Micronesian navigation

Methods to navigate the Pacific ocean

The Austronesian peoples, who include the people of Micronesia, developed oceangoing sailing technologies to migrate across the Pacific Ocean.

Micronesian navigation techniques are those navigation skills used for thousands of years by the navigators who voyaged between the thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean in the subregion of Oceania, that is commonly known as Micronesia. These voyagers used wayfinding techniques such as the navigation by the stars, and observations of birds, ocean swells, and wind patterns, and relied on a large body of knowledge from oral tradition.[1][2][3] These navigation techniques continued to be held by Polynesian navigators and navigators from the Santa Cruz Islands.[4] The re-creations of Polynesian voyaging in the late 20th century used traditional stellar navigational methods that had remained in everyday use in the Caroline Islands.

## Early voyaging

[edit]

See also: Austronesian peoples

Based on the current scientific consensus, the Micronesians are considered, by linguistic, archaeological, and human genetic evidence, to be a subset of the sea-migrating Austronesian people, who include the Polynesian people and the Melanesian people. Austronesians were the first people to invent oceangoing sailing technologies (notably double-hulled sailing canoes, outrigger boats, lashed-lug boat building, and the crab claw sail), which enabled their rapid dispersal into the islands of the Indo-Pacific.[5][6][7] From 2000 BCE they assimilated (or were assimilated by) the earlier populations on the islands in their migration pathway.[8][9][10][11][12]

The Mariana Islands were first settled around 1500 to 1400 BCE by migrants departing from the Philippines. This was followed by a second migration from the Caroline Islands during the first millennium CE, and a third migration from Island Southeast Asia (likely the Philippines or eastern Indonesia) by 900 CE.[13][14][15]

People from the Caroline Islands had regular contact with the Chamorro people of the Marianas Islands, as well as rarer voyages into the eastern islands of the Philippines.[16]

## 20th Century navigators

[edit]

See also: Mau Piailug

Navigator Mau Piailug (1932–2010) of Satawal island

Mau Piailug was the best-known teacher of traditional, non-instrument wayfinding methods for open-ocean voyaging. He was a master navigator from the Carolinian island of Satawal. He earned the title of master navigator (palu) by the age of eighteen in 1950; which involved the sacred initiation ritual known as Pwo. As he neared middle age, he grew concerned that the practice of navigation in Satawal would disappear as his people became acculturated to Western values. In the hope that the navigational tradition would be preserved for future generations, Mau shared his knowledge with the Polynesian Voyaging Society (PVS). With Mau's help, PVS recreated and tested lost Hawaiian navigational techniques on the Hōkūle‘a, a modern reconstruction of a double-hulled Hawaiian voyaging canoe.[17][18]

Hipour was a master navigator from the navigational school of Weriyeng and the island of Puluwat.[19] In 1969, Hipour accompanied David Henry Lewis on his ketch Isbjorn from Puluwat in Chuuk to Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands, and back, using traditional navigation techniques; a distance of approximately 1,000 km (621.37 mi) each way.[20][21]

In April 1970, Repunglug and Repunglap, half-brothers, navigated from Satawal to Saipan in a traditional Carolinian outrigger canoe, which was approximately 26 feet (7.92 m) long, and equipped with a canvas sail.[21] This voyage was understood on Satawal to be the first time in the 20th century that a traditional canoe had made the voyage to Saipan.[21] While they used a small boat compass, they relied on their knowledge of traditional stellar navigation and wave patterns to sail approximately 52 miles (84 km) to West Fayu, where they waited for favourable winds before continuing on the 422 miles (679 km) voyage to Saipan.[21] They later made the return journey to Satawal.[21]

In the early 1970's there were at least 17 men who could serve as a master navigator (palu) for voyages to the Marianas. They include Sautan on Elato; Orupi, a Satawal man residing on Lamotrek; Ikegun, Epaimai, Repunglug, Repunglap, and Mau Piailug from Satawal; Ikuliman, Ikefie, Manipi, Rapwi, Faipiy, Faluta, Filewa and Hipour, all from Puluwat; Yaitiluk from Pulap, and Amanto from Tamatam. There were also six or seven apprentice navigators learning the art of traditional navigation on Satawal, including Epoumai and Repunglug's son Olakiman.[21][4]

## Navigational techniques

[edit]

See also: Polynesian navigation

The Carolinian navigation system, used by Mau Piailug, relies on navigational clues using the Sun and stars, winds and clouds, seas and swells, observing the flight path of birds, and the patterns of bioluminescence that indicated the direction in which islands were located,[22][23] which skills were acquired through rote learning passed down through teachings in the oral tradition.[24]

Once they had arrived fairly close to a destination island, the navigator would have been able to pinpoint its location by sightings of land-based birds, the cloud formations that form over islands, as well as the reflections of shallow water made on the undersides of clouds. Subtle differences in the colour of the sky also could be recognised as resulting from the presence of lagoons or shallow waters, as deep water was a poor reflector of light while the lighter colour of the water of lagoons and shallow waters could be identified in the reflection in the sky.[2]

These wayfinding navigation technique relies heavily on constant observation and memorization. Navigators have to memorize where they have sailed from in order to know where they are. The sun was the main guide for navigators because they could follow its exact points as it rose and set. Once the sun had set they would use the rising and setting points of the stars. When there were no stars because of a cloudy night or during daylight, a navigator would use the winds and swells as guides.[24][23]

### Navigation by the stars

[edit]

Star compass of Mau Piailug taught in the Caroline Islands, with North at top. Re-creation with shells on sand, with Satawalese (Chuukic) text labels, from the Polynesian Voyaging Society.[25] See annotations on Commons.

The positions of the stars helped guide voyages. Stars, as opposed to planets, hold fixed celestial positions year-round, changing only their rising time with the seasons. Each star has a specific declination, and can give a bearing for navigation as it rises or sets.

For navigators near the equator, (as navigators sailing between the islands of Micronesia), celestial navigation is simplified, given that the whole celestial sphere is exposed. Any star that passes through the zenith (overhead) moves along the celestial equator, the basis of the equatorial coordinate system. Voyagers would set a heading by a star near the horizon, switching to a new one once the first rose too high. A specific sequence of stars would be memorized for each route.[2][3][22]

Navigating by the stars requires knowledge of when particular stars, as they rotated through the night sky, would pass over the island to which the voyagers were sailing. The technique of "sailing down the latitude" was used.[2][3] That is, knowledge that the movement of stars over different islands followed a similar pattern, (by recognising that different islands have a similar relationship to the night sky) provided the navigators with a sense of latitude, so that they could sail with the prevailing wind, before turning east or west to reach the island that was their destination.[1][2]

### Recording wave and swell formation in navigational devices

[edit]

See also: Marshall Islands stick chart

A navigational chart from the Marshall Islands, made of wood, sennit fiber and cowrie shells Stick chart in Überseemuseum Bremen

Navigators could also observe the direction of the wave and swell formations to navigate caused by islands. Many of the habitable areas of the Pacific Ocean are groups of islands (or atolls) in chains hundreds of kilometres long. Island chains have predictable effects on waves and currents. Navigators who lived within a group of islands would learn the effect various islands had on the swell shape, direction, and motion, and would have been able to correct their path accordingly. Even when they arrived in the vicinity of an unfamiliar chain of islands, they may have been able to detect signs similar to those of their home.[2]

The energy transferred from the wind to the sea produces wind waves. The waves that are created when the energy travels down away from the source area (like ripples) are known as swell. When the winds are strong at the source area, the swell is larger. The longer the wind blows, the longer the swell lasts. Because the swells of the ocean can remain consistent for days, navigators relied on them to carry their canoe in a straight line from one house (or point) on the star compass to the opposite house of the same name. Navigators were not always able to see stars; because of this, they relied on the swells of the ocean. Swell patterns are a much more reliable method of navigation than waves, which are determined by the local winds.[2][3] Swells move in a straight direction which makes it easier for the navigator to determine whether the canoe is heading in the correct direction.[26]

The people of the Marshall Islands have a history of using stick charts, to serve as spatial representations of islands and the conditions around them; with the curvature and meeting-points of the coconut ribs indicating the wave motion that was the result of islands standing in the path of the prevailing wind and the run of the waves.[2][3] The charts represented major ocean swell patterns and the ways the islands disrupted those patterns, typically determined by sensing disruptions in ocean swells by islands during sea navigation. Most stick charts were made from the midribs of coconut fronds that were tied together to form an open framework. Island locations were represented by shells tied to the framework, or by the lashed junction of two or more sticks. The threads represented prevailing ocean surface wave-crests and directions they took as they approached islands and met other similar wave-crests formed by the ebb and flow of breakers. Individual charts varied so much in form and interpretation that the individual navigator who made the chart was the only person who could fully interpret and use it.[27] The use of stick charts ended after World War II when new electronic technologies made navigation more accessible and travel among islands by canoe lessened.[22]

## Vessels

[edit]

* Wa (watercraft)
* Sakman
* Baurua
* Walap

## Sources

[edit]

* Lewis, David (1963), "A Return Voyage Between Puluwat and Saipan Using Micronesian Navigational Techniques", in Finney, Ben R (ed.), Pacific Navigation and Voyaging, The Polynesian Society.
* Lewis, David (1994), We the Navigators: The Ancient art of Landfinding in the Pacific, University of Hawaii Press.
* O’Connor, M.R. (2019). Wayfinding: The Science and Mystery of How Humans Navigate the World. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1250096968.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b Holmes, Lowell Don (1 June 1955). "Island Migrations (1): The Polynesian Navigators Followed a Unique Plan". XXV(11) Pacific Islands Monthly. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h Holmes, Lowell Don (1 August 1955). "Island Migrations (2): Birds and Sea Currents Aided Canoe Navigators". XXVI(1) Pacific Islands Monthly. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
3. ^ a b c d e Holmes, Lowell Don (1 September 1955). "Island Migrations (3): Navigation was an Exact Science for Leaders". XXVI(2) Pacific Islands Monthly. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
4. ^ a b Lewis, David (1974). "Wind, Wave, Star, and Bird". National Geographic. 146 (6): 747–754, 771–778.
5. ^ Doran, Edwin B. (1981). Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 9780890961070.
6. ^ Dierking, Gary (2007). Building Outrigger Sailing Canoes: Modern Construction Methods for Three Fast, Beautiful Boats. International Marine/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9780071594561.
7. ^ Horridge, Adrian (1986). "The Evolution of Pacific Canoe Rigs". The Journal of Pacific History. 21 (2): 83–89\. doi:10.1080/00223348608572530. JSTOR 25168892.
8. ^ Bellwood, Peter (1988). "A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins" (PDF). Asian Perspectives. 26 (1): 107–117\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 May 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
9. ^ Bellwood, Peter (1991). "The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages". Scientific American. 265 (1): 88–93\. Bibcode:1991SciAm.265a..88B. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88. JSTOR 24936983.
10. ^ Hill, Adrian V.S.; Serjeantson, Susan W., eds. (1989). The Colonization of the Pacific: A Genetic Trail. Research Monographs on Human Population Biology No. 7. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198576952.
11. ^ Bellwood P, Fox JJ, Tryon D (2006). The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. Australian National University Press. ISBN 9781920942854. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2019.
12. ^ Blench, Roger (2012). "Almost Everything You Believed about the Austronesians Isn't True" (PDF). In Tjoa-Bonatz, Mai Lin; Reinecke, Andreas; Bonatz, Dominik (eds.). Crossing Borders. National University of Singapore Press. pp. 128–148\. ISBN 9789971696429. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 23 March 2019.
13. ^ Hung, Hsiao-chun; Carson, Mike T.; Bellwood, Peter; Campos, Fredeliza Z.; Piper, Philip J.; Dizon, Eusebio; Bolunia, Mary Jane Louise A.; Oxenham, Marc; Chi, Zhang (2015). "The first settlement of Remote Oceania: the Philippines to the Marianas". Antiquity. 85 (329): 909–926\. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00068393.
14. ^ Zotomayor, Alexie Villegas (March 12, 2013). "Archaeologists say migration to Marianas longest ocean-crossing in human history". Marianas Variety News and Views: 2. Archived from the original on October 21, 2022. Retrieved October 25, 2020.
15. ^ Zotomayor, Alexie (March 11, 2013). "Archaeologist says migration to Marianas longest ocean-crossing in human history". Marianas Variety. Archived from the original on March 16, 2017. Retrieved December 29, 2014.
16. ^ Peterson, John A. (2012). "Latte villages in Guam and the Marianas: Monumentality or monumenterity?" (PDF). Micronesica. 42 (1/2): 183–208\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-04-12. Retrieved 2021-10-04.
17. ^ Lewis, David (1978). The Voyaging Stars: Secrets of the Pacific Island Navigators. William Collins Publishers Pty Ltd, Sydney. ISBN 0-393-03226-4.
18. ^ Finney, Ben (1994). Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey through Polynesia. Illustrations by Richard Rhodes. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08002-5.
19. ^ Gladwin, Thomas (1970). East Is a Big Bird; Navigation & Logic on Puluwat Atoll. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22425-6.
20. ^ Lewis, David (1974). "Wind, Wave, Star, and Bird". National Geographic. 146 (6): 771–778.
21. ^ a b c d e f Michael McCoy (1973). "A Renaissance in Carolinian-Marianas Voyaging". Journal of the Polynesian Society, Auckland University. Archived from the original on 2021-12-28. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
22. ^ a b c Lewis, David (1972). We, the Navigators. HI: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824802295.
23. ^ a b Lewis, David (1974). "Wind, Wave, Star, and Bird". National Geographic. 146 (6): 747–754, 771–778.
24. ^ a b Thompson, Nainoa. "On Wayfinding". Polynesian Voyaging Society. Archived from the original on November 2, 2017. Retrieved April 11, 2018.
25. ^ "Star Compasses". Polynesian Voyaging Society. Archived from the original on 24 October 2011.
26. ^ Gooley, Tristan (2016). How to Read Water: Clues, Signs & Patterns from Puddles to the Sea. NY: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 9781473615205.
27. ^ Finney, Ben (1998). "13: Nautical Cartography and Traditional Navigation in Oceania" (PDF). In Woodward, David; Lewis, G. Malcolm (eds.). The History of Cartography. Vol. 2.3: Cartography in the Traditional African, American, Arctic, Australian, and Pacific Societies. p. 476\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-04. Retrieved 2021-10-04.

* v
* t
* e

Austronesian ships

Ship types

| Taiwan|

| Kavalan|

* Mangka

|

Thao|

* Ruza

Tao|

* Ipanitika
* Tatara

Island
Southeast Asia|

| Brunei|

* Bajak
* Bangkong
* Gubang
* Jong
* Kakap
* Penjajap
* Tongkang

|

Indonesia|

* Abak
* Bagan
* Bago
* Bajak
* Bangkong
* Banting
* Benawa
* Borobudur ship
* Cerucuh
* Chialoup
* Eloha
* Fakatora
* Ghali
* Ghurab
* Golekan
* Janggolan
* Jellore
* Jong
* Jongkong
* Juanga
* Jukung
* Jukung tambangan
* Kakap
* Kalulis
* Kelulus
* Kolay
* Kolekole
* Knabat bogolu
* Kora kora
* Kotta mara
* K'un-lun po
* Lancang
* Lancaran
* Lepa
* Lepa-Lepa
* Leti leti
* Lis-alis
* Londe
* Malangbang
* Mayang
* Orembai
* Padewakang
* Paduwang
* Pajala
* Paledang
* Penjajap
* Pangkur
* Patorani
* Pelang
* Pencalang
* Perahu
* Pinisi
* Lambo
* Palari
* Sampan
* Sampan panjang
* Sandeq
* Sarua
* Sekong
* Solu
* Teneh
* Tongkang
* Toop

Malaysia|

* Bajak
* Bangkong
* Banting
* Bedar
* Buggoh
* Birau
* Cerucuh
* Ghali
* Ghurab
* Jong
* Juanga
* Kakap
* Kolek
* Lancang
* Lancaran
* Lepa
* Pelang
* Pencalang
* Penjajap
* Perahu payang
* Perahu tambangan
* Pinas
* Sampan
* Sampan panjang
* Tongkang

Moken|

* Kabang

Philippines|

* Armadahan
* Avang
* Awang
* Balación
* Balangay (Barangay)
* Baloto
* Bangka
* Bangka anak-anak
* Basnigan
* Batil
* Bigiw
* Bilo
* Birau
* Biray
* Biroko (Birok, Bidok)
* Buggoh
* Casco
* Chinarem
* Chinedkeran
* Dinahit
* Djenging (Balutu)
* Falua
* Garay
* Guilalo
* Juanga
* Junkun
* Junkung
* Karakoa
* Kulibo
* Lanong
* Lapis
* Lepa (Kumpit, Pidlas)
* Ontang
* Owong
* Panineman
* Pasaplap
* Pangayaw
* Paraw
* Salambaw
* Salisipan
* Sapyaw
* Seberen
* Tapake
* Tataya
* Tempel
* Tilimbao (Tinimbao)
* Tiririt (Buti)
* Vinta (Dapang, Pilang)

Singapore|

* Sampan panjang
* Tongkang

Island
Melanesia|

| Admiralty Islands|

* Endrol
* Kel

|

Fiji|

* Camakau
* Drua (Waqa tabu)
* Takia

Green Islands|

* Kǒp
* Tsǐne

Papua New Guinea|

* Lakatoi

Solomon Islands|

* Binabina
* Lisi (Solima)
* Tepukei
* Tomako (Mon, Ora)

Vanuatu|

* Aka
* Angga
* Wangga

Micronesia|

| Caroline Islands|

* Wa
* Wahr
* Waserak

|

Kiribati|

* Baurua

Marshall Islands|

* Korkor
* Tipnol
* Walap

Northern Marianas|

* Duding
* Duduli
* Galaideʻ (Agaraide)
* Ladjak
* Lelek
* Panga
* Sakman (Flying proa)

Palau|

* Kaep
* Wa

Yap|

* Chugpin
* Popow
* Wa

Polynesia|

| Cook Islands|

* Vaka
* Vaka katea

|

Hawaii|

* Mālia
* Waʻa
* Waʻa kaulua

Marquesas|

* Vaka touʻua

New Zealand|

* Waka
* Waka hourua
* Waka taua
* Waka tīwai

Samoa|

* ʻalia
* Amatasi
* Fautasi
* Laʻau
* Lualua (Foulua)
* Paopao
* Vaʻa
* Vaʻa-alo
* Vaʻa-tele

Society Islands|

* Ivahah
* Pahi
* Tipairua
* Vaʻa

Tonga|

* Hamatafua
* Kalia
* Pōpao
* Tongiaki

Tuvalu|

* Paopao

Madagascar|

| Malagasy|

* Lakana

|

Sakalava|

* Laka fiara

Ipanitika

Wa'a kaulua

Paraw

Padewakang

Ship construction & sailing

| Rigging|

* Crab claw sail
* Junk rig
* Pinisi rig
* Tanja sail

|

Hull|

* Catamaran
* Lashed-lug boat
* Multihull
* Outrigger
* Outrigger boat
* Polynesian multihull terminology
* Proa
* Sewn boat
* Trimaran

Navigation|

* Fanuankuwel
* Fealofani Bruun
* Hipour
* Kafeŕoor
* List of Māori waka
* Makassan contact with Australia
* Māori migration canoes
* Marshall Islands stick chart
* Mau Piailug
* Polynesian navigation
* Rapwi
* Tākitimu
* Weriyeng
* Yapese navigation

Trade|

* Austronesian maritime trade network
* Hiri trade cycle
* Kula ring
* Lapita trade network
* Lingling-o
* Maritime Silk Road
* Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere
* Sepik Coast exchange
* Spice trade
* Trepanging

Archaeology|

* Balangay (Butuan boats)
* Borobudur ship
* Cirebon shipwreck

Other|

* Apilan
* Burulan
* Daramba
* Kota mara

Ship replicas

| Cook Islands|

* Maire Nui
* Marumaru Atua
* Te Au o Tonga

|

Federated States of Micronesia|

* Halametaw
* Quest
* Sailoam

French Polynesia|

* Faʻafaite
* Tahiti Nui

Guam|

* Saina

Hawaii|

* Alingano Maisu
* Hawaiʻiloa
* Hikianalia
* Hōkūleʻa
* Hokualakai
* Iosepa
* Makali'i

Indonesia|

* Alfred Wallace
* Hati Marege
* Nur Al Marege
* Samudra Raksa
* Spirit of Majapahit

Malaysia|

* Naga Pelangi

New Zealand|

* Aotearoa One
* Haunui
* Ngahiraka Mai Tawhiti
* Pūmaiterangi
* Te Aurere

Philippines|

* Balatik
* Diwata ng Lahi
* Lahi ng Maharlika
* Masawa Hong Butuan
* Raya Kolambu
* Raya Siyagu
* Sama Tawi-Tawi
* Sarimanok
* Sultan sin Sulu

Samoa|

* Gaualofa

* See also:
* Lapita culture
* Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia

* v
* t
* e

Ancient seafaring

Vessels

| Types|

* Balangay
* Bangka
* Beden
* Coracle
* Dhow
* Dragon boat
* Dugout canoe
* Fire ship
* Galley
* Penteconter
* Kunlun ship
* Liburna
* Longship
* Multihull
* Navis lusoria
* Obelisk ship
* Outriggers
* Sakman
* Single-outrigger
* Catamaran
* Trimaran
* Polyremes
* Bireme
* Oared warships
* Trireme
* Quadrireme
* Quinquereme
* Hexareme
* Tessarakonteres
* Raft
* Reed boat
* Sailing ship
* Solar ship
* Tomol
* Tākitimu
* Uru

|

by region|

* Austronesia
* Egypt
* Persia
* Rome

Propulsion|

* Paddling
* Sailing
* Towing
* Poling

Components|

* Anchor
* Bow
* Cabin
* Deck
* Figurehead
* Hull
* Planking
* Keel
* Mast
* Oar
* Paddle
* Rope
* Rudder
* Steering oar
* Sail
* Sail components
* Stem
* Sternpost
* Strake
* Tiller

Construction|

* Boat building
* Careening
* Carvel built
* Clinker built
* Dugout
* Framing
* Frame-first
* Shell-first
* Joinery
* Lashed-lug
* Mortise and tenon
* Phoenician joint
* Scarf joint
* Sewn-plank
* Shipbuilding
* By region:
* Egypt

Rigging|

* Crab claw
* Fore-and-aft
* Lateen
* Settee
* Tanja
* Triangular sail
* Junk
* Mast-aft
* Spritsail
* Square

Armaments|

* Ballista
* Catapult
* Corvus
* Dolphin
* Fire ship
* Harpax
* Ram
* Sambuca

Wrecks
and relics|

| Earliest|

* Pesse canoe
* Dufuna canoe
* Abydos
* Moor Sand
* Dokos
* Khufu ship
* Ferriby Boats
* Dover Bronze Age Boat
* Uluburun
* Canaanite
* Cape Gelidonya
* Zambratija
* Rochelongue

|

Austronesia|

* Pontian boat
* Butuan boats

Black Sea‎|

* Sinop D

Greek|

* Kyrenia
* Leontophoros
* Syracusia
* Ashkelon
* Antikythera

Canaanite
and Phoenician|

* Bajo de la Campana
* Canaanite shipwreck
* Gozo
* Ma'agan Michael
* Mazarrón

Punic|

* Marsala Punic shipwreck

Roman|

* Alkedo
* Arles Rhône 3
* Blackfriars I
* Caligula's Giant Ship
* De Meern ships
* Isis
* Madrague de Giens
* Nemi ships
* Marausa
* Yassi Ada

Nordic|

* Hjortspring boat
* Nydam boat

Lists|

* Oldest surviving
* Museum ships
* Surviving ancient ships

Navigation, and ports and harbors

| Navigation|

* Celestial
* Charts
* Coastal
* Lighthouses
* History
* Ocean swell
* Stick chart
* Periplus
* Piloting
* Pilot boat
* Maritime pilot
* By region:
* Inuit
* Micronesian
* Polynesia

|

Ports and
harbors|

* Actium
* Aden
* Adulis
* Alexandria
* Apollonia
* Aradus
* Arikamedu
* Arsinoe
* Avalites
* Barbarikon
* Barygaza
* Basra
* Berenice Troglodytica
* Bosphorus
* Byblos
* Caesarea Maritima
* Canopus
* Carthage
* Centumcellae
* Charmutha
* Chittagong
* Delos
* Essina
* Giao Chỉ
* Godavaya
* Guangzhou
* Jambukola
* Jeddah
* Kaveri Poompattinam
* Kedah
* Korkai
* Leptis Magna
* Lothal
* Manthai
* Madurai
* Malao
* Mersa Gawasis
* Myos Hormos
* Martaban
* Mueang Phra Rot
* Muscat
* Muziris
* Narbonne
* Nesis
* Óc Eo (Cattigara)
* Opone
* Ostia Antica
* Palembang
* Piraeus
* Portus Augusti
* Portus Pisanus
* Prosphorion
* Ptolemais Theron
* Puteoli
* Qal'at al-Bahrain
* Qandala
* Quilon
* Rhacotis
* Sarapion
* Satingpra
* Sidon
* Socotra
* Sounagoura
* Thapsus
* Trincomalee
* Tulum
* Tyndis
* Tyre
* Wadi al-Jarf
* Zanzibar

History

| Prehistory|

* Timeline
* Britain
* Oceania
* Remote
* Near
* Ubaid period
* Indus Valley

|

Civilizations|

* Ancient Egypt
* Old Kingdom
* Austronesia
* Sa Huỳnh
* Lapita
* Micronesia
* Langkasuka
* Kedah
* Champa
* Kutai
* Tarumanagara
* Kalingga
* Srivijaya
* Sunda
* Polynesia
* Minoan
* Indus Valley
* Tamilakam
* Chola
* Chera
* Pandya
* Somalia
* Dilmun
* Maya
* Nuragic
* Mycenaean
* Phoenicia
* Olmecs
* Carthage
* Greece
* Archaic
* Classical
* Rome
* Achaemenid
* Nabatea
* Aksum

Migration and
exploration|

* Peopling of Australia
* Peopling of Micronesia
* Austronesian Expansion
* Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
* Ocean exploration
* Phoenician maritime expansion
* Sardinia
* Circumnavigation of Africa
* Pytheas' voyage to Britain
* Roman circumnavigation of Britain
* Timeline

Mariners and
explorers|

* Henenu
* Euthymenes
* Hanno the Navigator
* Himilco
* Sataspes
* Androsthenes of Thasos
* Archias of Pella
* Alexander the Great
* Nearchus
* Pytheas
* Megasthenes
* Xu Fu
* Hippalus
* Julius Caesar
* Eudoxus of Cyzicus
* Maes Titianus

Military|

| Navies|

* Egyptian
* Achaemenid
* Greek
* Roman

|

Battles|

* Mediterranean: Alashiya
* Nile Delta
* Salamis
* Artemisium
* Eurymedon
* Naupactus
* Olpae
* Syracuse
* Cynossema
* Arginusae
* Mytilene
* Hellespont
* Echinades
* Salamis II
* Mylae
* Cape Hermaeum
* Ecnomus
* Drepana
* Aegates
* Lake Trasimene
* Chios
* Myonessus
* Nile
* Naulochus
* Mycale
* Actium

Tactics|

* Boarding
* Grappling
* Incendiaries
* Oared vessels
* Sailing ships
* Greek navy
* Ramming

By region|

* China
* India
* Odisha
* Japan
* Rome
* South America
* Rafts

Economy and trade

* Whaling
* Fishing
* Egypt
* Land of Punt
* Indo–Mesopotamia relations
* Meluhha
* Tin
* Spice trade
* Austronesian network
* Sa Huynh-Kalanay
* Incense trade
* Maritime Silk Road
* Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
* Maya
* Greece
* Greco–Indian
* shipping
* Rome
* Indo–Roman

Piracy

* History
* Mediterranean piracy
* Ameinias the Phocian
* Cilician pirates
* Jewish pirates
* Kidnapping of Julius Caesar
* Pompey's campaign against the pirates

Research and education

| Scholars|

| Historians|

* David Blackman
* Lionel Casson
* Fik Meijer
* John Sinclair Morrison
* William L. Rodgers
* Chester G. Starr

|

Archaeologists|

* George Bass
* Jean-Yves Empereur
* Boris Rankov
* J. Richard Steffy
* Peter Throckmorton
* Shelley Wachsmann

Topics
and theories|

* Coastal defence and fortification
* Grave goods
* Lighthouses
* Alexandria
* Marine art
* Marine navigation
* Maritime archaeology
* Naval warfare
* Maritime temples
* Temple of Isthmia
* Temple of Poseidon, Sounion
* Samothrace temple complex
* Nusantao network
* Phoenician discovery of America
* Pre-Columbian theories
* Sea Peoples
* Shipbuilding
* Shell middens
* Ship burial
* Tacking
* Thalassocracy
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater exploration

Sites|

* H3
* Qal'at al-Bahrain

Experimental
archaeology|

* Ship replica
* Heyerdahl expeditions
* Kon-Tiki
* Ra and Ra II
* Austronesian replicas
* Hōkūleʻa
* Sarimanok
* Te Au o Tonga
* Hawaiʻiloa canoe
* Samudra Raksa
* Alingano Maisu
* Saina
* Balangay Voyage
* Faʻafaite
* Gaualofa
* Marumaru Atua
* Mediterranean
* Olympias
* Regina
* Phoenician Ship Expedition
* Viking replicas
* Viking
* Others
* Vital Alsar
* Ivlia
* Abora
* Viracocha
* Tangaroa
* Oakleaf
* Morgawr

Institutes and
conferences|

* Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology
* Archaeological Institute of America
* European Association of Archaeologists
* Institute of Nautical Archaeology
* International Congress of Maritime Museums
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* RPM Nautical Foundation
* Sea Research Society
* Society for American Archaeology

Museums and
memorials|

* Boat Museum, Kolkata
* Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology
* Giza Solar boat museum
* Grand Egyptian Museum
* Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle
* Museum of Ancient Seafaring
* Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa
* National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology
* Viking ship museums:
* Oslo
* Roskilde

Legend and literature

| Legend|

* Ark of bulrushes
* Flood myths
* Genesis
* Gilgamesh
* Greek

|

Literature|

* Odyssey
* Histories (Herodotus)
* On the Ocean
* Argonautica
* Histories (Polybius)
* Metamorphoses
* Geography
* Aeneid

* v
* t
* e

Culture of indigenous Oceania

List of resources about traditional arts and culture of Oceania

Art|

* Ahu
* Australia
* Austronesia
* Cook Islands
* kapa (Hawaiʻi)
* Lei
* magimagi
* moai
* New Zealand
* Māori
* nguzu nguzu
* Oceania
* Papua New Guinea
* reimiro
* tā moko
* tabua
* taʻovala
* tapa ["masi" (Fiji), "ngatu" (Tonga), "siapo" (Sāmoa), " ʻuha" (Rotuma)]
* tattoo
* tēfui
* tivaevae

Broad culture|

* areca nut
* "yaqona" (Fiji), or "sakau" (Pohnpei)
* Kava culture
* Lapita
* Māori
* Polynesia
* Sāmoa 'ava ceremony
* Wood carving

Geo-specific,
general|

* Australia
* Australian Aboriginal astronomy)
* Austronesia
* Caroline Islands, -Pwo
* Chatham Islands
* Cook Islands
* Easter Island
* Fiji
* Lau Islands
* traditions and ceremonies
* Guam
* Lomilomi massage
* Kiribati
* French Polynesia's Marquesas Islands
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Nauru
* New Caledonia
* New Zealand
* Māori
* Niue
* Norfolk Island
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Pitcairn Islands
* Sāmoa
* Solomon Islands
* Tonga
* Torres Strait Islands
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu
* Wallis and Futuna
* Polynesian Navigation
* Micronesian Navigation
* Marshall Islands
* Stick charts of
* Yap
* navigation
* Weriyeng navigation school

Canoes|

* Aboriginal dugout
* Alingano Maisu
* Bangka
* Drua
* Dugout (boat)
* Hōkūleʻa
* Kaep
* Karakoa
* Māori migration
* Outrigger
* Paopao (Tuvalu)
* Paraw
* Polynesian sailing
* Proa
* Vinta
* Waka
* list
* Walap

Dance|

* ʻAparima
* cibi
* fara
* fire dancing
* firewalking
* haka
* hivinau
* hula
* kailao
* kapa haka
* Kiribati
* meke
* 'ote'a
* pa'o'a
* poi
* Rotuma
* siva
* Tahiti
* tāmūrē
* tautoga
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* 'upa'upa

Festivals|

* Australia
* Garma Festival
* Hawaiʻi
* Aloha Festivals
* Merrie Monarch Festival
* World Invitational Hula Festival
* Fiji
* New Zealand
* Pasifika Festival
* Te Matatini
* Pacific Community
* Festival of Pacific Arts
* Papua New Guinea

Languages|

| by area|

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Oceania

Sovereign states|

* Australia
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Fiji
* Indonesia
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Timor-Leste
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu

Associated states
of New Zealand|

* Cook Islands
* Niue

Dependencies
and other territories|

* American Samoa
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Easter Island
* French Polynesia
* Guam
* Hawaii
* New Caledonia
* Norfolk Island
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Pitcairn Islands
* Tokelau
* Wallis and Futuna

by category|

Languages of Oceania

Literature|

* v
* t
* e

Literature of Oceania

Sovereign states|

* Australia
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Fiji
* Indonesia
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Timor-Leste
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu

Associated states
of New Zealand|

* Cook Islands
* Niue

Dependencies
and other territories|

* American Samoa
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Easter Island
* French Polynesia
* Guam
* Hawaii
* New Caledonia
* Norfolk Island
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Pitcairn Islands
* Tokelau
* Wallis and Futuna

Music|

* Austral Islands (French Polynesia)
* Australia
* Austronesia
* Cook Islands
* Easter Island
* Fiji
* Guam
* Kiribati
* Lali
* Melanesia
* Micronesia
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Nauru
* New Caledonia
* New Zealand
* Māori
* Niue
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Polynesia
* Sāmoa
* Slit drum
* Solomon Islands
* Tahiti
* Tokelau
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu
* Wallis and Futuna

Mythology|

* Australian Aboriginal
* Fijian
* Mangarevan
* Maohi
* Māori
* Melanesian
* Menehune
* Micronesian
* Oceanian legendary creatures
* Polynesian
* Rapa Nui
* Samoan
* Tuvaluan
* Vanuatuan

Research|

* Asian American and Pacific Islander Policy Research Consortium
* Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies

People|

* Indigenous Australian
* Austronesian
* Sama-Bajau
* Chamorro
* Chatham Islander (Moriori or Rekohu)
* Fijian (iTaukei)
* Hawaiian
* Ilocano
* Igorot
* Ivatans
* Lumad
* Māori
* Marshallese
* Melanesian
* Micronesian
* Negrito
* Norfolk Islander
* Papuan
* Polynesian
* Indigenous Polynesian (Mā’ohi)
* Rapa Nui
* Rotuman
* Samoan (Tagata Māo‘i)
* Tagalog
* Tahitian
* Taiwanese aborigines
* Tokelauan
* Tongan
* Torres Strait Islander
* Visayans
* Yami

Religion|

* v
* t
* e

Religion in Oceania

Sovereign states|

* Australia
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Fiji
* Indonesia
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Timor-Leste
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu

Associated states
of New Zealand|

* Cook Islands
* Niue

Dependencies
and other territories|

* American Samoa
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Easter Island
* French Polynesia
* Guam
* Hawaii
* New Caledonia
* Norfolk Island
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Pitcairn Islands
* Tokelau
* Wallis and Futuna

For other topics including Oceanian cinema, indigenous currency, dress, folklore and cuisine, see Category:Culture of Oceania.

* v
* t
* e

Trade routes

* Amber Road
* Arctic shipping routes
* Austronesian maritime trade network
* Baltic
* Canadian canoe routes
* Dvaravati–Kamboja route
* Grand Trunk Road
* Hærvejen
* Hanseatic League
* Hiri trade cycle
* Incense trade route
* Indian Ocean trade
* King's Highway
* Kula ring
* Lapita culture
* Maritime republics
* Maritime Silk Road
* Old Salt Route
* Penarikan Route
* Manila galleon
* Polynesian navigation
* Rome-India routes
* Indo-Mediterranean
* Royal Road
* Salt road
* Sea lane
* Sepik Coast exchange
* Siberian Route
* Silk Road
* Spanish Road
* Spice Route
* Brouwer Route
* Tea Horse Road
* Trans-Saharan trade
* Trepanging
* Triangular trade
* Via Maris
* Volga trade route
* Varangians to the Greeks
* Way of the Patriarchs

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