 2015 Thailand bolide
* WT1190F impact
* 2017 China bolide
* 2018 LA impact
* 2018 Kamchatka meteor
* 2019 MO impact
* 2020 China bolide
* 2021 Winchcombe meteor
* 2022 EB5 impact
* 2022 WJ1 impact
* 2023 CX1 impact
* 2024 BX1 impact
* 2024 RW1 impact
* 2024 UQ impact
* 2024 XA1 impact

On Mars|

Impact events on Mars

On Jupiter|

* Impact events on Jupiter
* 1994 Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9
* 2009 Jupiter impact
* 2010 Jupiter impact

Lists|

* Predicted asteroid impacts on Earth
* Asteroid close approaches to Earth
* Comets
* Bolides
* Meteor air bursts
* Meteorite falls
* Minor planets
* Asteroids crossing Earth's orbit

See also|

* Asteroid impact prediction
* Asteroid impact avoidance
* Bolide
* Earth-grazing fireball
* Meteor procession
* Meteor shower
* Meteorite
* Meteoroid
* Near-Earth object
* Potentially hazardous object

* v
* t
* e

Planetary defense

Main topics|

* Asteroid
* Bolide
* Earth-grazing fireball
* Impact event
* Meteor air burst
* Meteor procession
* Meteor shower
* Meteorite
* Meteoroid
* Near-Earth object
* Potentially hazardous object
* Earth-crossing minor planets
* Asteroid close approaches

Defense|

* Asteroid impact avoidance
* Asteroid laser ablation
* Gravity tractor
* Ion-beam shepherd

Space probes|

* Dawn
* Deep Impact
* HAMMER
* AIDA
* Hera
* DART
* Halley Armada
* Hayabusa
* Hayabusa2
* MASCOT
* NEAR Shoemaker
* NEA Scout
* New Horizons
* OSIRIS-REx
* PROCYON
* Rosetta
* Philae
* Stardust

NEO tracking|

* ATLAS
* Catalina Sky Survey
* LINEAR
* LONEOS
* NEAT
* NEODyS
* NEO Surveyor
* NEOSSat
* OGS Telescope
* Orbit@home
* Pan-STARRS
* SCAP
* Sentinel Space Telescope
* Sentry
* Spacewatch
* WISE

Organizations|

* B612 Foundation
* Japan Spaceguard Association
* The Meteoritical Society
* NEOShield
* Spaceguard
* The Spaceguard Foundation
* Space Situational Awareness Programme
* Planetary Defense Coordination Office

Hazard rating|

* Torino scale
* Palermo scale

Potential threats|

* 1950 DA
* 101955 Bennu
* 2010 RF12
* 99942 Apophis
* 2024 YR4
* List of objects with non-zero Torino ratings

Related categories|

* Impact events
* Fiction about meteoroids
* Fiction about impact events

* v
* t
* e

Comets

| Features|

* Nucleus
* Coma
* Tails
* Antitail
* Comet dust
* Meteor shower

|
|

Types|

* Periodic
* Numbered
* Lost
* Long period
* Halley-type
* Jupiter-family
* Encke-type
* Main-belt
* Non-periodic
* Near-parabolic
* Hyperbolic
* Unknown-orbit
* Great Comet
* Sungrazing (Kreutz)
* Extinct
* Exocomet
* Interstellar
* Dark comet

Related|

* Naming of comets
* Observational history of comets
* Centaur
* Comet discoverers
* LINEAR
* Extraterrestrial atmosphere
* Oort cloud
* Small Solar System body
* Asteroid

Exploration|

* List of missions to comets
* List of comets visited by spacecraft

Latest|

* C/2025 F2 (SWAN)
* C/2024 S1 (ATLAS)
* C/2024 G3 (ATLAS)
* C/2023 P1 (Nishimura)
* C/2023 H2 (Lemmon)
* C/2023 E1 (ATLAS)
* C/2023 A3 (Tsuchinshan–ATLAS)
* C/2022 E3 (ZTF)
* C/2021 O3 (PanSTARRS)
* C/2021 J1 (Maury-Attard)
* C/2021 A1 (Leonard)
* C/2020 F8 (SWAN)
* C/2020 F5 (MASTER)
* C/2020 F3 (NEOWISE)
* C/2019 Y4 (ATLAS)
* C/2019 Y1 (ATLAS)
* C/2019 U6 (Lemmon)
* 2I/Borisov
* P/2019 LD2 (ATLAS)
* C/2018 Y1 (Iwamoto)
* C/2018 C2 (Lemmon)
* C/2017 U7
* C/2017 K2 (PanSTARRS)

Culture and
speculation|

* Antimatter comet
* Comets in fiction
* Comet vintages

Lists of comets (more)

| Periodic
comets|

| Until 1985
(all)|

* 1P/Halley
* 2P/Encke
* 3D/Biela
* 4P/Faye
* 5D/Brorsen
* 6P/d'Arrest
* 7P/Pons–Winnecke
* 8P/Tuttle
* 9P/Tempel
* 10P/Tempel
* 11P/Tempel–Swift–LINEAR
* 12P/Pons–Brooks
* 13P/Olbers
* 14P/Wolf
* 15P/Finlay
* 16P/Brooks
* 17P/Holmes
* 18D/Perrine–Mrkos
* 19P/Borrelly
* 20D/Westphal
* 21P/Giacobini–Zinner
* 22P/Kopff
* 23P/Brorsen–Metcalf
* 24P/Schaumasse
* 25D/Neujmin
* 26P/Grigg–Skjellerup
* 27P/Crommelin
* 28P/Neujmin
* 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann
* 30P/Reinmuth
* 31P/Schwassmann–Wachmann
* 32P/Comas Solà
* 33P/Daniel
* 34D/Gale
* 35P/Herschel–Rigollet
* 36P/Whipple
* 37P/Forbes
* 38P/Stephan–Oterma
* 39P/Oterma
* 40P/Väisälä
* 41P/Tuttle–Giacobini–Kresák
* 42P/Neujmin
* 43P/Wolf–Harrington
* 44P/Reinmuth
* 45P/Honda–Mrkos–Pajdušáková
* 46P/Wirtanen
* 47P/Ashbrook–Jackson
* 48P/Johnson
* 49P/Arend–Rigaux
* 50P/Arend
* 51P/Harrington
* 52P/Harrington–Abell
* 53P/Van Biesbroeck
* 54P/de Vico–Swift–NEAT
* 55P/Tempel–Tuttle
* 56P/Slaughter–Burnham
* 57P/du Toit–Neujmin–Delporte
* 58P/Jackson–Neujmin
* 59P/Kearns–Kwee
* 60P/Tsuchinshan
* 61P/Shajn–Schaldach
* 62P/Tsuchinshan
* 63P/Wild
* 64P/Swift–Gehrels
* 65P/Gunn
* 66P/du Toit
* 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko
* 68P/Klemola
* 69P/Taylor
* 70P/Kojima
* 71P/Clark
* 72P/Denning–Fujikawa
* 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann
* 74P/Smirnova–Chernykh
* 75D/Kohoutek
* 76P/West–Kohoutek–Ikemura
* 77P/Longmore
* 78P/Gehrels
* 79P/du Toit–Hartley
* 80P/Peters–Hartley
* 81P/Wild
* 82P/Gehrels
* 83D/Russell
* 84P/Giclas
* 85D/Boethin

|

After 1985
(notable)|

* 88P/Howell
* 92P/Sanguin
* 96P/Machholz
* 97P/Metcalf–Brewington
* 103P/Hartley
* 107P/Wilson–Harrington
* 108P/Ciffréo
* 109P/Swift–Tuttle
* 122P/de Vico
* 126P/IRAS
* 141P/Machholz
* 144P/Kushida
* 147P/Kushida–Muramatsu
* 153P/Ikeya–Zhang
* 156P/Russell–LINEAR
* 161P/Hartley–IRAS
* 162P/Siding Spring
* 168P/Hergenrother
* 169P/NEAT
* 177P/Barnard
* 178P/Hug–Bell
* 205P/Giacobini
* 209P/LINEAR
* 238P/Read
* 246P/NEAT
* 249P/LINEAR
* 252P/LINEAR
* 255P/Levy
* 273P/Pons–Gambart
* 289P/Blanpain
* 311P/PanSTARRS
* 322P/SOHO
* 323P/SOHO
* 332P/Ikeya–Murakami
* 333P/LINEAR
* 354P/LINEAR
* 362P
* 460P/PanSTARRS

Comet-like
asteroids|

* 596 Scheila
* 2060 Chiron (95P)
* 4015 Wilson–Harrington (107P)
* 7968 Elst–Pizarro (133P)
* 165P/LINEAR
* 166P/NEAT
* 167P/CINEOS
* 60558 Echeclus (174P)
* 118401 LINEAR (176P)
* 238P/Read
* 259P/Garradd
* 311P/PanSTARRS
* 324P/La Sagra
* 331P/Gibbs
* 354P/LINEAR
* 358P/PANSTARRS
* P/2013 R3 (Catalina-PANSTARRS)
* (300163) 2006 VW139

Lost|

| Recovered|

* 9P/Tempel
* 11P/Tempel–Swift–LINEAR
* 15P/Finlay
* 17P/Holmes
* 27P/Crommelin
* 54P/de Vico–Swift–NEAT
* 55P/Tempel–Tuttle
* 57P/du Toit–Neujmin–Delporte
* 69P/Taylor
* 72P/Denning–Fujikawa
* 80P/Peters–Hartley
* 97P/Metcalf–Brewington
* 107P/Wilson–Harrington
* 113P/Spitaler
* 122P/de Vico
* 157P/Tritton
* 205P/Giacobini
* 206P/Barnard–Boattini
* 226P/Pigott–LINEAR–Kowalski
* 271P/van Houten–Lemmon
* 289P/Blanpain
* 489P/Denning

|

Destroyed|

* 3D/Biela
* D/1993 F2 (Shoemaker–Levy 9)

Not found|

* D/1770 L1 (Lexell)
* 5D/Brorsen
* 18D/Perrine–Mrkos
* 20D/Westphal
* 25D/Neujmin
* 34D/Gale
* 75D/Kohoutek
* 83D/Russell
* 85D/Boethin
* D/1978 R1 (Haneda–Campos)

Visited by
spacecraft|

* 21P/Giacobini–Zinner (1985)
* 1P/Halley (1986)
* 26P/Grigg–Skjellerup (1992)
* 19P/Borrelly (2001)
* 81P/Wild (2004)
* 9P/Tempel (2005, 2011)
* C/2006 P1 (2007)
* 103P/Hartley (2010)
* 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (2014)

Near-Parabolic
comets
(notable)|

| Until 1990|

* C/-43 K1 (Caesar's Comet)
* X/1106 C1 (Great Comet of 1106)
* C/1264 N1 (Great Comet of 1264)
* C/1402 D1 (Great Comet of 1402)
* C/1471 Y1 (Great Comet of 1472)
* C/1577 V1 (Great Comet of 1577)
* C/1652 Y1
* C/1680 V1 (Great Comet of 1680, Kirsch's Comet, Newton's Comet))
* C/1702 H1 (Comet of 1702)
* C/1729 P1 (Comet of 1729, Comet Sarabat)
* C/1739 K1 (Zanotti)
* C/1743 X1 (Great Comet of 1744, Comet Klinkenberg-Chéseaux)
* C/1760 A1 (Great Comet of 1760)
* C/1769 P1 (Great Comet of 1769)
* C/1807 R1 (Great Comet of 1807)
* C/1811 F1 (Great Comet of 1811)
* C/1819 N1 (Great Comet of 1819)
* C/1823 Y1 (Great Comet of 1823)
* C/1843 D1 (Great March Comet of 1843)
* C/1846 J1 (Brorsen)
* C/1847 T1 (Miss Mitchell's Comet)
* C/1852 K1 (Chacornac)
* C/1853 G1 (Schweizer)
* C/1858 L1 (Comet Donati)
* C/1861 G1 (Comet Thatcher)
* C/1861 J1 (Great Comet of 1861)
* C/1862 N1 (Schmidt)
* C/1864 N1 (Tempel)
* C/1865 B1 (Great Southern Comet of 1865)
* X/1872 X1 (Pogson's Comet)
* C/1874 H1 (Comet Coggia)
* C/1881 K1 (Comet Tebbutt)
* C/1882 R1 (Great Comet of 1882)
* C/1887 B1 (Great Southern Comet of 1887)
* C/1893 U1 (Brooks)
* C/1901 G1 (Great Comet of 1901)
* C/1907 G1 (Grigg–Mellish)
* C/1910 A1 (Great January Comet of 1910)
* C/1911 N1 (Kiess)
* C/1911 O1 (Brooks)
* C/1911 S3 (Beljawsky)
* C/1915 C1 (Mellish)
* C/1917 F1 (Mellish)
* C/1927 X1 (Skjellerup–Maristany)
* C/1931 P1 (Ryves)
* C/1936 O1 (Kaho–Kozik–Lis)
* C/1939 H1 (Jurlof–Achmarof–Hassel)
* C/1941 B2 (de Kock-Paraskevopoulos)
* C/1947 X1 (Southern Comet)
* C/1948 L1 (Honda–Bernasconi)
* C/1948 V1 (Eclipse)
* C/1956 R1 (Arend–Roland)
* C/1957 P1 (Mrkos)
* C/1961 O1 (Wilson-Hubbard)
* C/1961 R1 (Humason)
* C/1961 T1 (Seki)
* C/1962 C1 (Seki-Lines)
* C/1963 A1 (Ikeya)
* C/1963 R1 (Pereyra)
* C/1964 N1 (Ikeya)
* C/1965 S1 (Ikeya-Seki)
* C/1969 T1 (Tago-Sato-Kosaka)
* C/1969 Y1 (Bennett)
* C/1970 K1 (White–Ortiz–Bolelli)
* C/1973 E1 (Kohoutek)
* C/1975 T2 (Suzuki–Saigusa–Mori)
* C/1975 V1 (West)
* C/1979 Y1 (Bradfield)
* C/1980 E1 (Bowell)
* C/1983 H1 (IRAS–Araki–Alcock)
* C/1983 J1 (Sugano–Saigusa–Fujikawa)
* C/1989 W1 (Aarseth-Brewington)
* C/1989 X1 (Austin)
* C/1989 Y1 (Skorichenko–George)

|

After 1990|

* C/1990 K1 (Levy)
* C/1992 J1 (Spacewatch–Rabinowitz)
* C/1993 Y1 (McNaught–Russell)
* C/1995 O1 (Hale–Bopp)
* C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake)
* C/1997 L1 (Zhu–Balam)
* C/1998 H1 (Stonehouse)
* C/1998 J1 (SOHO)
* C/1999 F1 (Catalina)
* C/1999 S4 (LINEAR)
* C/2000 WM1 (LINEAR)
* C/2001 A2 (LINEAR)
* C/2001 OG108 (LONEOS)
* C/2001 Q4 (NEAT)
* C/2002 T7 (LINEAR)
* C/2002 V1 (NEAT)
* C/2004 F4 (Bradfield)
* C/2004 Q2 (Machholz)
* C/2006 A1 (Pojmański)
* C/2006 M4 (SWAN)
* C/2006 P1 (McNaught)
* C/2007 E2 (Lovejoy)
* C/2007 F1 (LONEOS)
* C/2007 N3 (Lulin)
* C/2007 Q3 (Siding Spring)
* C/2007 W1 (Boattini)
* C/2009 F6 (Yi–SWAN)
* C/2009 R1 (McNaught)
* C/2010 X1 (Elenin)
* C/2011 L4 (PANSTARRS)
* C/2011 W3 (Lovejoy)
* C/2012 E2 (SWAN)
* C/2012 F6 (Lemmon)
* C/2012 K1 (PANSTARRS)
* C/2012 S1 (ISON)
* C/2013 A1 (Siding Spring)
* C/2013 R1 (Lovejoy)
* C/2013 US10 (Catalina)
* C/2013 V5 (Oukaimeden)
* C/2014 E2 (Jacques)
* C/2014 Q1 (PanSTARRS)
* C/2014 Q2 (Lovejoy)
* C/2014 UN271 (Bernardinelli–Bernstein)
* C/2015 ER61 (PanSTARRS)
* C/2015 V2 (Johnson)
* C/2017 K2 (PanSTARRS)
* 1I/2017 U1 ʻOumuamua
* C/2018 Y1 (Iwamoto)
* 2I/Borisov
* C/2019 U6 (Lemmon)
* C/2019 Y4 (ATLAS)
* C/2020 F3 (NEOWISE)
* C/2020 F8 (SWAN)
* C/2021 A1 (Leonard)
* C/2022 E3 (ZTF)
* C/2023 A3 (Tsuchinshan–ATLAS)
* C/2023 P1 (Nishimura)
* C/2024 G3 (ATLAS)
* C/2024 S1 (ATLAS)

After 1910
(by name)|

* Aarseth-Brewington
* Arend–Roland
* ATLAS
* C/2019 Y4 (ATLAS)
* C/2024 G3 (ATLAS)
* C/2024 S1 (ATLAS)
* Austin
* Beljawsky
* Bennett
* Bernardinelli–Bernstein
* Boattini
* Borisov
* Bowell
* Bradfield
* C/1979 Y1
* C/2004 F4
* Brooks
* Catalina
* C/1999 F1
* C/2013 US10
* de Kock–Paraskevopoulos
* Eclipse
* Elenin
* Hale-Bopp
* Honda–Bernasconi
* Humason
* Hyakutake
* Ikeya
* C/1963 A1
* C/1964 N1
* Ikeya-Seki
* IRAS–Araki–Alcock
* ISON
* Iwamoto
* Jacques
* Johnson
* Jurlof–Achmarof–Hassel
* Kaho–Kozik–Lis
* Kiess
* Kohoutek
* Lemmon
* C/2012 F6
* C/2018 C2
* C/2019 U6
* Leonard
* Levy
* LINEAR
* C/1999 S4
* C/2000 WM1
* C/2001 A2
* C/2002 T7
* LONEOS
* C/2001 OG108
* C/2007 F1
* Lovejoy
* C/2007 E2
* C/2011 W3
* C/2013 R1
* C/2014 Q2
* Lulin
* Machholz
* McNaught
* C/2006 P1
* C/2009 R1
* McNaught–Russell
* John E. Mellish
* C/1915 C1 (Mellish)
* C/1917 F1 (Mellish)
* Mrkos
* NEAT
* C/2001 Q4
* C/2002 V1
* NEOWISE
* Nishimura
* Oukaimeden
* ʻOumuamua
* Pan-STARRS
* C/2011 L4
* C/2012 K1
* 311P/PanSTARRS
* C/2014 Q1
* C/2015 ER61
* C/2017 K2
* Pereyra
* Pojmański
* Ryves
* Seki
* Seki–Lines
* Siding Spring
* C/2007 Q3
* C/2013 A1
* Skjellerup–Maristany
* Skorichenko–George
* SOHO
* Southern
* Spacewatch–Rabinowitz
* Stonehouse
* Sugano–Saigusa–Fujikawa
* Suzuki–Saigusa–Mori
* SWAN
* C/2006 M4
* C/2012 E2
* C/2020 F8
* Tago-Sato-Kosaka
* Tsuchinshan–ATLAS
* West
* White–Ortiz–Bolelli
* Wilson–Hubbard
* Yi–SWAN
* Zhu–Balam
* ZTF

* Category

Portals:

* Astronomy
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* Solar System

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