Mindfulness

Secular meditation practice

For other uses, see Mindfulness (disambiguation).

This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{langx}}, {{transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and {{IPA}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate ISO 639 code. Wikipedia's multilingual support templates may also be used. See why. (June 2025)

|

Part of a series on

Mindfulness

Buddhism

* Buddhist meditation
* Sati
* Anussati
* Sampajañña
* Satipatthana
* Anapanasati
* Mental noting
* Appamāda
* Vipassanā
* Zen

Psychology

* Mindfulness-based stress reduction
* Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
* Mindfulness-based pain management
* Acceptance and commitment therapy
* Dialectical behavior therapy
* Mode deactivation therapy
* Morita therapy
* Hakomi therapy
* Mindfulness (journal)

Other

* Buddhism and psychology
* Mindful Yoga

Similar concepts

* Wakefulness
* Attention
* Alertness
* Prudence
* Conscientiousness
* Contemplation
* Epoché
* Awareness
* Observation
* Choiceless awareness
* Isolation tank

Category

* v
* t
* e

Mindfulness is the cognitive skill,[1][2][3] usually developed through exercises, of sustaining metacognitive awareness towards the contents of one's own mind and bodily sensations in the present moment.[4][5][a][6][7][8] The term mindfulness derives from the Pali word sati, a significant element of Buddhist traditions,[9][10] and the practice is based on ānāpānasati , Chan, and Tibetan meditation techniques.[11][12][b]

Since the 1990s, secular mindfullness has gained popularity in the west.[13] Individuals who have contributed to the popularity of secular mindfulness in the modern Western context include Jon Kabat-Zinn and Thích Nhất Hạnh.[14][15]

Clinical psychology and psychiatry since the 1970s have developed a number of therapeutic applications based on mindfulness for helping people experiencing a variety of psychological conditions.[15] [c] Clinical studies have documented both physical- and mental-health benefits of mindfulness in different patient categories as well as in healthy adults and children.[29][30][31][32] [d] [e]

Critics have questioned both the commercialization and the over-marketing of mindfulness for health benefits—as well as emphasizing the need for more randomized controlled studies, for more methodological details in reported studies and for the use of larger sample-sizes.[8][page needed][need quotation to verify][34][web 1]

## Definitions

[edit]

Mindfulness is the cognitive skill,[1][2][3] usually developed through meditation or sustained practice, of sustaining metacognitive awareness towards the contents of one's own mind and bodily sensations in the present moment.[4][5][a][6][7][8]

### Psychology

[edit]

A.M. Hayes and G. Feldman have highlighted that mindfulness can be seen as a strategy that stands in contrast to a strategy of avoidance of emotion on the one hand and to the strategy of emotional over-engagement on the other hand.[61] Mindfulness can also be viewed as a means to develop self-knowledge and wisdom.[9]

#### Trait, state and practice

[edit]

According to Brown, Ryan, and Creswell, definitions of mindfulness are typically selectively interpreted based on who is studying it and how it is applied. Some have viewed mindfulness as a mental state, while others have viewed it as a set of skills and techniques.[62] A distinction can also be made between the state of mindfulness and the trait of mindfulness.[63]

According to David S. Black, whereas "mindfulness" originally was associated with esoteric beliefs and religion, and "a capacity attainable only by certain people",[64] scientific researchers have translated the term into measurable terms, providing a valid operational definition of mindfulness.[65][note 1] Black mentions three possible domains:[65]

1. A trait, a dispositional characteristic (a relatively long lasting trait),[65] a person's tendency to more frequently enter into and more easily abide in mindful states;[66]
2. A state, an outcome (a state of awareness resulting from mindfulness training),[65] being in a state of present-moment awareness;[66]
3. A practice (mindfulness meditation practice itself).[note 2]

#### Trait-like constructs

[edit]

According to Brown, mindfulness is:

> A quality of consciousness manifest in, but not isomorphic with, the activities through which it is enhanced."[62]

Several mindfulness measures have been developed which are based on self-reporting of trait-like constructs:[71]

* Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS)
* Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI)
* Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS)
* Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale (CAMS)
* Mindfulness Questionnaire (MQ)
* Revised Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale (CAMS-R)
* Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale (PHLMS)

#### State-like phenomenon

[edit]

According to Bishop, et alia, mindfulness is, "A kind of nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness in which each thought, feeling, or sensation that arises in the attentional field is acknowledged and accepted as it is."[72]

* The Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS) measures mindfulness as a state-like phenomenon, that is evoked and maintained by regular practice.[71]
* The State Mindfulness Scale (SMS) is a 21-item survey with an overall state mindfulness scale, and 2 sub-scales (state mindfulness of mind, and state mindfulness of body).[73]

#### Mindfulness-practice

[edit]

Mindfulness as a practice is described as:

* "Mindfulness is a way of paying attention that originated in Eastern meditation practices"[74]
* "Paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally"[5][a]
* "Bringing one's complete attention to the present experience on a moment-to-moment basis"[5]

According to Steven F. Hick, mindfulness practice involves both formal and informal meditation practices, and nonmeditation-based exercises.[75] Formal mindfulness, or meditation, is the practice of sustaining attention on body, breath or sensations, or whatever arises in each moment.[75] Informal mindfulness is the application of mindful attention in everyday life.[75] Nonmeditation-based exercises are specifically used in dialectical behavior therapy and in acceptance and commitment therapy.[75]

### Buddhism

[edit]

Secular mindfulness is derived from Buddhist meditation techniques, and ytranslates the terms sati and smriti.[9][76][62]

#### Sati and smṛti

[edit]

Main article: Sati (Buddhism)

The Buddhist term translated into English as "mindfulness" originates in the Pali term sati and in its Sanskrit counterpart smṛti. It is often translated as "bare attention", but in the Buddhist tradition it has a broader meaning and application, and the meaning of these terms has been the topic of extensive debate and discussion.[77]

According to Bryan Levman, "the word sati incorporates the meaning of 'memory' and 'remembrance' in much of its usage in both the suttas and the [traditional Buddhist] commentary, and ... without the memory component, the notion of mindfulness cannot be properly understood or applied, as mindfulness requires memory for its effectiveness".[78]

According to Robert Sharf, smṛti originally meant "to remember", "to recollect", "to bear in mind", as in the Vedic tradition of remembering the sacred texts. The term sati also means "to remember". In the Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta the term sati means to remember the dharmas, whereby the true nature of phenomena can be seen.[77] Sharf refers to the Milindapañha, which said that the arising of sati calls to mind the wholesome dhammas such as the four foundations of mindfulness, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening-factors, the noble eightfold path, and the attainment of insight.[79] According to Rupert Gethin,

> [sati] should be understood as what allows awareness of the full range and extent of dhammas; sati is an awareness of things in relation to things, and hence an awareness of their relative value. Applied to the satipaṭṭhānas, presumably what this means is that sati is what causes the practitioner of yoga to "remember" that any feeling he may experience exists in relation to a whole variety or world of feelings that may be skillful or unskillful, with faults or faultless, relatively inferior or refined, dark or pure."[80][note 3]

Sharf further notes that this has little to do with "bare attention", the popular contemporary interpretation of sati, "since it entails, among other things, the proper discrimination of the moral valence of phenomena as they arise."[80]

Georges Dreyfus has also expressed unease with the definition of mindfulness as "bare attention" or "nonelaborative, nonjudgmental, present-centered awareness", stressing that mindfulness in a Buddhist context also means "remembering", which indicates that the function of mindfulness also includes the retention of information.[81][note 4] Robert H. Sharf notes that Buddhist practice is aimed at the attainment of "correct view", not just "bare attention".[web 2][note 5] Jay L. Garfield, quoting Shantideva and other sources, stresses that mindfulness is constituted by the union of two functions, calling to mind and vigilantly retaining in mind. He demonstrates that there is a direct connection between the practice of mindfulness and the cultivation of morality—at least in the context of Buddhism, from which modern interpretations of mindfulness are stemming.[82]

#### Translation

[edit]

The Pali-language scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids (1843–1922) first translated sati in 1881 as English mindfulness in sammā-sati "Right Mindfulness; the active, watchful mind".[83] Noting that Daniel John Gogerly (1845) initially rendered sammā-sati as "correct meditation",[84] Davids said:

> sati is literally 'memory' but is used with reference to the constantly repeated phrase 'mindful and thoughtful' (sato sampajâno); and means that activity of mind and constant presence of mind which is one of the duties most frequently inculcated on the good Buddhist."[85]

#### Alternative translations

[edit]

John D. Dunne says that the translation of sati and smṛti as mindfulness is confusing. A number of Buddhist scholars have started trying to establish "retention" as the preferred alternative.[86] Bhikkhu Bodhi also describes the meaning of sati as "memory".[web 3][note 6] The terms sati/smṛti have been translated as:

* Attention (Jack Kornfield)
* Awareness
* Concentrated attention (Mahasi Sayadaw)
* Inspection (Herbert V. Günther)
* Mindful attention
* Mindfulness
* Recollecting mindfulness (Alexander Berzin)
* Recollection (Erik Pema Kunsang, Buddhadasa)
* Reflective awareness (Buddhadasa)
* Remindfulness (James H. Austin)[87]
* Retention
* Self-recollection (Jack Kornfield)

#### Memory

[edit]

The Pali word sati, which is commonly translated as mindfulness, also carries the connotation of memory. It is described in the early Buddhist texts not only as awareness of sense perceptions but also as recollection of the Buddha's teachings[88] and past events:

> Sati is required not only to fully take in the moment to be remembered, but also to bring this moment back to mind at a later time. [...] This twofold character of sati can also be found in some verses in the Sutta Nipāta, which instruct the listener to set out with sati, subsequent to an instruction given by the Buddha. In these instances sati seems to combine both present moment awareness and remembering what the Buddha had taught.[89]

According to American Buddhist monk Ven Bhante Vimalaramsi's book A Guide to Tranquil Wisdom Insight Meditation, the term mindfulness is often interpreted differently than what was originally formulated by the Buddha. In the context of Buddhism, he offers the following definition:

> Mindfulness means to remember to observe how mind's attention moves from one thing to another. The first part of Mindfulness is to remember to watch the mind and remember to return to your object of meditation when you have wandered off. The second part of Mindfulness is to observe how mind's attention moves from one thing to another.[90]

In Thich Nhat Hanh's lineage, mindfulness is closely intertwined with the concept of interbeing, the notion that all things are interconnected. This school of thought emphasizes awareness of the present moment and ethical living, reflecting the interconnected nature of existence.[91][92]

### Definitions arising in modern teaching of meditation

[edit]

Since the 1970s, most books on meditation use definitions of mindfulness similar to Jon Kabat-Zinn's definition as "present moment awareness". However, recently a number of teachers of meditation have proposed quite different definitions of mindfulness. Shinzen Young says a person is mindful when they have mindful awareness, and defines that to be when "concentration power, sensory clarity, and equanimity [are] working together."[web 4] John Yates (Culadasa) defines mindfulness to be "the optimal interaction between attention and peripheral awareness", where he distinguishes attention and peripheral awareness as two distinct modes in which one may be conscious of things.[93]

### Other uses

[edit]

The English term mindfulness already existed before it came to be used in a (western) Buddhist context. It was first recorded as myndfulness in 1530 (John Palsgrave translates French pensée), as mindfulnesse in 1561, and mindfulness in 1817. Morphologically earlier terms include mindful (first recorded in 1340), mindfully (1382), and the obsolete mindiness (c. 1200).[94]

According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, mindfulness may also refer to "a state of being aware".[web 5] Synonyms for this "state of being aware" are wakefulness,[95][96] attention,[web 6] alertness,[web 7] prudence,[web 7] conscientiousness,[web 7] awareness,[web 5] consciousness,[web 5] and observation.[web 5]

## Practice

[edit]

Mindfulness practice involves the process of developing the skill of bringing one's attention to whatever is happening in the present moment.[7][9][97]

### Watching the breath, body-scan and other techniques

[edit]

There are several exercises designed to develop mindfulness meditation, which may be aided by guided meditations "to get the hang of it".[11][98][note 7] As forms of self-observation and interoception, these methods increase awareness of the body, so they are usually beneficial to people with low self-awareness or low awareness of their bodies or emotional state. However, it may provoke anxiety, panic attacks, depression, and dissociation,[99][full citation needed] in people who are very focused on themselves, their bodies, and their emotions.[100]

* One method is to sit in a straight-backed chair or sit cross-legged on the floor, or a cushion, close one's eyes and bring attention to either the sensations of breathing in the proximity of one's nostrils or to the movements of the abdomen when breathing in and out.[5][web 8][101][page needed] In this meditation practice, one does not try to control one's breathing, but attempts to simply be aware of one's natural breathing process/rhythm.[7] When engaged in this practice, the mind will often run off to other thoughts and associations, if this happens, one passively notices that the mind has wandered, and in an accepting, but non-judgmental way, returns to focusing on breathing.
* In body-scan meditation the attention is directed at various areas of the body and noting body sensations that happen in the present moment.[5][7][web 9][web 10][web 11]
* One could also focus on sounds, sensations, thoughts, feelings and actions that happen in the present.[7][97] In this regard, a famous exercise, introduced by Kabat-Zinn in his MBSR program,[web 12] is the mindful tasting of a raisin,[102] in which a raisin is being tasted and eaten mindfully.[103][note 8] By enabling reconnection with internal hunger and satiety cues, mindful eating has been suggested to be a means of maintaining healthy and conscious eating patterns.[104]
* Other approaches include practicing yoga asanas while attending to movements and body sensations, and walking meditation.[5][7]

### Timings

[edit]

Meditators are recommended to start with short periods of 10 minutes or so of meditation practice per day. As one practices regularly, it becomes easier to keep the attention focused on breathing.[7][105] An old Zen saying suggests, "You should sit in meditation for 20 minutes every day — unless you're too busy. Then you should sit for an hour."

### In Buddhist context; moral precepts

[edit]

In a Buddhist context the keeping of moral precepts is an essential preparatory stage for mindfulness or meditation.[106][107] Vipassana also includes contemplation and reflection on phenomena as dukkha, anatta and anicca, and reflections on causation and other Buddhist teachings.[108][109]

## Models and frameworks for mindfulness practices

[edit]

### Two-component model

[edit]

A two-component model of mindfulness based upon a consensus among clinical psychologists has been proposed as an operational and testable definition,[72] :

> The first component involves the self-regulation of attention so that it is maintained on immediate experience, thereby allowing for increased recognition of mental events in the present moment. The second component involves adopting a particular orientation toward one's experiences in the present moment, an orientation that is characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance.[110]

In this two-component model, self-regulated attention (the first component) "involves bringing awareness to current experience—observing and attending to the changing fields of "objects" (thoughts, feelings, sensations), from moment to moment – by regulating the focus of attention". Orientation to experience (the second component) involves maintaining an attitude of curiosity about objects experienced at each moment, and about where and how the mind wanders when it drifts from the selected focus of attention. Clients are asked to avoid trying to produce a particular state (e.g. relaxation), but rather to just notice each object that arises in the stream of consciousness.[111]

### The five-aggregate model

[edit]

An ancient model of the mind, generally known as the five-aggregate model[76] enables one to understand the moment-to-moment manifestation of subjective conscious experience, and therefore can be a potentially useful theoretical resource to guide mindfulness interventions. This model is based upon the traditional buddhist description of the Skandhas.

The five aggregates are described as follows:

1. Material form: includes both the physical body and external matter where material elements are continuously moving to and from the material body.
2. Feelings: can be pleasant, unpleasant or neutral.
3. Perceptions: represent being aware of attributes of an object (e.g. color, shape, etc.)
4. Volition: represents bodily, verbal, or psychological behavior.
5. Sensory consciousness: refers to input from the five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touch sensations) or a thought that happens to arise in the mind.

This model describes how sensory consciousness results in the generation of feelings, perception or volition, and how individuals' previously conditioned attitudes and past associations influence this generation. The five aggregates are described as constantly arising and ceasing in the present moment.[76]

### Cultivating self-knowledge and wisdom

[edit]

The practice of mindfulness can be utilized to gradually develop self-knowledge and wisdom.[9] In this regard, Buddhist teachings provide detailed instructions on how one can carry out an inquiry into the nature of the mind, and this guidance can help one to make sense of one's subjective experience. This could include understanding what the "present moment" is, how various thoughts, etc., arise following input from the senses, the conditioned nature of thoughts, and other realizations.[9] In Buddhist teachings, ultimate wisdom refers to gaining deep insight into all phenomena or "seeing things as they are."[9][112]

## Historical development

[edit]

### Buddhism

[edit]

Mindfulness as a modern, Western practice is founded on Zen and modern Vipassanā,[11][12][note 9] and involves the training of sati, which means "moment to moment awareness of present events", but also "remembering to be aware of something".[115]

#### Early Buddhism

[edit]

Sati is one of the seven factors of enlightenment. "Correct" or "right" mindfulness (Pali: sammā-sati, Sanskrit samyak-smṛti) is the seventh element of the Noble Eightfold Path. Mindfulness is an antidote to delusion and is considered as a 'power' (Pali: bala) which contributes to the attainment of Nibbana. This faculty becomes a power in particular when it is coupled with clear comprehension of whatever is taking place. Nirvana is a state of being in which greed, hatred and delusion (Pali: moha) have been overcome and abandoned, and are absent from the mind.

According to Paul Williams, referring to Erich Frauwallner, mindfulness provided the way in Early Buddhism to liberation, "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths."[116][note 10] According to Vetter, Jhanas may have been the original core practice of the Buddha, which aided the maintenance of mindfulness.[117]

According to Thomas William Rhys Davids, the doctrine of mindfulness is "perhaps the most important" after the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. T.W. Rhys Davids viewed the teachings of Gotama Buddha as a rational technique for self-actualization and rejected a few parts of it, mainly the doctrine of rebirth, as residual superstitions.[118]

#### Zazen

[edit]

Main articles: Zazen and Shikantaza

The aim of zazen is just sitting, that is, suspending all judgmental thinking and letting words, ideas, images and thoughts pass by without getting involved in them.[119][120]

#### Contemporary Vipassana-meditation

[edit]

In modern vipassana-meditation, as propagated by the Vipassana movement, sati aids vipassana, insight into the true nature of reality, namely the three marks of existence, the impermanence of and the suffering of every conditioned thing that exists, and non-self.[9][121] With this insight, the practitioner becomes a so-called Sotāpanna, a "stream-enterer", the first stage on the path to liberation.[112][web 13][note 11]

Vipassana is practiced in tandem with Samatha, and also plays a central role in other Buddhist traditions.[121][122] According to the contemporary Theravada orthodoxy, Samatha is used as a preparation for Vipassanā, pacifying the mind and strengthening the concentration in order to allow the work of insight, which leads to liberation.

Vipassanā-meditation has gained popularity in the west through the modern Buddhist vipassana movement, modeled after Theravāda Buddhism meditation practices,[113] which employs vipassanā and ānāpāna meditation as its primary techniques and places emphasis on the teachings of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.

#### Anapanasati, satipaṭṭhāna, and vipassana

[edit]

Anapanasati is mindfulness of breathing. "Sati" means mindfulness; "ānāpāna" refers to inhalation and exhalation. Anapanasati means to feel the sensations caused by the movements of the breath in the body. The Anapanasati Sutta gives an exposition on this practice.[note 12]

Satipaṭṭhāna is the establishment of mindfulness in one's day-to-day life, maintaining as much as possible a calm awareness of one's body, feelings, mind, and dhammas. The practice of mindfulness supports analysis resulting in the arising of wisdom (Pali: paññā, Sanskrit: prajñā).[121]

#### Samprajaña, apramāda and atappa

[edit]

In contemporary Theravada practice, "mindfulness" also includes samprajaña, meaning "clear comprehension" and apramāda meaning "vigilance".[web 15][note 13] All three terms are sometimes (confusingly) translated as "mindfulness", but they all have specific shades of meaning.

In a publicly available correspondence between Bhikkhu Bodhi and B. Alan Wallace, Bodhi has described Ven. Nyanaponika Thera's views on "right mindfulness" and sampajañña as follows:

> He held that in the proper practice of right mindfulness, sati has to be integrated with sampajañña, clear comprehension, and it is only when these two work together that right mindfulness can fulfill its intended purpose.[123][note 14]

#### Monitoring mental processes

[edit]

According to Buddhadasa, the aim of mindfulness is to stop the arising of disturbing thoughts and emotions, which arise from sense-contact.[124]

According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā (foundations of mindfulness) have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations, but to the awareness of four different aspects of raising mindfulness:[125]

* the six sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);
* contemplation on vedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);
* the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);
* the development from the five hindrances to the seven factors of enlightenment (dhammānupassanā).

### Stoicism

[edit]

The Greek philosophical school of Stoicism founded by Zeno of Citium included practices resembling those of mindfulness, such as visualization exercises. In his Discourses, Stoic philosopher Epictetus addresses in particular the concept of attention (prosoche), an idea also found in Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.[126] By cultivating it over time, this skill would prevent the practitioner from becoming unattentive and moved by instinct rather than according to reason.[127]

### Christianity

[edit]

Mindfulness traditions are also found in some Christian spiritual traditions. In his Rules for Eating, St. Ignatius of Loyola teaches, "let him guard against all his soul being intent on what he is eating, and in eating let him not go hurriedly, through appetite, but be master of himself, as well in the manner of eating as in the quantity which he eats."[128] He might have been inspired by Epictetus' Enchiridion.[126]

### Transcendentalism

[edit]

Mindfulness practitioner Jon Kabat-Zinn refers to Thoreau as a predecessor of the interest in mindfulness, together with other eminent Transcendentalists such as Emerson and Whitman:[web 16]

> The collective experience[note 15] of sages, yogis, and Zen masters offers a view of the world which is complementary to the predominantly reductionist and materialistic one currently dominating Western thought and institutions. But this view is neither particularly "Eastern" nor mystical. Thoreau saw the same problem with our ordinary mind state in New England in 1846 and wrote with great passion about its unfortunate consequences.[web 16]

The forms of Asian religion and spirituality which were introduced in the west were themselves influenced by Transcendentalism and other 19th-century manifestations of Western esotericism. Transcendentalism was closely connected to the Unitarian Church,[129][web 17] which in India collaborated with Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) and his Brahmo Samaj.[129] He found that Unitarianism came closest to true Christianity,[129] and had a strong sympathy for the Unitarians.[130] This influence worked through on Vivekananda, whose modern but idiosyncratic interpretation of Hinduism became widely popular in the west.[131] Vipassana meditation, presented as a centuries-old meditation system, was a 19th-century reinvention,[132] which gained popularity in south-east due to the accessibility of the Buddhist sutras through English translations from the Pali Text Society.[113] It was brought to western attention in the 19th century by the Theosophical Society.[113][133] Zen Buddhism first gained popularity in the west through the writings of D.T. Suzuki, who attempted to present a modern interpretation of Zen, adjusted to western tastes.[113][113]

### Jon Kabat-Zinn and MBSR

[edit]

Further information: Mindful Yoga

In 1979, Jon Kabat-Zinn founded the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program at the University of Massachusetts to treat the chronically ill.[web 18] This program sparked the application of mindfulness ideas and practices in Medicine[134] for the treatment of a variety of conditions in both healthy and unhealthy people. MBSR and similar programs are now widely applied in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.

Mindfulness practices were inspired mainly by teachings from the Eastern World, particularly from Buddhist traditions. Kabat-Zinn was first introduced to meditation by Philip Kapleau, a Zen missionary who came to speak at MIT where Kabat-Zinn was a student. Kabat-Zinn went on to study meditation with other Zen-Buddhist teachers such as Thích Nhất Hạnh and Seungsahn.[12] He also studied at the Insight Meditation Society and eventually taught there.[12] One of MBSR's techniques—the "body scan"—was derived from a meditation practice ("sweeping") of the Burmese U Ba Khin tradition, as taught by S. N. Goenka in his Vipassana retreats, which he began in 1976. The body scan method has since been widely adapted to secular settings, independent of religious or cultural contexts.[note 16][note 17]

Kabat-Zinn was also influenced by the book The Varieties of Religious Experience by William James[135] which suggests that religions point toward the same experience, and which 1960s counterculture figures interpreted as meaning that the same universal, experiential truth could be reached in different ways, including via non-religious activities.[web 19]

### Popularization, "mindfulness movement"

[edit]

Mindfulness is gaining a growing popularity as a practice in daily life, apart from Buddhist insight meditation and its application in clinical psychology.[105] In this context mindfulness is defined as moment-by-moment awareness of thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations, and surrounding environment, characterized mainly by "acceptance"—attention to thoughts and feelings without judging whether they are right or wrong. Mindfulness focuses the human brain on what is being sensed at each moment, instead of on its normal rumination on the past or the future.[web 20] Mindfulness may be seen as a mode of being,[web 21] and can be practiced outside a formal setting.[web 22] The terminology used by scholars of religion, scientists, journalists, and popular media writers to describe this movement of mindfulness "popularization," and the many new contexts of mindfulness practice which have cropped up, has regularly evolved over the past 20 years, with some[which?] criticisms arising.[136] It has also recently been a common trend to see among sport teams, with mindfulness practices being integrated as parts of teams routines.[web 23]

The latest changes when people moved from real-life meditation sessions to the applications on their smart devices has been even more accelerated by the global pandemic. Modern applications are adapting to the needs of their users by using AI technology, involving professional psychologists and offering many different mindfulness approaches to serve a wider audience, such as among athletes.[137]

## Applications

[edit]

According to Jon Kabat-Zinn the practice of mindfulness may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary.[138] Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins.[5] Programs based on MBSR and similar models have been widely adopted in schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans centers, and other environments.[139]

### Therapy programs

[edit]

#### Mindfulness-based stress reduction

[edit]

Main article: Mindfulness-based stress reduction

Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) is a mindfulness-based program[web 24] developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center, which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, body awareness, and yoga to help people become more mindful.[7] While MBSR has its roots in spiritual teachings, the program itself is secular.[7]

#### Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy

[edit]

Main article: Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) is a psychological therapy designed to aid in preventing the relapse of depression, specifically in individuals with Major depressive disorder (MDD).[140] It uses traditional cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) methods and adds in newer psychological strategies such as mindfulness and mindfulness meditation. Cognitive methods can include educating the participant about depression.[141] Mindfulness and mindfulness meditation focus on becoming aware of all incoming thoughts and feelings and accepting them, but not attaching or reacting to them.[142]

Like CBT, MBCT functions on the theory that when individuals who have historically had depression become distressed, they return to automatic cognitive processes that can trigger a depressive episode.[143] The goal of MBCT is to interrupt these automatic processes and teach the participants to focus less on reacting to incoming stimuli, and instead accepting and observing them without judgment.[143] This mindfulness practice allows the participant to notice when automatic processes are occurring and to alter their reaction to be more of a reflection. Research supports the effects of MBCT in people who have been depressed three or more times and demonstrates reduced relapse rates by 50%.[144]

#### Mindfulness-based pain management

[edit]

Main article: Mindfulness-based pain management

Mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM) is a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) providing specific applications for people living with chronic pain and illness.[web 25][145] Adapting the core concepts and practices of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), MBPM includes a distinctive emphasis on the practice of 'loving-kindness', and has been seen as sensitive to concerns about removing mindfulness teaching from its original ethical framework.[145][146] It was developed by Vidyamala Burch and is delivered through the programs of Breathworks.[web 25][145] It has been subject to a range of clinical studies demonstrating its effectiveness.[145][147][148][149][150][151][152][153]

#### Acceptance and commitment therapy

[edit]

Main article: Acceptance and commitment therapy

Acceptance and commitment therapy or (ACT) (typically pronounced as the word "act") is a form of clinical behavior analysis (CBA)[154] used in psychotherapy. It is a psychological intervention that uses acceptance and mindfulness strategies mixed in different ways[155] with commitment and behavior-change strategies, to increase psychological flexibility. The approach was originally called comprehensive distancing.[156] It was developed in the late 1980s[157] by Steven C. Hayes, Kelly G. Wilson, and Kirk Strosahl.[158]

#### Dialectical behavior therapy

[edit]

Main article: Dialectical behavior therapy

Mindfulness is a "core" exercise used in dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), a psychosocial treatment Marsha M. Linehan developed for treating people with borderline personality disorder. DBT is dialectic, says Linehan,[159] in the sense of "the reconciliation of opposites in a continual process of synthesis." As a practitioner of Buddhist meditation techniques, Linehan says:

> This emphasis in DBT on a balance of acceptance and change owes much to my experiences in studying meditation and Eastern spirituality. The DBT tenets of observing, mindfulness, and avoidance of judgment are all derived from the study and practice of Zen meditations.[160]

#### Mode deactivation therapy

[edit]

Main article: Mode deactivation therapy

Mode deactivation therapy (MDT) is a treatment methodology that is derived from the principles of cognitive-behavioral therapy and incorporates elements of Acceptance and commitment therapy, Dialectical behavior therapy, and mindfulness techniques.[161] Mindfulness techniques such as simple breathing exercises are applied to assist the client in awareness and non-judgmental acceptance of unpleasant and distressing thoughts and feelings as they occur in the present moment. Mode Deactivation Therapy was developed and is established as an effective treatment for adolescents with problem behaviors and complex trauma-related psychological problems, according to recent publications by Jack A. Apsche and Joan Swart.[162]

#### Other programs

[edit]

Morita therapy

The Japanese psychiatrist Shoma Morita, who trained in Zen meditation, developed Morita therapy upon principles of mindfulness and non-attachment.[163]

IFS

Internal Family Systems Model (IFS), developed by Richard C. Schwartz, emphasizes the importance of both therapist and client engaging in therapy from the Self, which is the IFS term for one's "spiritual center". The Self is curious about whatever arises in one's present experience and open and accepting toward all manifestations.[164]

Mindfulness relaxation

Mindfulness relaxation uses breathing methods, guided imagery, and other practices to relax the body and mind and help reduce stress.[165]

### Schools

[edit]

In 2012 Congressman Tim Ryan of Ohio published A Mindful Nation, and received a $1 million federal grant to teach mindfulness in schools in his home district.[105]

Mindful Kids Miami is a tax-exempt, 501 (c)(3), non-profit corporation established in 2011 dedicated to making age-appropriate mindfulness training available to school children in Miami-Dade County public and private schools. This is primarily accomplished by training educators and other childcare providers to incorporate mindfulness practices in the children's daily activities.[166]

In 2000, The Inner Kids Program, a mindfulness-based program developed for children, was introduced into public and private school curricula in the greater Los Angeles area.[167]

MindUP, a classroom-based program spearheaded by Goldie Hawn's Hawn Foundation, teaches students to self-regulate behavior and mindfully engage in focused concentration required for academic success. For the last decade, MindUP has trained teachers in over 1,000 schools in cities from Arizona to Washington.[168]

The Holistic Life Foundation, a non-profit organization that created an in-school mindfulness program called Mindful Moment, is currently serving almost 350 students daily at Robert W. Coleman Elementary School and approximately 1300 students at Patterson Park High School in Baltimore, Maryland. At Patterson High School, the Mindful Moment program engages the school's faculty along with the students during a 15-minute mindfulness practice at the beginning and end of each school day.[169]

Mindful Life Project, a non-profit 501(c)3 based out of Richmond, California, teaches mindfulness to elementary school students in underserved schools in the South Richmond school district. Utilizing curriculum, "Rise-Up" is a regular school day intervention program serving 430 students weekly, while "Mindful Community" is currently implemented at six South Richmond partner schools. These in-school mindfulness programs have been endorsed by Richmond Mayor Gayle McLaughlin, who has recommended additional funding to expand the program in order to serve all Richmond youth.[citation needed]

### Education

[edit]

Mindfulness practices are becoming more common within educational institutions including Elementary and Secondary schools. This has been referred to as part of a 'contemplative turn' in education that has emerged since the turn of the millennium.[170] The applications of mindfulness in schools are aimed at calming and relaxation of students as well as for students and educators to build compassion and empathy for others.[171] An additional benefit to Mindfulness in education is for the practice to reduce anxiety and stress in students.[172] Based on a broad meta-analytical review, scholars said that the application of mindfulness practice enhances the goals of education in the 21st century, which include adapting to a rapidly changing world and being a caring and committed citizen. Within educational systems, the application of mindfulness practices shows an improvement of students' attention and focus, emotional regulation, creativity, and problem solving skills.[173] As discussed by Ergas and Todd, the development of this field since the turn of the millennium has brought diverse possibilities as well as complexities, given the origins of mindfulness within Buddhism and the processes of its secularization and measurement based on science.[139]

Renshaw and Cook state, "As scientific interest in the utility of Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) in schools grew steadily, popular interest in mindfulness in schools seemed to grow exponentially".[174] Despite research on mindfulness being comparatively unexamined, especially with young students, the practice has seen a spike in use within the educational arena. "A relatively recent addition to discourse around preventing school expulsion and failure, mindfulness is gaining popularity for its potential to improve students' social, emotional, behavioral, and learning-related cognitive control, thereby improving academic outcomes".[175] Researchers and educators are interested in how mindfulness can provide optimal conditions for a students' personal development and academic success. Current research on mindfulness in education is limited but can provide insight into the potential benefits for students, and areas of improvement for future studies.[31][176]

Mindfulness in the classroom is being touted as a promising new intervention tool for young students. According to Choudhury and Moses, "Although still marginal and in some cases controversial, secular programs of mindfulness have been implemented with ambitious goals of improving attentional focus of pupils, social-emotional learning in "at-risk" children and youth, not least, to intervene in problems of poverty and incarceration".[177] Emerging research is concerned with studying teachers and programs using mindfulness practices with students and is discovering tension arising from the moral reframing of eastern practices in western school settings. As cited by Renshaw and Cook, "Unlike most other approaches to contemporary school-based intervention, which are squarely grounded in behavioral, cognitive-behavioral, and ecological systems theories, MBIs have their origins in Eastern religious traditions".[174] Some school administrators are concerned about implementing such practices, and parents have been reported to take their children out of mindfulness programs because of their personal religious beliefs. Yet, MBIs continue to be accepted by the mainstream in both primary and secondary schools because, "Mindfulness practices, particularly in relation to children who might otherwise be considered broken or unredeemable, fill a critical niche – one that allows its advocates to imagine a world where people can change, become more compassionate, resilient, reflective, and aware; a world with a viable future".[177] As mindfulness in education continues to develop, ethical consequences will remain a controversial issue because the generic description for the "benefits" and "results" of MBIs are largely concerned with individual and inward-focused achievement, rather than the original Buddhist ideal of global human connection.

Available research reveals a relationship between mindfulness and attention. Semple, Lee, Rosa, & Miller say, "Anxiety can impair attention and promote emotionally reactive behaviors that interfere with the development of good study skills, so it seems reasonable that increased mindfulness would be associated with less anxiety".[178] They conducted a randomized trial of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Children (MBCT-C) that found promise in managing anxiety for elementary school-aged children, and suggests that those who completed the program displayed fewer attention problems. In addition, Flook shows how an eight-week mindfulness awareness program was evaluated in a random and controlled school setting and measured the effects of awareness practices on executive functions in elementary school children. Their findings concluded, "Participation in the mindfulness awareness program was associated with improvements in behavioral regulation, metacognition, and overall executive functions".[179] In the study by Flook, parents and teachers completed questionnaires which propose that participation in mindfulness programs is associated with improvements in child behavioral regulation. These perspectives are a valuable source of data given that caregivers and educators interact with the children daily and across a variety of settings. According to Eklund, Omalley, and Meyer, "School-based practitioners should find promise in the evidence supporting mindfulness-based practices with children, parents, and educators".[175] Lastly, a third study by Zenner, Herrnleben-Kurz, and Walach concluded, "Analysis suggest that mindfulness-based interventions for children and youths are able to increase cognitive capacity of attending and learning by nearly one standard deviation and yield".[173] Application of Mindfulness-Based Interventions continue to increase in popularity and practice.[citation needed][180]

Mindfulness-Based Interventions are rising across western culture, but its effectiveness in school programs is still being determined. Research contends, "Mindfulness-based approaches for adults are effective at enhancing mental health, but few controlled trials have evaluated their effectiveness among young people".[181] Although much of the available studies find a high number of mindfulness acceptability among students and teachers, more research needs to be conducted on its effects on well-being and mental health for students. In a firmly controlled experiment, Johnson, Burke, Brinkman, and Wade evaluated "the impact of an existing and widely available school-based mindfulness program". According to their research, "no improvements were demonstrated on any outcome measured either immediately post-intervention or at three-month follow-up".[182] Many questions remain on which practices best implement effective and reliable mindfulness programs at schools, and further research is needed to identify the optimal methods and measurement tools for mindfulness in education.[citation needed]

### Business

[edit]

Mindfulness training appears to be getting popular in the business world, and many large corporations have been incorporating mindfulness practices into their culture.[183][184][185] For example, companies such as Google, Apple, Procter & Gamble, General Mills, Mayo Clinic, and the U.S. Army offer mindfulness coaching, meditation breaks and other resources to their employees to improve workplace functioning.[183][186]

The introduction of mindfulness in corporate settings still remains in early stages and its potential long-term impact requires further assessment. Mindfulness has been found to result in better employee well-being,[187] lower levels of frustration, lower absenteeism and burnout as well as an improved overall work environment.[186]

### Law

[edit]

Legal and law enforcement organizations are also showing interest in mindfulness:[188]

* Harvard Law School's Program on Negotiation hosted a workshop on "Mindfulness in the Law & Alternative Dispute Resolution."[189]
* Many law firms offer mindfulness classes.[185]

### Prison-programs

[edit]

Mindfulness has been taught in prisons, reducing hostility and mood disturbance among inmates, and improving their self-esteem.[190] Additional studies indicate that mindfulness interventions can result in significant reductions in anger, reductions in substance use, increased relaxation capacity, self-regulation and optimism.[191][192]

### Government

[edit]

Many government organizations offer mindfulness training.[193] Coping Strategies is an example of a program utilized by United States Armed Forces personnel.[citation needed] The British Parliament organized a mindfulness-session for its members in 2014, led by Ruby Wax.[web 26]

## Scientific research

[edit]

Main articles: Research on meditation, Neural mechanisms of mindfulness meditation, and Brain activity and meditation

### Effects and efficacy of mindfulness practice

[edit]

Mindfulness has gained increasing empirical attention since 1970[15][139] and has been studied often as an intervention for stress reduction.[24][194] Meta analyses indicate its beneficial effects for healthy adults,[17][195][196] for adolescents and children,[173][31] as well as for different health-related outcomes including weight management,[197][198][199] psychiatric conditions,[200][201][202] heart disease,[59][53] sleep disorders,[203][204][205] cancer care,[206][207][208][209] adult autism treatment,[210] multiple sclerosis,[211][212] and other health-related conditions.[213][214][215] An often-cited meta-analysis on meditation research published in JAMA in 2014,[216] found insufficient evidence of any effect of meditation programs on positive mood, attention, substance use, eating habits, sleep, and weight, but found that there is moderate evidence that meditation reduces anxiety, depression, and pain. However, this study included a highly heterogeneous group of meditation styles (i.e., it did not focus exclusively on mindfulness meditation), which is a significant limitation of this study. Additionally, while mindfulness is well known to have positive psychological effects among individuals diagnosed with various types of cancers,[209] the evidence is unclear regarding its effectiveness in men with prostate cancer.[208]

Thousands of studies on meditation have been conducted, though the methodological quality of some of the studies is poor. Recent reviews have described many of these issues.[8][page needed][33][217] Nonetheless, mindfulness meditation is a popular subject for research, and many present potential benefits for a wide array of conditions and outcomes. For example, the practice of mindfulness has also been used to improve athletic performance,[218][28] as a beneficial intervention for children with special needs and their caregivers,[219][220][221] as a viable treatment option for people with insomnia[222][223] an effective intervention for healthy aging,[224][225][226] as a strategy for managing dermatological conditions[227] and as a useful intervention during early pregnancy.[228][229][230] Recent studies have also demonstrated that mindfulness meditation significantly attenuates physical pain through multiple, unique mechanisms.[231] Meditation also may allow one to modulate pain. When exposed to pain from heating, the brain scans of the mindfulness meditation participants (by use of functional magnetic resonance imaging) showed their brains notice the pain equally, however it does not get converted to a perceived pain signal. As such they experienced up to 40–50% less pain.[232]

Research has also investigated mindful movements and mindful exercises for different patient populations.[233][234]

Mindfulness practices have also been associated with the development of psychological resilience. Regular mindfulness meditation can help individuals facing trauma or chronic stress to regulate emotions, reduce rumination, and strengthen adaptive coping mechanisms.[235]

### Neurological studies

[edit]

Research studies have also focused on the effects of mindfulness on the brain using neuroimaging techniques, physiological measures and behavioral tests.[8][page needed][194][236] Research on the neural perspective of how mindfulness meditation works suggests that it exerts its effects in components of attention regulation, body awareness and emotional regulation.[237] When considering aspects such as sense of responsibility, authenticity, compassion, self-acceptance and character, studies have shown that mindfulness meditation contributes to a more coherent and healthy sense of self and identity.[238][239] Neuroimaging techniques suggest that mindfulness practices such as mindfulness meditation are associated with "changes in the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, temporo-parietal junction, fronto-limbic network and default mode network structures."[237][240] Further, mindfulness meditation may prevent or delay the onset of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.[241] Additionally, mindfulness-induced emotional and behavioral changes have been found to be related to functional and structural changes in the brain.[240][242] It has also been suggested that the default mode network of the brain can be used as a potential biomarker for monitoring the therapeutic benefits of meditation.[243] Recent research also suggest that the practice of mindfulness could influence genetic expression leading to a reduced risk of inflammation-related diseases and favourable changes in biomarkers.[244][245]

Grey matter concentrations in brain regions that regulate emotion, self-referential processing, learning and memory processes have shown changes in density following MBSR.[246][243] Additionally, MBSR practice has been associated with improvement of the immune system[8][page needed][55] which could explain the correlation between stress reduction and increased quality of life.[247] Part of these changes are a result of the thickening of the prefrontal cortex (executive functioning) and hippocampus (learning and memorisation ability), the shrinking of the amygdala (emotion and stress response) and the strengthening of the connections between brain cells.[248][249][250][251] Long-term meditators have larger amounts of gyrification ("folding" of the cortex, which may allow the brain to process information faster) than people who do not meditate. Further, a direct correlation was found between the amount of gyrification and the number of meditation years, possibly providing further proof of the brain's neuroplasticity, or ability to adapt to environmental changes.[248]

### Associations of mindfulness with other variables

[edit]

Mindfulness (as a trait, distinguished from mindfulness practice) has been linked to many outcomes. In an overview,[34] Keng, Smoski, and Robins summarize: "Trait mindfulness has been associated with higher levels of life satisfaction, agreeableness, conscientiousness, vitality, self esteem, empathy, sense of autonomy, competence, optimism, and pleasant affect. A 2020 study found links between dispositional mindfulness and prosocial behavior.[252] Studies have also demonstrated significant negative correlations between mindfulness and depression, neuroticism, absentmindedness, dissociation, rumination, cognitive reactivity, social anxiety, difficulties in emotion regulation, experiential avoidance, alexithymia, intensity of delusional experience in the context of psychosis, and general psychological symptoms." (References to underlying studies omitted from quotation.)

### Effects on mindfulness

[edit]

The mechanisms that make people less or more mindful have been researched less than the effects of mindfulness programmes, so little is known about which components of mindfulness practice are relevant for promoting mindfulness. For example, meta-analyses have shown that mindfulness practice does increase mindfulness when compared to active control groups.[31][196] This may be because we do not know how to measure mindfulness. It could also be that mindfulness is dose-dependent and increases with more experience.[253][254] To counter that, Bergomi et al.[255] found that "results provide evidence for the associations between self-reported mindfulness and meditation practice and suggest that mindfulness is particularly associated with continued practice in the present, rather than with accumulated practice over years."

Some research into other mechanisms has been done. One study[256] conceptualized such mechanisms in terms of competition for attention. In a test of that framework, mindfulness was found to be associated (as predicted) with having an activated intention to be mindful, with feeling good, and with not being hurried or very busy. Regarding the relationship between feeling good and being mindful, a different study[257] found that causality probably works both ways: feeling good increases mindfulness, and mindfulness increases feeling good.

One theory suggests an additional mechanism termed as reperceiving. Reperceiving is the beneficial effect that comes after the process of being mindful after all the intention, attention, and attitude has been experienced. Through reperceiving there is a shift in perspective. Reperceiving permits disassociation from thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations, and allows one to exist with them instead of being defined by them.[258]

## Adverse effects

[edit]

Main article: Effects of meditation § Potential adverse effects and limits of meditation

Meditation (of which mindfulness is just a version) has also been correlated with unpleasant experiences.[259][260][261][262] In some cases, it has also been linked to psychosis and suicide.[263][264][265][266] Both the soundness of its scientific foundations and the desirability of its societal effects have been questioned.[267][268][269][270]

In one study, published in 2019, of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences (such as anxiety, fear, distorted emotions or thoughts, altered sense of self or the world), which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice. Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation were more likely to report unpleasant side effects. Adverse effects were less frequently reported in women and religious meditators.[271]

Another study from 2021 on the effects of mindfulness-based programs (MBPs) found negative side-effects in 37% of the sample while lasting bad effects in 6–14% of the sample.[272] Most of the side effects were related to signs of dysregulated arousal (i.e., hyperarousal and dissociation). The majority of these adverse events occurred as a result of regular practice at home or during class, something that challenges the notion that it is only intense practice that can give rise to negative experiences; as it turns out intense all-day retreats or working with difficulty practice accounts for only 6% of adverse effects. The symptoms most readily recognized as negative were those of hyperarousal (e.g., anxiety and insomnia). On the other hand,

> while dissociation symptoms (e.g., emotional blunting, derealization, and self-disturbance) were both less frequent and less likely to be appraised as negative, they were still associated with more than 5–10 times greater risk for lasting bad effects… This means that re-appraisal of dissociative symptoms via non-judgmental acceptance is not sufficient to prevent impairment in functioning and should not constitute the only response. Instead, training in how to recognize dissociative symptoms as potential indicators of the need for intervention, which have recently been added to some mindfulness teacher training programs may be important.[273]

There is also mounting evidence that meditation can disturb various prosocial behaviors. By blunting emotions, in particular the social emotions of guilt and shame, it may produce deficits in the feelings of empathy and remorse thus creating calm but callous practitioners. In one study with 1400 participants researchers found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors.[274] Another study found that meditation can increase the trait of selfishness. The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects.[275] These new findings about meditations socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use meditation as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, “If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships”.[276]

Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources; and some may be considered to be an expected part of the process, e.g., seven stages of purification mentioned in Theravāda Buddhism. Possible "unwholesome or frightening visions" are mentioned in a practical manual on vipassanā meditation.[277] Classical sources have various terms for "meditation sickness" and related difficulties, such as zouhuorumo (走火入魔; 'fire possession'), chanbing (禪病; 'Chan disease') and mojing (魔境; 'demonic states').[278]

An article from the Journal of Buddhist Ethics states,

> Problematic experiences such as strange sensations, unexplained pains, psychological instability, undesired hallucinations, sexual anomalies, uncontrollable behaviors, demonic possession, suicidality, and so forth seem to be quite well-known and well-documented across traditions.[278]

## Concerns and criticism

[edit]

### Scholarly research

[edit]

Many of the above cited review studies also indicate the necessity for more high-quality research in this field such as conducting intervention studies using larger sample sizes, the use of more randomized controlled studies and the need for providing more methodological details in reported studies.[8][page needed][34] The majority of studies also either measure mindfulness as a trait, and in research that use mindfulness interventions in clinical practice, the lack of true randomisation poses a problem for understanding the true effectiveness of mindfulness. Experimental methods using randomised samples, though, suggest that mindfulness as a state or temporary practice can influence felt emotions such as disgust and promote abstract decision-making.[279][280][281] There are also a few review studies that have found little difference between mindfulness interventions and control groups, though they did also indicate that their intervention group was treated too briefly for the research to be conclusive.[282][283] In some domains, such as sport, a lack of internal validity across studies prevents any strong claims being made about the effects of mindfulness.[28] These studies also list the need for more robust research investigations. Several issues pertaining to the assessment of mindfulness have also been identified including the current use of self-report questionnaires.[8][page needed][34][284] Potential for bias also exists to the extent that researchers in the field are also practitioners and possibly subject to pressures to publish positive or significant results.[11]

Various scholars have criticized how mindfulness has been defined or represented in recent Western psychology publications.[72][285] These modern understandings depart significantly from the accounts of mindfulness in early Buddhist texts and authoritative commentaries in the Theravada and Indian Mahayana traditions.[285]: 62 [286] Adam Valerio has introduced the idea that conflict between academic disciplines over how mindfulness is defined, understood, and popularly presented may be indicative of a personal, institutional, or paradigmatic battle for ownership over mindfulness, one where academics, researchers, and other writers are invested as individuals in much the same way as religious communities.[136]

### Shortcomings

[edit]

The popularization of mindfulness as a "commodity"[web 27] has been criticized, being termed "McMindfulness" by some critics.[web 28][web 29][287] According to Harrington and Dunne, critics argue that "Mindfulness [...] was never supposed to be about weight loss, better sex, helping children perform better in school, helping employees be more productive in the workplace, or even improving the functioning of anxious, depressed people. It was never supposed to be a merchandized commodity to be bought and sold."[15] According to John Safran, the popularity of mindfulness is the result of a marketing strategy:[web 27] "McMindfulness is the marketing of a constructed dream; an idealized lifestyle; an identity makeover."[288][web 27] The psychologist Thomas Joiner says that modern mindfulness meditation has been "corrupted" for commercial gain by self-help celebrities, and suggests that it encourages unhealthy narcissistic and self-obsessed mindsets.[289][290]

According to Purser and Loy, mindfulness is not being used as a means to awaken to insight in the "unwholesome roots of greed, ill will and delusion,"[web 28] but reshaped into a "banal, therapeutic, self-help technique" that has the opposite effect of reinforcing those passions.[web 28] While mindfulness is marketed as a means to reduce stress, in a Buddhist context it is part of an all-embracing ethical program to foster "wise action, social harmony, and compassion."[web 28] The privatization of mindfulness neglects the societal and organizational causes of stress and discomfort, instead propagating adaptation to these circumstances.[web 28] According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, "[A]bsent a sharp social critique, Buddhist practices could easily be used to justify and stabilize the status quo, becoming a reinforcement of consumer capitalism."[web 28] The popularity of this new brand of mindfulness has resulted in the commercialization of meditation through self-help books, guided meditation classes, and mindfulness retreats.

> Mindfulness is said to be a $4bn industry. More than 60,000 books for sale on Amazon have a variant of "mindfulness" in their title, touting the benefits of Mindful Parenting, Mindful Eating, Mindful Teaching, Mindful Therapy, Mindful Leadership, Mindful Finance, a Mindful Nation, and Mindful Dog Owners, to name just a few.[291]

Buddhist commentators have criticized the movement as being presented as equivalent to Buddhist practice, while in reality it is very possibly denatured with undesirable consequences, such as being ungrounded in the traditional reflective morality and therefore, astray from traditional Buddhist ethics. Criticisms suggest it to be either de-moralized or re-moralized into clinically based ethics. The conflict is often presented with concern to the teacher's credentials and qualifications, rather than the student's actual practice. Reformed Buddhist-influenced practices are being standardized and manualized in a distinct separation from Buddhism - which is seen as a religion based in monastic temples - and expressed as “mindfulness” in a new psychology ethic, practiced in modern meditation centers.[292]

## See also

[edit]

* Alexander Technique
* Affect labeling
* Buddhism and psychology
* Buddhist meditation
* Choiceless awareness
* Coping (psychology)
* Coping Planning
* Eternal Now (New Age)
* Four stages of competence
* Full Catastrophe Living
* John Garrie
* Richard Geller
* S.N. Goenka
* Henepola Gunaratana
* Dennis Lewis
* Mahasati Meditation
* Metacognition
* Mindfulness (journal)
* Mindfulness and technology
* Mindfulness Day
* Mindful Education
* Mindful yoga
* Mindstream
* Murder Mindfully
* Nonviolent communication
* Nepsis
* Ovsiankina effect
* Phronesis
* Sacca
* Satya
* Satyagraha
* Sampajanna
* Samu (Zen)
* Satipatthana
* Self-compassion
* Taqwa and dhikr, related Islamic concepts
* Thích Nhất Hạnh
* Transcendental Meditation
* Watchfulness (Christian)
* Hasidic Meditation

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b c Baer cites Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994): Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York: Hyperion, p.4.
2. ^ While translated as "mindfulness," and often interpreted as "bare attention," the term sati has broader connotations: "memory,"(PTS) "retention,"(Dreyfus 2013, pp. 44–48) "mindfulness, alertness, self-possession."(PTS) In a Buddhist context it has a wider meaning and purpose, related to vipassana, namely Sampajañña discerning what is beneficial and what is not, and calming the mind by this discernment (Polak 2011, pp. 153–56, Williams & Tribe 2000, p. 46, Buddhadasa Bhikkhu 2014, pp. 79, 101, 117 note 42 Though definitions and techniques of mindfulness are wide-ranging (Thompson 2020, p. 120), Buddhist traditions describe what constitutes mindfulness, such as how perceptions of the past, present and future arise and cease as momentary sense-impressions and mental phenomena (Karunamuni & Weerasekera 2019, Analayo 2003, Bhikkhu Bodhi).
3. ^ Mindfulness practice has been employed to reduce depression,[16][17][18][19][20] stress,[17][21][20] anxiety,[16][17][22][20] and in the treatment of drug addiction.[23][24][25] Programs based on mindfulness models have been adopted within schools, prisons, hospitals, veterans' centers, and other environments,[26][27] and mindfulness programs have been applied for additional outcomes such as for healthy aging, weight management, athletic performance,[28] helping children with special needs, and as an intervention during early pregnancy.
4. ^ Studies have shown a positive relationship between trait mindfulness (which can be cultivated through the practice of mindfulness-based interventions) and psychological health.[33][34] The practice of mindfulness appears to provide therapeutic benefits to people with psychiatric disorders,[35][36][37] including moderate benefits to those with psychosis.[38][39][40] Studies also indicate that rumination and worry contribute to a variety of mental disorders,[41][42] and that mindfulness-based interventions can enhance trait mindfulness[43] and reduce both rumination and worry.[42][44][45] Further, the practice of mindfulness may be a preventive strategy to halt the development of mental-health problems.[46][47][48] Mindfulness practices have been said to enable individuals to respond more effectively to stressful situations by helping them strike the balance between over-identification and suppression of their emotional experiences by finding the middle point which is recognition and acceptance.[49]
5. ^ For example, the psychological habit of repeatedly dwelling on stressful thoughts appears to intensify the physiological effects of the stressor (as a result of the continual activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis) with the potential to lead to physical-health-related clinical manifestations.[50][51][52] Studies indicate that mindfulness meditation, which brings about reductions in rumination, may alter these biological clinical pathways.[50][42][53] Further, research indicates that mindfulness may favorably influence the immune system[54] as well as inflammation,[8][page needed][55][56] which can consequently impact physical health, especially considering that inflammation has been linked to the development of several chronic health conditions.[57][58] Other studies support these findings.[53][59][60]

1. ^ Black: "[S]everal decades of research methodology and scientific discovery have defrayed these myths; mindfulness is now widely considered to be an inherent quality of human consciousness. That is, a capacity of attention and awareness oriented to the present moment that varies in degree within and between individuals, and can be assessed empirically and independent of religious, spiritual, or cultural beliefs.[64]
2. ^ "Mindfulness meditation" may refer to either the secular, western practice of mindfulness,[67] or to modern Buddhist Vipassana-meditation.[68][69][70]
3. ^ Quotes from Gethin, Rupert M.L. (1992), The Buddhist Path to Awakening: A Study of the Bodhi-Pakkhiȳa Dhammā. Brill's Indological Library, 7. Leiden and New York: Brill
4. ^ Dreyfus concludes his examination by stating: "[T]he identification of mindfulness with bare attention ignores or, at least, underestimates the cognitive implications of mindfulness, its ability to bring together various aspects of experience so as to lead to the clear comprehension of the nature of mental and bodily states. By over-emphasizing the nonjudgmental nature of mindfulness and arguing that our problems stem from conceptuality, contemporary authors are in danger of leading to a one-sided understanding of mindfulness as a form of therapeutically helpful spacious quietness. I think that it is important not to lose sight that mindfulness is not just a therapeutic technique but is a natural capacity that plays a central role in the cognitive process. It is this aspect that seems to be ignored when mindfulness is reduced to a form of nonjudgmental present-centered form of awareness of one's experiences.[81]
5. ^ Sharf: "Mahasi's technique did not require familiarity with Buddhist doctrine (notably abhidhamma), did not require adherence to strict ethical norms (notably monasticism), and promised astonishingly quick results. This was made possible through interpreting sati as a state of "bare awareness"—the unmediated, non-judgmental perception of things "as they are," uninflected by prior psychological, social, or cultural conditioning. This notion of mindfulness is at variance with premodern Buddhist epistemologies in several respects. Traditional Buddhist practices are oriented more toward acquiring "correct view" and proper ethical discernment, rather than "no view" and a non-judgmental attitude."[web 2]
6. ^ "The word derives from a verb, sarati, meaning "to remember," and occasionally in Pali sati is still explained in a way that connects it with the idea of memory. But when it is used in relation to meditation practice, we have no word in English that precisely captures what it refers to. An early translator cleverly drew upon the word mindfulness, which is not even in my dictionary. This has served its role admirably, but it does not preserve the connection with memory, sometimes needed to make sense of a passage.[web 3]
7. ^ Kabat-Zinn, in Full Catastrophe Living (Revised Edition) (2013), p. lxiv advises to use CD's with guided mindfulness practices: "Almost everybody finds it easier, when embarking for the first time on a daily meditation practice, to listen to an instructor-guided audio program and let it "carry them along" in the early stages, until they get the hang of it from the inside, rather than attempting to follow instructions from a book, however clear and detailed they may be."

Compare Rupert Gethin (2004), On the practice of Buddhist meditation, pp. 202–03, noting that the Buddhist sutras hardly explain how to meditate, and then stating that "the effective practice of meditation requires the personal instruction of a teacher." Gethin seems to echo Vetter (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, who notes that the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta describes the Buddha as instructing his first followers in turn: instructing two or three of them, while the others go out begging for food, signifying the need for personal instruction to learn how to practice dhyana.
8. ^ See also Eating One Raisin: A First Taste of Mindfulness for a hand-out file
9. ^ Vipassana as taught by teachers from the Vipassana movement is a 19th-century development, inspired by and reacting against Western modernism.[113][114] See also Buddhist modernism.
10. ^ Frauwallner, E. (1973), History of Indian Philosophy, trans. V.M. Bedekar, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Two volumes., pp.150 ff
11. ^ In Mahayana contexts, it entails insight into what is variously described as sunyata, dharmata, the inseparability of appearance and emptiness (two truths doctrine), clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness.[web 14]
12. ^ Majjhima Nikaya (MN), sutta number 118. See Thanissaro, 2006. Other discourses that describe the full four tetrads can be found in the Samyutta Nikaya's Anapana-samyutta (Ch. 54), such as SN 54.6 (Thanissaro, 2006a), SN 54.8 (Thanissaro, 2006b) and SN 54.13 (Thanissaro, 1995a). The one-tetrad exposition of anapanasati is found, for instance, in the Kayagata-sati Sutta (MN 119; Thanissaro, 1997), the Maha-satipatthana Sutta (DN 22; Thanissaro, 2000) and the Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10; Thanissaro, 1995b).
13. ^ [I]n Buddhist discourse, there are three terms that together map the field of mindfulness [...] [in their Sanskrit variants] smṛti (Pali: sati), samprajaña (Pali: Sampajañña) and apramāda (Pali: appamada).[web 15]
14. ^ According to this correspondence, Ven. Nyanaponika spent his last ten years living with and being cared for by Bodhi. Bodhi refers to Nyanaponika as "my closest kalyāṇamitta in my life as a monk."
15. ^ The resort to "experience" as the ground for religious truths is a strategy which goes back to Schleiermacher, as a defense against the growing influence of western rationality on the religious life of Europeans in the 19th century. See Sharf (1995), Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience.[114]
16. ^ "Historically a Buddhist practice, mindfulness can be considered a universal human capacity proposed to foster clear thinking and open-heartedness. As such, this form of meditation requires no particular religious or cultural belief system." - Mindfulness in Medicine by Ludwig and Kabat-Zinn, available at jama.ama-assn.org
17. ^ "Kabat-Zinn (2000) suggests that mindfulness practice may be beneficial to many people in Western society who might be unwilling to adopt Buddhist traditions or vocabulary. Thus, Western researchers and clinicians who have introduced mindfulness practice into mental health treatment programs usually teach these skills independently of the religious and cultural traditions of their origins (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Linehan, 1993b)."[5]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b Kvamme, Sandberg & Silvanto 2024.
2. ^ a b Gkintoni, Vassilopoulos & Nikolaou 2025.
3. ^ a b Matiz 2025.
4. ^ a b Deatherage 1975.
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Baer 2003.
6. ^ a b Slagter, Davidson & Lutz 2011.
7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Kabat-Zinn 2013.
8. ^ a b c d e f g h i Creswell 2017.
9. ^ a b c d e f g h Karunamuni & Weerasekera 2019.
10. ^ Van Gordon et al. 2014.
11. ^ a b c d Nisbet 2017.
12. ^ a b c d Wilson 2014, p. 35.
13. ^ Wilks 2014.
14. ^ Buchholz 2015.
15. ^ a b c d Harrington & Dunne 2015.
16. ^ a b Blanck et al. 2018.
17. ^ a b c d Khoury B, Sharma M, Rush SE, Fournier C (June 2015). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 78 (6): 519–528\. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009. PMID 25818837. "We conducted a meta-analysis to provide a review of MBSR for healthy individuals. The meta-analysis included 29 studies enrolling 2668 participants... The results obtained are robust and are maintained at follow-up. When combined, mindfulness and compassion strongly correlated with clinical effects."
18. ^ Jain FA, Walsh RN, Eisendrath SJ, Christensen S, Rael Cahn B (2015). "Critical analysis of the efficacy of meditation therapies for acute and subacute phase treatment of depressive disorders: a systematic review". Psychosomatics. 56 (2): 140–152\. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2014.10.007. PMC 4383597. PMID 25591492.
19. ^ Reangsing C, Punsuwun S, Schneider JK (March 2021). "Effects of mindfulness interventions on depressive symptoms in adolescents: A meta-analysis". International Journal of Nursing Studies. 115: 103848. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2020.103848. PMID 33383273. S2CID 229940390.
20. ^ a b c Galante, Julieta; Friedrich, Claire; Dawson, Anna F.; Modrego-Alarcón, Marta; Gebbing, Pia; Delgado-Suárez, Irene; Gupta, Radhika; Dean, Lydia; Dalgleish, Tim; White, Ian R.; Jones, Peter B. (January 11, 2021). "Mindfulness-based programmes for mental health promotion in adults in nonclinical settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials". PLOS Medicine. 18 (1): e1003481. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003481. ISSN 1549-1676. PMC 7799763. PMID 33428616.
21. ^ Hofmann et al. 2010.
22. ^ Hofmann et al. 2010.
23. ^ Chiesa A, Serretti A (April 2014). "Are mindfulness-based interventions effective for substance use disorders? A systematic review of the evidence". Substance Use & Misuse. 49 (5): 492–512\. doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.770027. PMID 23461667. S2CID 34990668.
24. ^ a b Garland EL, Froeliger B, Howard MO (January 2014). "Mindfulness training targets neurocognitive mechanisms of addiction at the attention-appraisal-emotion interface". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 4: 173. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00173. PMC 3887509. PMID 24454293.
25. ^ Sancho M, De Gracia M, Rodríguez RC, et al. (2018). "Mindfulness-Based Interventions for the Treatment of Substance and Behavioral Addictions: A Systematic Review". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 9 (95): 95. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00095. PMC 5884944. PMID 29651257.
26. ^ Zhang, Dexing; Lee, Eric K P; Mak, Eva C W; Ho, C Y; Wong, Samuel Y S (June 10, 2021). "Mindfulness-based interventions: an overall review". British Medical Bulletin. 138 (1): 41–57\. doi:10.1093/bmb/ldab005. PMC 8083197. PMID 33884400.
27. ^ Gong, Xiao-Gang; Wang, Le-Peng; Rong, Guang; Zhang, Dao-Ning; Zhang, A-Yuan; Liu, Chao (February 8, 2023). "Effects of online mindfulness-based interventions on the mental health of university students: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Frontiers in Psychology. 14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1073647. PMC 9944037. PMID 36844353.
28. ^ a b c Noetel M, Ciarrochi J, Van Zanden B, Lonsdale C (2019). "Mindfulness and acceptance approaches to sporting performance enhancement: a systematic review". International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 12 (1): 139–175\. doi:10.1080/1750984X.2017.1387803. S2CID 149040404.
29. ^ Goldberg, Simon B.; Riordan, Kevin M.; Sun, Shufang; Davidson, Richard J. (January 2022). "The Empirical Status of Mindfulness-Based Interventions: A Systematic Review of 44 Meta-Analyses of Randomized Controlled Trials". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 17 (1): 108–130\. doi:10.1177/1745691620968771. PMC 8364929. PMID 33593124.
30. ^ Paulus MP (January 2016). "Neural Basis of Mindfulness Interventions that Moderate the Impact of Stress on the Brain". Neuropsychopharmacology. 41 (1): 373. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.239. PMC 4677133. PMID 26657952.
31. ^ a b c d Dunning DL, Griffiths K, Kuyken W, Crane C, Foulkes L, Parker J, Dalgleish T (March 2019). "Research Review: The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on cognition and mental health in children and adolescents - a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 60 (3): 244–258\. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12980. PMC 6546608. PMID 30345511.
32. ^ David Creswell, J.; Lindsay, Emily K.; Villalba, Daniella K.; Chin, Brian (April 1, 2020). "Mindfulness Training and Physical Health: Mechanisms and Outcomes". Psychosomatic Medicine. 81 (3): 224–232\. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000675. ISSN 0033-3174. PMC 6613793. PMID 30806634.
33. ^ a b Tomlinson ER, Yousaf O, Vittersø AD, Jones L (2018). "Dispositional Mindfulness and Psychological Health: a Systematic Review". Mindfulness. 9 (1): 23–43\. doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0762-6. PMC 5770488. PMID 29387263.
34. ^ a b c d e Keng SL, Smoski MJ, Robins CJ (August 2011). "Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: a review of empirical studies". Clinical Psychology Review. 31 (6): 1041–1056\. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006. PMC 3679190. PMID 21802619.
35. ^ Goldberg SB, Tucker RP, Greene PA, Davidson RJ, Wampold BE, Kearney DJ, Simpson TL (February 2018). "Mindfulness-based interventions for psychiatric disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 59: 52–60\. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.10.011. PMC 5741505. PMID 29126747.
36. ^ Boyd JE, Lanius RA, McKinnon MC (January 2018). "Mindfulness-based treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: a review of the treatment literature and neurobiological evidence". Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 43 (1): 7–25\. doi:10.1503/jpn.170021. PMC 5747539. PMID 29252162.
37. ^ Rodrigues MF, Nardi AE, Levitan M (2017). "Mindfulness in mood and anxiety disorders: a review of the literature". Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. 39 (3): 207–215\. doi:10.1590/2237-6089-2016-0051. PMID 28767927.
38. ^ Aust J, Bradshaw T (February 2017). "Mindfulness interventions for psychosis: a systematic review of the literature". Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing. 24 (1): 69–83\. doi:10.1111/jpm.12357. PMID 27928859. S2CID 206143093.
39. ^ Cramer H, Lauche R, Haller H, Langhorst J, Dobos G (January 2016). "Mindfulness- and Acceptance-based Interventions for Psychosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Global Advances in Health and Medicine. 5 (1): 30–43\. doi:10.7453/gahmj.2015.083. PMC 4756771. PMID 26937312. "Moderate evidence was found for short-term effects on total psychotic symptoms, positive symptoms, hospitalization rates, duration of hospitalization, and mindfulness and for long-term effects on total psychotic symptoms and duration of hospitalization."
40. ^ Louise S, Fitzpatrick M, Strauss C, Rossell SL, Thomas N (February 2018). "Mindfulness- and acceptance-based interventions for psychosis: Our current understanding and a meta-analysis". Schizophrenia Research. 192: 57–63\. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2017.05.023. PMID 28545945. S2CID 3374099.
41. ^ Kaplan DM, Palitsky R, Carey AL, Crane TE, Havens CM, Medrano MR, et al. (July 2018). "Maladaptive repetitive thought as a transdiagnostic phenomenon and treatment target: An integrative review". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 74 (7): 1126–1136\. doi:10.1002/jclp.22585. PMID 29342312.
42. ^ a b c Querstret D, Cropley M (December 2013). "Assessing treatments used to reduce rumination and/or worry: a systematic review". Clinical Psychology Review. 33 (8): 996–1009\. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.004. hdl:2164/3892. PMID 24036088.
43. ^ Kiken LG, Garland EL, Bluth K, Palsson OS, Gaylord SA (July 2015). "From a state to a trait: Trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predict changes in trait mindfulness". Personality and Individual Differences. Dr. Sybil Eysenck Young Researcher Award. 81: 41–46\. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.12.044. PMC 4404745. PMID 25914434.
44. ^ Gu J, Strauss C, Bond R, Cavanagh K (April 2015). "How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of mediation studies". Clinical Psychology Review. 37: 1–12\. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.006. PMID 25689576. S2CID 4117449.
45. ^ Perestelo-Perez L, Barraca J, Peñate W, Rivero-Santana A, Alvarez-Perez Y (2017). "Mindfulness-based interventions for the treatment of depressive rumination: Systematic review and meta-analysis". International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology. 17 (3): 282–295\. doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2017.07.004. PMC 6220915. PMID 30487903.
46. ^ Galante, Julieta; Friedrich, Claire; Aeamla-Or, Napaporn; et al. (July 10, 2023). "Systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials assessing mindfulness-based programs for mental health promotion". Nature Mental Health. 1 (7): 462–476\. doi:10.1038/s44220-023-00081-5. PMC 7615230. PMID 37867573.
47. ^ Tang YY, Leve LD (March 2016). "A translational neuroscience perspective on mindfulness meditation as a prevention strategy". Translational Behavioral Medicine. 6 (1): 63–72\. doi:10.1007/s13142-015-0360-x. PMC 4807201. PMID 27012254.
48. ^ Cheng FK (2016). "Is meditation conducive to mental well-being for adolescents? An integrative review for mental health nursing". International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences. 4: 7–19\. doi:10.1016/j.ijans.2016.01.001.
49. ^ Kappes, Cathleen; Marion-Jetten, Ariane S.; Taylor, Geneviève; Schad, Daniel J.; Dreßler, Birte; El-Hayek, Samira; Hansemann, Jule; Heine, Rebecca; Lindner, Sarah; Melzner, Lena; Meyer, Cedric; Pfister, Benjamin; Rogowski, Kaja; Rose, Rebekka; Simson, Katharina (December 1, 2023). "The role of mindfulness and autonomous motivation for goal progress and goal adjustment: an intervention study". Motivation and Emotion. 47 (6): 946–964\. doi:10.1007/s11031-023-10033-2. ISSN 1573-6644.
50. ^ a b Karunamuni N, Imayama I, Goonetilleke D (March 2021). "Pathways to well-being: Untangling the causal relationships among biopsychosocial variables". Social Science & Medicine. 272: 112846. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112846. PMID 32089388. S2CID 211262159.
51. ^ Grierson AB, Hickie IB, Naismith SL, Scott J (September 2016). "The role of rumination in illness trajectories in youth: linking trans-diagnostic processes with clinical staging models". Psychological Medicine. 46 (12): 2467–2484\. doi:10.1017/S0033291716001392. PMC 4988274. PMID 27352637.
52. ^ Verkuil B, Brosschot JF, Gebhardt WA, Thayer JF (2010). "When worries make you sick: a review of perseverative cognition, the default stress response and somatic health". J. Exp. Psychopathol. 1 (1): 87–118\. doi:10.5127/jep.009110.
53. ^ a b c Pascoe MC, Thompson DR, Jenkins ZM, Ski CF (December 2017). "Mindfulness mediates the physiological markers of stress: Systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 95: 156–178\. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.08.004. PMID 28863392.
54. ^ Dunn, Thomas J.; Dimolareva, Mirena (March 2022). "The effect of mindfulness-based interventions on immunity-related biomarkers: a comprehensive meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials" (PDF). Clinical Psychology Review. 92: 102124. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102124. PMID 35078038. S2CID 245951867.
55. ^ a b Black DS, Slavich GM (June 2016). "Mindfulness meditation and the immune system: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1373 (1): 13–24\. Bibcode:2016NYASA1373...13B. doi:10.1111/nyas.12998. PMC 4940234. PMID 26799456.
56. ^ Creswell JD, Lindsay EK, Villalba DK, Chin B (April 2019). "Mindfulness Training and Physical Health: Mechanisms and Outcomes". Psychosomatic Medicine. 81 (3): 224–232\. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000675. PMC 6613793. PMID 30806634.
57. ^ Liu YZ, Wang YX, Jiang CL (2017). "Inflammation: The Common Pathway of Stress-Related Diseases". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 11 (316): 316. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00316. PMC 5476783. PMID 28676747.
58. ^ Kelly SJ, Ismail M (March 2015). "Stress and type 2 diabetes: a review of how stress contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes". Annual Review of Public Health. 36: 441–462\. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122921. PMID 25581145.
59. ^ a b Scott-Sheldon LA, Gathright EC, Donahue ML, Balletto B, Feulner MM, DeCosta J, et al. (January 2020). "Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Adults with Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 54 (1): 67–73\. doi:10.1093/abm/kaz020. PMC 6922300. PMID 31167026.
60. ^ Schutte NS, Malouff JM (April 2014). "A meta-analytic review of the effects of mindfulness meditation on telomerase activity". Psychoneuroendocrinology. 42: 45–48\. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.12.017. PMID 24636500. S2CID 39094183.
61. ^ Hayes AM (2004). "Clarifying the Construct of Mindfulness in the Context of Emotion Regulation and the Process of Change in Therapy". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 11 (3): 255–62\. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.168.5070. doi:10.1093/clipsy/bph080.
62. ^ a b c Brown KW, Ryan RM, Creswell JD (2007). "Mindfulness: Theoretical Foundations and Evidence for its Salutary Effects". Psychological Inquiry. 18 (4): 211–37\. doi:10.1080/10478400701598298. S2CID 2755919.
63. ^ Gehart 2012, pp. 7–8.
64. ^ a b Black 2011, p. 1.
65. ^ a b c d Black 2011, p. 2.
66. ^ a b Gehart 2012, p. 7.
67. ^ Zgierska et al. 2009.
68. ^ Didonna 2008, p. 27.
69. ^ Kristeller 2007, p. 393.
70. ^ Germer 2005, p. 15.
71. ^ a b Hick 2010, p. 10.
72. ^ a b c Bishop et al. 2004.
73. ^ Tanay & Bernstein 2013, pp. 1286–1299.[page range too broad]
74. ^ Marlatt & Kristeller 1999, p. 68.
75. ^ a b c d Hick 2010, p. 6.
76. ^ a b c Karunamuni ND (2015). "The Five-Aggregate Model of the Mind". SAGE Open. 5 (2): 215824401558386. doi:10.1177/2158244015583860.
77. ^ a b Sharf 2014, p. 942.
78. ^ Levman, Bryan (2017). "Putting smṛti back into sati (Putting remembrance back into mindfulness)". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 13: 121 at 122.
79. ^ Sharf 2014, pp. 942–943.
80. ^ a b Sharf 2014, p. 943.
81. ^ a b "Is Mindfulness Present-Centered and Nonjudgmental? A Discussion of the Cognitive Dimensions of Mindfulness" by Georges Dreyfus
82. ^ "Mindfulness and Ethics: Attention, Virtue and Perfection" by Jay Garfield
83. ^ Davids TR (1881). Buddhist Suttas. Clarendon Press. p. 107. OCLC 13247398.
84. ^ Gogerly, D.J. (1845). "On Buddhism". Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1: 7–28.
85. ^ Davids TR (1881). Buddhist Suttas. Clarendon Press. p. 145. OCLC 13247398.
86. ^ "Lecture, Stanford University Center for Compassion and Altruism Research and Education". The Center for Compassion and Altruism Research and Education. 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-11-20.
87. ^ James H. Austin (2014), Zen-Brain Horizons: Toward a Living Zen, MIT Press, p. 83
88. ^ Bhikkhu Sujato (2019). "The Linked Discourses: the blueprint for Buddhist philosophy". SuttaCentral. Retrieved 2025-04-26. "Includes both the recollection of teachings (SN 46.3) as well as mindful awareness of phenomena internal and external."
89. ^ Anālayo (2003). Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization (PDF). Windhorse Publications. p. 48.
90. ^ Bhante, Vimalaramsi (2015). A Guide to Tranquil Wisdom Insight Meditation (PDF). Annapolis, MO: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. p. 4\. ISBN 978-1508569718.
91. ^ "The Community of Interbeing (UK)", Adaptation and Developments in Western Buddhism : Socially Engaged Buddhism in the UK, Bloomsbury Academic, 2013, doi:10.5040/9781472552488.ch-005, ISBN 978-1-4725-5248-8, retrieved 2023-11-28
92. ^ Thich, Nhat Hanh (2020). Interbeing, 4th Edition: The 14 Mindfulness Trainings of Engaged Buddhism. Parallax Press.
93. ^ Yates, John; Immergut, Matthew; Graves, Jeremy (2015). The Mind Illuminated. Hay House. p. 30.
94. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, second ed., 2002
95. ^ Kabat-Zinn 2011, pp. 22–23.
96. ^ Kabat-Zinn 2013a, p. 65.
97. ^ a b Gunaratana B (2011). Mindfulness in plain English (PDF). Boston: Wisdom Publications. p. 21\. ISBN 978-0861719068. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-12-15. Retrieved 2015-01-30.
98. ^ Kabat-Zinn himself, in Full Catastrophe Living (Revised Edition) (2013), p. lxiv
99. ^ "How too much mindfulness can spike anxiety".[author missing][date missing][publisher missing]
100. ^ "7 Tips to Balance Your Work & Life with Mindfulness". mindfulleader.org. Retrieved 2021-06-03.
101. ^ Wilson 2014.
102. ^ Ihnen & Flynn 2008, p. 148.
103. ^ Teasdale & Segal 2007, pp. 55–56.
104. ^ Stanszus LS, Frank P, Geiger SM (October 2019). "Healthy eating and sustainable nutrition through mindfulness? Mixed method results of a controlled intervention study". Appetite. 141: 104325. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2019.104325. PMID 31228507. S2CID 195063688.
105. ^ a b c Pickert K (February 2014). "The art of being mindful. Finding peace in a stressed-out, digitally dependent culture may just be a matter of thinking differently". Time. Vol. 183, no. 4\. pp. 40–46\. PMID 24640415.
106. ^ Wilson 2014, pp. 54–55.
107. ^ Mahāsi Sayādaw, Manual of Insight, Chapter 5
108. ^ Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Vipassana Instructions, pp. 22–27
109. ^ "The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation". Dhamma.org. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
110. ^ Bishop et al. 2004, p. 232.
111. ^ Bishop et al. 2004, p. 233.
112. ^ a b Bhikkhu Bodhi.
113. ^ a b c d e f McMahan 2008.
114. ^ a b Sharf 1995.
115. ^ "The 18th Mind and Life Dialogues meeting". Archived from the original on 2014-03-22. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
116. ^ Williams & Tribe 2000, p. 46.
117. ^ Vetter 1988.
118. ^ Rhys Davids T (1959) [1910]. Dialogues of the Buddha, Part II. Oxford, Great Britain: Pali Text Society. pp. 322–346\. ISBN 0-86013-034-7. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
119. ^ Warner B (2003). Hardcore Zen: Punk Rock, Monster Movies, & the Truth about Reality. Wisdom Publications. pp. 189–190\. ISBN 086171380X.
120. ^ Suzuki S (2011). Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind. Shambhala Publications. pp. 15–16\. ISBN 978-159030849-3.
121. ^ a b c Analayo 2003.
122. ^ "What is Theravada Buddhism?". Access to Insight. Retrieved 2013-08-17.
123. ^ ""The Nature of Mindfulness and Its Role in Buddhist Meditation" A Correspondence between B.A. wallace and the Venerable Bikkhu Bodhi, Winter 2006, p.4" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-01-07.
124. ^ Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (2014), Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree, Wisdom publications, pp. 79, 101, 117 note 42
125. ^ Polak 2011.
126. ^ a b Repetti 2022.
127. ^ Lee 2020, p. 363.
128. ^ "The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola: Third Week: Eating".
129. ^ a b c Harris 2009, p. 268.
130. ^ Kipf 1979, pp. 3–8.
131. ^ King 2001.
132. ^ Wilson 2014, p. 22.
133. ^ Wilson 2014, p. 17.
134. ^ Bishop et al. 2004, pp. 230–231: "Much of the interest in the clinical applications of mindfulness has been sparked by the introduction of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), a manualized treatment program originally developed for the management of chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, & Burney, 1985; Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, Burney, & Sellers, 1987)."
135. ^ James, William (2012). Bradley, Matthew (ed.). The Varieties of Religious Experience. Oxford University Press.
136. ^ a b Valerio A (2016). "Owning Mindfulness: A Bibliometric Analysis of Mindfulness Literature Trends Within and Outside of Buddhist Contexts". Contemporary Buddhism. 17: 157–83\. doi:10.1080/14639947.2016.1162425. S2CID 148411457.
137. ^ Wang Y, Lei SM, Fan J (January 2023). "Effects of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Promoting Athletic Performance and Related Factors among Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trial". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 20 (3): 2038. doi:10.3390/ijerph20032038. PMC 9915077. PMID 36767403.
138. ^ Kabat-Zinn 2000.
139. ^ a b c Ergas O (2013). "Mindfulness in education at the intersection of science, religion, and healing". Critical Studies in Education. 55: 58–72\. doi:10.1080/17508487.2014.858643. S2CID 144860756.
140. ^ Piet J, Hougaard E (August 2011). "The effect of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for prevention of relapse in recurrent major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 31 (6): 1032–1040\. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.05.002. PMID 21802618.
141. ^ Manicavasgar V, Parker G, Perich T (April 2011). "Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy vs cognitive behaviour therapy as a treatment for non-melancholic depression". Journal of Affective Disorders. 130 (1–2): 138–144\. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.09.027. PMID 21093925.1–2&rft.pages=138-144&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.jad.2010.09.027&rft_id=info:pmid/21093925&rft.aulast=Manicavasgar&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Parker,+G&rft.au=Perich,+T&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Mindfulness" class="Z3988">
142. ^ Hofmann SG, Sawyer AT, Fang A (September 2010). "The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy". The Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 33 (3): 701–710\. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.006. PMC 2898899. PMID 20599141.
143. ^ a b Felder JN, Dimidjian S, Segal Z (February 2012). "Collaboration in mindfulness-based cognitive therapy". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 68 (2): 179–186\. doi:10.1002/jclp.21832. PMID 23616298.
144. ^ Ma SH, Teasdale JD (February 2004). "Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: replication and exploration of differential relapse prevention effects". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 72 (1): 31–40\. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.9744. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.1.31. PMID 14756612.
145. ^ a b c d Cusens B, Duggan GB, Thorne K, Burch V (2010). "Evaluation of the breathworks mindfulness-based pain management programme: effects on well-being and multiple measures of mindfulness". Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 17 (1): 63–78\. doi:10.1002/cpp.653. PMID 19911432.
146. ^ Pizutti LT, Carissimi A, Valdivia LJ, Ilgenfritz CA, Freitas JJ, Sopezki D, et al. (June 2019). "Evaluation of Breathworks' Mindfulness for Stress 8-week course: Effects on depressive symptoms, psychiatric symptoms, affects, self-compassion, and mindfulness facets in Brazilian health professionals". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 75 (6): 970–984\. doi:10.1002/jclp.22749. PMID 30689206. S2CID 59306658.
147. ^ Mehan, Suraj; Morris, Julia (2018). "A literature review of Breathworks and mindfulness intervention". British Journal of Healthcare Management. 24 (5): 235–241\. doi:10.12968/bjhc.2018.24.5.235. ISSN 1358-0574.
148. ^ Lopes SA, Vannucchi BP, Demarzo M, Cunha ÂG, Nunes MD (February 2019). "Effectiveness of a Mindfulness-Based Intervention in the Management of Musculoskeletal Pain in Nursing Workers". Pain Management Nursing. 20 (1): 32–38\. doi:10.1016/j.pmn.2018.02.065. PMID 29779791. S2CID 29170927.
149. ^ Llácer, Lorena Alonso; Ramos-Campos, Marta (2018). "Mindfulness y Cáncer: Aplicación del programa MBPM de Respira Vida Breatworks en pacientes oncol´ógicos". Revista de Investigación y Educación en Ciencias de la Salud (in Spanish). 3 (2): 33–45\. doi:10.37536/RIECS.2018.3.2.101. hdl:10017/35501. ISSN 2530-2787.
150. ^ Agostinis, Alessio; Barrow, Michelle; Taylor, Chad; Gray, Callum (2017). Self-Selection all the Way: Improving Patients' Pain Experience and Outcomes on a Pilot Breathworks Mindfulness for Health Programme.
151. ^ Long J, Briggs M, Long A, Astin F (October 2016). "Starting where I am: a grounded theory exploration of mindfulness as a facilitator of transition in living with a long-term condition" (PDF). Journal of Advanced Nursing. 72 (10): 2445–2456\. doi:10.1111/jan.12998. hdl:2086/12077. PMID 27174075. S2CID 4917280.
152. ^ Doran NJ (June 2014). "Experiencing Wellness Within Illness: Exploring a Mindfulness-Based Approach to Chronic Back Pain". Qualitative Health Research. 24 (6): 749–760\. doi:10.1177/1049732314529662. PMID 24728110. S2CID 45682942.
153. ^ Brown CA, Jones AK (March 2013). "Psychobiological correlates of improved mental health in patients with musculoskeletal pain after a mindfulness-based pain management program". The Clinical Journal of Pain. 29 (3): 233–244\. doi:10.1097/AJP.0b013e31824c5d9f. PMID 22874090. S2CID 33688569.
154. ^ Plumb JC, Stewart I, Dahl J, Lundgren T (2009). "In search of meaning: values in modern clinical behavior analysis". The Behavior Analyst. 32 (1): 85–103\. doi:10.1007/bf03392177. PMC 2686995. PMID 22478515.
155. ^ Hayes S. "Acceptance & Commitment Therapy (ACT)". ContextualPsychology.org.
156. ^ Zettle RD (2005). "The evolution of a contextual approach to therapy: From comprehensive distancing to ACT". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 1 (2): 77–89\. doi:10.1037/h0100736. S2CID 4835864.
157. ^ Murdock, N. L. (2009). Theories of counseling and psychotherapy: A case approach. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Merrill/Pearson
158. ^ "Getting in on the Act - The Irish Times - Tue, Jun 07, 2011". The Irish Times. June 7, 2011. Retrieved 2012-03-16.
159. ^ Linehan 1993, p. 19.
160. ^ Linehan 1993, pp. 20–21.
161. ^ Apsche JA, DiMeo L (2010). Mode Deactivation Therapy for aggression and oppositional behavior in adolescents: An integrative methodology using ACT, DBT, and CBT. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. ISBN 978-1608821075.
162. ^ Swart J, Apsche J (2014). "Family mode deactivation therapy (FMDT) mediation analysis". International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy. 9: 1–13\. doi:10.1037/h0101009.
163. ^ Sugg HV, Frost J, Richards DA (May 2019). "Morita Therapy for depression (Morita Trial): an embedded qualitative study of acceptability". BMJ Open. 9 (5): e023873. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023873. PMC 6549637. PMID 31147359.
164. ^ Schwartz RC (2013). Internal Family Systems Therapy. Guilford Publications. ISBN 978-1462513956.
165. ^ Robinson L, Segal R, Segal J, Smith M (December 2017). "Relaxation Techniques". Helpguide.org.
166. ^ "Mindful Kids Miami, Inc | Mindful Miami". Mindful Kids Miami.
167. ^ "Susan Kaiser Greenland -- Inner Kids". Archived from the original on 2010-04-23.
168. ^ "MindUP™". Archived from the original on 2015-04-17. Retrieved 2015-04-17.
169. ^ "Mindful Moment Program". Retrieved 2020-02-02.
170. ^ Ergas O, Todd S, eds. (2016). Philosophy East/West: Exploring intersections between educational and contemplative practices (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-119-14733-6.[page needed]
171. ^ j. Davidson, Richard; Dunne, John; Eccles, Jacquelynne S.; Engle, Adam; Greenberg, Mark; Jennings, Patricia; Jha, Amishi; Jinpa, Thupten; Lantieri, Linda; Meyer, David; Roeser, Robert W.; Vago, David (June 2012). "Contemplative Practices and Mental Training: Prospects for American Education". Child Development Perspectives. 6 (2): 146–153\. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00240.x. PMC 3420012. PMID 22905038.
172. ^ Hobby K, Jenkins E (2014). "Mindfulness in schools". EarthSong Journal. 2 (7): 26. ISSN 1449-8367.
173. ^ a b c Zenner C, Herrnleben-Kurz S, Walach H (2014). "Mindfulness-based interventions in schools-a systematic review and meta-analysis". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 603. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00603. PMC 4075476. PMID 25071620.
174. ^ a b Renshaw TL, Cook CR (2017). "Introduction to the Special Issue: Mindfulness in the Schools-Historical Roots, Current Status, and Future Directions". Psychology in the Schools. 54: 5–12\. doi:10.1002/pits.21978.
175. ^ a b Eklund K, O'Malley M, Meyer L (2017). "Gauging Mindfulness in Children and Youth: School-Based Applications". Psychology in the Schools. 54: 101–14\. doi:10.1002/pits.21983.
176. ^ McKeering, Phillipa; Hwang, Yoon-Suk (July 18, 2018). "A Systematic Review of Mindfulness-Based School Interventions with Early Adolescents". Mindfulness. 10 (4): 593–610\. doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0998-9.
177. ^ a b Choudhury S, Moses JM (2016). "Mindful interventions: Youth, poverty, and the developing brain". Theory & Psychology. 26 (5): 591–606\. doi:10.1177/0959354316669025. S2CID 151984948.
178. ^ Semple RJ, Lee J, Rosa D, Miller LF (2009). "A Randomized Trial of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Children: Promoting Mindful Attention to Enhance Social-Emotional Resiliency in Children". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 19 (2): 218–29\. doi:10.1007/s10826-009-9301-y. S2CID 143769629.
179. ^ Flook L, Smalley SL, Kitil MJ, Galla BM, Kaiser-Greenland S, Locke J, Ishijima E, Kasari C (2010). "Effects of Mindful Awareness Practices on Executive Functions in Elementary School Children". Journal of Applied School Psychology. 26 (1): 70–95\. doi:10.1080/15377900903379125. S2CID 16258631.
180. ^ Baminiwatta, Anuradha; Solangaarachchi, Indrajith (July 16, 2021). "Trends and Developments in Mindfulness Research over 55 Years: A Bibliometric Analysis of Publications Indexed in Web of Science". Springer Nature. 12 (9): 2099–2116\. doi:10.1007/S12671-021-01681-X. PMC 8282773. PMID 34306245.
181. ^ Kuyken W, Weare K, Ukoumunne OC, Vicary R, Motton N, Burnett R, et al. (August 2013). "Effectiveness of the Mindfulness in Schools Programme: non-randomised controlled feasibility study". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 203 (2): 126–131\. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.126649. hdl:10871/11441. PMID 23787061. S2CID 13942589.
182. ^ Johnson C, Burke C, Brinkman S, Wade T (June 2016). "Effectiveness of a school-based mindfulness program for transdiagnostic prevention in young adolescents". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 81: 1–11\. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.03.002. PMID 27054828.
183. ^ a b Good DJ, Lyddy CJ, Glomb TM, Bono JE, Brown KW, Duffy MK, Baer RA, Brewer JA, Lazar SW (2015). "Contemplating Mindfulness at Work". Journal of Management. 42 (1): 114–42\. doi:10.1177/0149206315617003. S2CID 15676226.
184. ^ Boyatzis, R. E., & McKee, A. (2005). Resonant Leadership: Renewing yourself and connecting with others through mindfulness, hope, and compassion. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
185. ^ a b Carroll M (2007). The Mindful Leader: Ten Principles for Bringing Out the Best in Ourselves and Others. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 9781590303474.
186. ^ a b Schultz PP, Ryan RM, Niemiec CP, Legate N, Williams GC (2014). "Mindfulness, Work Climate, and Psychological Need Satisfaction in Employee Well-being". Mindfulness. 6 (5): 971. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0338-7. S2CID 145360486.
187. ^ Janssen M, Heerkens Y, Kuijer W, van der Heijden B, Engels J (2018). "Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on employees' mental health: A systematic review". PLOS ONE. 13 (1): e0191332. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1391332J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0191332. PMC 5783379. PMID 29364935.
188. ^ Meditation classes raise attorneys mindfulness (2009). New Orleans CityBusiness.
189. ^ Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School (2008). Program on Negotiation Webcasts.
190. ^ Samuelson M, Carmody J, Kabat-Zinn J, Bratt MA (2016). "Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction in Massachusetts Correctional Facilities". The Prison Journal. 87 (2): 254–68\. doi:10.1177/0032885507303753. S2CID 51730633.
191. ^ Shonin E, Van Gordon W, Slade K, Griffiths MD (2013). "Mindfulness and other Buddhist-derived interventions in correctional settings: A systematic review" (PDF). Aggression and Violent Behavior. 18 (3): 365–72\. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2013.01.002.
192. ^ Dafoe T, Stermac L (2013). "Mindfulness Meditation as an Adjunct Approach to Treatment Within the Correctional System". Journal of Offender Rehabilitation. 52 (3): 198–216\. doi:10.1080/10509674.2012.752774. S2CID 144734159.
193. ^ Rochman B (September 6, 2009). "Samurai Mind Training for Modern American Warriors.". Time.
194. ^ a b Sequeira S (January 2014). "Foreword to Advances in Meditation Research: neuroscience and clinical applications". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1307 (1): v–vi. Bibcode:2014NYASA1307D...5S. doi:10.1111/nyas.12305. PMID 24571183. S2CID 30918843.
195. ^ Vonderlin, Ruben; Biermann, Miriam; Bohus, Martin; Lyssenko, Lisa (March 2, 2020). "Mindfulness-Based Programs in the Workplace: a Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Mindfulness. 11 (7): 1579–1598\. doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01328-3.
196. ^ a b Dawson AF, Brown WW, Anderson J, Datta B, Donald JN, Hong K, et al. (July 2020). "Mindfulness-Based Interventions for University Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials". Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being. 12 (2): 384–410\. doi:10.1111/aphw.12188. PMID 31743957. S2CID 208186271.
197. ^ Sala M, Shankar Ram S, Vanzhula IA, Levinson CA (June 2020). "Mindfulness and eating disorder psychopathology: A meta-analysis". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 53 (6): 834–851\. doi:10.1002/eat.23247. PMID 32100320.
198. ^ Carrière K, Khoury B, Günak MM, Knäuper B (February 2018). "Mindfulness-based interventions for weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Obesity Reviews. 19 (2): 164–177\. doi:10.1111/obr.12623. PMID 29076610. S2CID 44877765.
199. ^ Rogers JM, Ferrari M, Mosely K, Lang CP, Brennan L (January 2017). "Mindfulness-based interventions for adults who are overweight or obese: a meta-analysis of physical and psychological health outcomes". Obesity Reviews. 18 (1): 51–67\. doi:10.1111/obr.12461. hdl:10072/393029. PMID 27862826. S2CID 3977651.
200. ^ Xue J, Zhang Y, Huang Y (June 2019). "A meta-analytic investigation of the impact of mindfulness-based interventions on ADHD symptoms". Medicine. 98 (23): e15957. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000015957. PMC 6571280. PMID 31169722.
201. ^ Cavicchioli M, Movalli M, Maffei C (2018). "The Clinical Efficacy of Mindfulness-Based Treatments for Alcohol and Drugs Use Disorders: A Meta-Analytic Review of Randomized and Nonrandomized Controlled Trials". European Addiction Research. 24 (3): 137–162\. doi:10.1159/000490762. PMID 30016796.
202. ^ Spijkerman MP, Pots WT, Bohlmeijer ET (April 2016). "Effectiveness of online mindfulness-based interventions in improving mental health: A review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials". Clinical Psychology Review. 45: 102–114\. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2016.03.009. PMID 27111302.
203. ^ Wang YY, Wang F, Zheng W, Zhang L, Ng CH, Ungvari GS, Xiang YT (2020). "Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Insomnia: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Behavioral Sleep Medicine. 18 (1): 1–9\. doi:10.1080/15402002.2018.1518228. PMID 30380915. S2CID 53201885.
204. ^ Kanen, Jonathan; Nazir, Racha; Sedky, Karim; Pradhan, Basant (April 30, 2015). "The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Sleep Disturbance: A Meta-Analysis". Adolescent Psychiatry. 5 (2): 105–115\. doi:10.2174/2210676605666150311222928.
205. ^ "The Science of Relaxation - Lectures by neuroscientist Martin Dresler and psychiatrist Anne Speckens". Radboud Reflects and Donders Institute. December 9, 2020. Archived from the original on 2021-12-22.
206. ^ Xunlin NG, Lau Y, Klainin-Yobas P (April 2020). "The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions among cancer patients and survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Supportive Care in Cancer. 28 (4): 1563–1578\. doi:10.1007/s00520-019-05219-9. PMID 31834518. S2CID 209331542.
207. ^ Xie C, Dong B, Wang L, Jing X, Wu Y, Lin L, Tian L (March 2020). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction can alleviate cancer- related fatigue: A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 130: 109916. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2019.109916. PMID 31927347. S2CID 210166679.
208. ^ a b Nnate DA, Anyachukwu CC, Igwe SE, Abaraogu UO (October 2021). "Mindfulness-based interventions for psychological wellbeing and quality of life in men with prostate cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Psycho-Oncology. 30 (10): 1680–1690\. doi:10.1002/pon.5749. PMID 34139035. S2CID 235470939.
209. ^ a b Cillessen L, Johannsen M, Speckens AE, Zachariae R (December 2019). "Mindfulness-based interventions for psychological and physical health outcomes in cancer patients and survivors: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Psycho-Oncology. 28 (12): 2257–2269\. doi:10.1002/pon.5214. PMC 6916350. PMID 31464026.
210. ^ Benevides TW, Shore SM, Andresen ML, Caplan R, Cook B, Gassner DL, et al. (August 2020). "Interventions to address health outcomes among autistic adults: A systematic review". Autism. 24 (6): 1345–1359\. doi:10.1177/1362361320913664. PMC 7787674. PMID 32390461.
211. ^ Simpson R, Simpson S, Ramparsad N, Lawrence M, Booth J, Mercer SW (February 2020). "Effects of Mindfulness-based interventions on physical symptoms in people with multiple sclerosis - a systematic review and meta-analysis" (PDF). Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders. 38: 101493. doi:10.1016/j.msard.2019.101493. PMID 31835209. S2CID 209232064.
212. ^ Di Cara M, Grezzo D, Palmeri R, Lo Buono V, Cartella E, Micchia K, et al. (January 2022). "Psychological well-being in people with multiple sclerosis: a descriptive review of the effects obtained with mindfulness interventions". Neurological Sciences. 43 (1): 211–217\. doi:10.1007/s10072-021-05686-1. PMC 8724219. PMID 34697659.
213. ^ DiRenzo D, Crespo-Bosque M, Gould N, Finan P, Nanavati J, Bingham CO (October 2018). "Systematic Review and Meta-analysis: Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Rheumatoid Arthritis". Current Rheumatology Reports. 20 (12): 75. doi:10.1007/s11926-018-0787-4. PMC 6233984. PMID 30338418.
214. ^ Guo J, Wang H, Luo J, Guo Y, Xie Y, Lei B, et al. (December 11, 2019). "Factors influencing the effect of mindfulness-based interventions on diabetes distress: a meta-analysis". BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care. 7 (1): e000757. doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2019-000757. PMC 6936501. PMID 31908794.
215. ^ Demarzo MM, Montero-Marin J, Cuijpers P, Zabaleta-del-Olmo E, Mahtani KR, Vellinga A, et al. (November 2015). "The Efficacy of Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Primary Care: A Meta-Analytic Review". Annals of Family Medicine. 13 (6): 573–582\. doi:10.1370/afm.1863. PMC 4639383. PMID 26553897.
216. ^ Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, et al. (March 2014). "Meditation programs for psychological stress and well-being: a systematic review and meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 357–368\. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. PMC 4142584. PMID 24395196.
217. ^ Tang YY, Hölzel BK, Posner MI (April 2015). "The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 16 (4): 213–225\. doi:10.1038/nrn3916. PMID 25783612. S2CID 54521922.
218. ^ Colzato LS, Kibele A (2017). "How Different Types of Meditation Can Enhance Athletic Performance Depending on the Specific Sport Skills". Journal of Cognitive Enhancement. 1 (2): 122–26\. doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0018-3. hdl:1887/58305.
219. ^ Petcharat M, Liehr P (February 2017). "Mindfulness training for parents of children with special needs: Guidance for nurses in mental health practice". Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing. 30 (1): 35–46\. doi:10.1111/jcap.12169. PMID 28449389. S2CID 3775407.
220. ^ Fuchs WW, Mundschenk NJ, Groark B (2017). "A Promising Practice: School-Based Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Children with Disabilities". Journal of International Special Needs Education. 20 (2): 56–66\. doi:10.9782/2159-4341-20.2.56. S2CID 152021458.
221. ^ Cachia RL, Anderson A, Moore DW (2016). "Mindfulness in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Narrative Analysis". Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 3 (2): 165–78\. doi:10.1007/s40489-016-0074-0. S2CID 146901638.
222. ^ Garland SN, Zhou ES, Gonzalez BD, Rodriguez N (September 2016). "The Quest for Mindful Sleep: A Critical Synthesis of the Impact of Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Insomnia". Current Sleep Medicine Reports. 2 (3): 142–151\. doi:10.1007/s40675-016-0050-3. PMC 5300077. PMID 28191449.
223. ^ Ong JC, Smith CE (June 2017). "Using Mindfulness for the Treatment of Insomnia". Current Sleep Medicine Reports. 3 (2): 57–65\. doi:10.1007/s40675-017-0068-1. PMC 6171769. PMID 30294523.
224. ^ Kurth F, Cherbuin N, Luders E (2017). "Aging Mindfully to Minimize Cognitive Decline". Journal of Cognitive Enhancement. 1 (2): 108–14\. doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0027-2. S2CID 148812598.
225. ^ Xu J (November 2018). "A Tripartite Function of Mindfulness in Adjustment to Aging: Acceptance, Integration, and Transcendence". The Gerontologist. 58 (6): 1009–1015\. doi:10.1093/geront/gnx100. PMID 30395235. S2CID 53218725.
226. ^ Acevedo BP, Pospos S, Lavretsky H (2016). "The Neural Mechanisms of Meditative Practices: Novel Approaches for Healthy Aging". Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports. 3 (4): 328–339\. doi:10.1007/s40473-016-0098-x. PMC 5110576. PMID 27909646.
227. ^ Hutton J (September 2016). "How can mindfulness help patients with skin conditions". Dermatological Nursing. 15 (3): 32–35\. OCLC 6841989774.
228. ^ Isgut M, Smith AK, Reimann ES, Kucuk O, Ryan J (December 2017). "The impact of psychological distress during pregnancy on the developing fetus: biological mechanisms and the potential benefits of mindfulness interventions". Journal of Perinatal Medicine. 45 (9): 999–1011\. doi:10.1515/jpm-2016-0189. PMID 28141546.
229. ^ Dhillon A, Sparkes E, Duarte RV (2017). "Mindfulness-Based Interventions During Pregnancy: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Mindfulness. 8 (6): 1421–1437\. doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0726-x. PMC 5693962. PMID 29201244.
230. ^ Matvienko-Sikar K, Lee L, Murphy G, Murphy L (December 2016). "The effects of mindfulness interventions on prenatal well-being: A systematic review". Psychology & Health. 31 (12): 1415–1434\. doi:10.1080/08870446.2016.1220557. PMID 27539908. S2CID 30061019.
231. ^ Zeidan F, Vago DR (June 2016). "Mindfulness meditation-based pain relief: a mechanistic account". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1373 (1): 114–127\. Bibcode:2016NYASA1373..114Z. doi:10.1111/nyas.13153. PMC 4941786. PMID 27398643.
232. ^ Zeidan F, Martucci KT, Kraft RA, Gordon NS, McHaffie JG, Coghill RC (April 2011). "Brain mechanisms supporting the modulation of pain by mindfulness meditation". The Journal of Neuroscience. 31 (14): 5540–5548\. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5791-10.2011. PMC 3090218. PMID 21471390.
233. ^ Li J, Shen J, Wu G, Tan Y, Sun Y, Keller E, et al. (August 2018). "Mindful exercise versus non-mindful exercise for schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice. 32: 17–24\. doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2018.04.003. PMID 30057047. S2CID 51865864.
234. ^ Zou L, Zhang Y, Yang L, Loprinzi PD, Yeung AS, Kong J, et al. (May 2019). "Are Mindful Exercises Safe and Beneficial for Treating Chronic Lower Back Pain? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 8 (5): 628. doi:10.3390/jcm8050628. PMC 6571780. PMID 31072005.
235. ^ Southwick, S.M., & Charney, D.S. (2012). Resilience: The Science of Mastering Life's Greatest Challenges. Cambridge University Press.
236. ^ Tang YY, Posner MI (January 2013). "Special issue on mindfulness neuroscience". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 8 (1): 1–3\. doi:10.1093/scan/nss104. PMC 3541496. PMID 22956677.
237. ^ a b Hölzel BK, Lazar SW, Gard T, Schuman-Olivier Z, Vago DR, Ott U (November 2011). "How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 6 (6): 537–559\. doi:10.1177/1745691611419671. PMID 26168376. S2CID 2218023.
238. ^ Crescentini C, Capurso V (2015). "Mindfulness meditation and explicit and implicit indicators of personality and self-concept changes". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 44. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00044. PMC 4310269. PMID 25688222.
239. ^ Crescentini C, Matiz A, Fabbro F (2015). "Improving personality/character traits in individuals with alcohol dependence: the influence of mindfulness-oriented meditation". Journal of Addictive Diseases. 34 (1): 75–87\. doi:10.1080/10550887.2014.991657. PMID 25585050. S2CID 8250105.
240. ^ a b Gotink RA, Meijboom R, Vernooij MW, Smits M, Hunink MG (October 2016). "8-week Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction induces brain changes similar to traditional long-term meditation practice - A systematic review". Brain and Cognition. 108: 32–41\. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2016.07.001. PMID 27429096. S2CID 205791079.
241. ^ Larouche E, Hudon C, Goulet S (January 2015). "Potential benefits of mindfulness-based interventions in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: an interdisciplinary perspective". Behavioural Brain Research. 276: 199–212\. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2014.05.058. hdl:20.500.11794/39836. PMID 24893317. S2CID 36235259.
242. ^ Last N, Tufts E, Auger LE (2017). "The Effects of Meditation on Grey Matter Atrophy and Neurodegeneration: A Systematic Review". Journal of Alzheimer's Disease. 56 (1): 275–286\. doi:10.3233/JAD-160899. PMID 27983555.
243. ^ a b Simon R, Engström M (2015). "The default mode network as a biomarker for monitoring the therapeutic effects of meditation". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 776. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00776. PMC 4460295. PMID 26106351.
244. ^ Buric I, Farias M, Jong J, Mee C, Brazil IA (2017). "What Is the Molecular Signature of Mind-Body Interventions? A Systematic Review of Gene Expression Changes Induced by Meditation and Related Practices". Frontiers in Immunology. 8: 670. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2017.00670. PMC 5472657. PMID 28670311.
245. ^ Sanada K, Alda Díez M, Salas Valero M, et al. (February 2017). "Effects of mindfulness-based interventions on biomarkers in healthy and cancer populations: a systematic review". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 17 (1): 125. doi:10.1186/s12906-017-1638-y. PMC 5324275. PMID 28231775.
246. ^ Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Vangel M, Congleton C, Yerramsetti SM, Gard T, Lazar SW (January 2011). "Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density". Psychiatry Research. 191 (1): 36–43\. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006. PMC 3004979. PMID 21071182.
247. ^ de Vibe M, Bjørndal A, Fattah S, Dyrdal GM, Halland E, Tanner-Smith EE (2017). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) for improving health, quality of life and social functioning in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Campbell Systematic Reviews. 13 (1): 1–264\. doi:10.4073/csr.2017.11. hdl:11250/2488002.
248. ^ a b Luders E, Kurth F, Mayer EA, Toga AW, Narr KL, Gaser C (2012). "The unique brain anatomy of meditation practitioners: alterations in cortical gyrification". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 6: 34. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00034. PMC 3289949. PMID 22393318.
249. ^ Mark Wheeler (March 14, 2012). "Evidence builds that meditation strengthens the brain, UCLA researchers say". UCLA Newsroom. Archived from the original on 2014-05-05.
250. ^ Fjorback, L. O.; Arendt, M.; Ornbøl, E.; Fink, P.; Walach, H. (2011). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 124 (2): 102–119\. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01704.x. PMID 21534932. S2CID 8410167.
251. ^ "Intervention Summary: Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)". Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2015-02-09. Retrieved 2015-02-08.
252. ^ Xiao, Qianguo; Hu, Chunmei; Wang, Ting (November 1, 2020). "Mindfulness Practice Makes Moral People More Moral". Mindfulness. 11 (11): 2639–2650\. doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01478-4. ISSN 1868-8535. S2CID 225428262.
253. ^ Baer RA, Smith GT, Hopkins J, Krietemeyer J, Toney L (March 2006). "Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness". Assessment. 13 (1): 27–45\. doi:10.1177/1073191105283504. PMID 16443717. S2CID 16304094.
254. ^ Baer RA, Lykins EL, Peters JR (May 1, 2012). "Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 7 (3): 230–238\. doi:10.1080/17439760.2012.674548. S2CID 15972961.
255. ^ Bergomi C, Tschacher W, Kupper Z (December 1, 2015). "Meditation Practice and Self-Reported Mindfulness: a Cross-Sectional Investigation of Meditators and Non-Meditators Using the Comprehensive Inventory of Mindfulness Experiences (CHIME)" (PDF). Mindfulness. 6 (6): 1411–1421\. doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0415-6. S2CID 141621092.
256. ^ Suelmann H, Brouwers A, Snippe E (December 1, 2018). "Explaining Variations in Mindfulness Levels in Daily Life". Mindfulness. 9 (6): 1895–1906\. doi:10.1007/s12671-018-0932-1. PMC 6244631. PMID 30524516.
257. ^ Gotink RA, Hermans KS, Geschwind N, De Nooij R, De Groot WT, Speckens AE (December 1, 2016). "Mindfulness and mood stimulate each other in an upward spiral: a mindful walking intervention using experience sampling". Mindfulness. 7 (5): 1114–1122\. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0550-8. PMC 5010615. PMID 27642373.
258. ^ Shapiro SL, Carlson LE, Astin JA, Freedman B (March 2006). "Mechanisms of mindfulness". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 62 (3): 373–386\. doi:10.1002/jclp.20237. PMID 16385481. S2CID 6968813.
259. ^ "Does meditation carry a risk of harmful side effects?". nhs.uk. May 26, 2017. Archived from the original on 2021-01-03. Retrieved 2018-05-07.
260. ^ "Dangers of Meditation". Psychology Today. 2016. Archived from the original on 2023-03-17. Retrieved 2018-05-07.
261. ^ "Seriously... – Seriously... – Is Mindfulness Meditation Dangerous?". BBC Radio 4. Archived from the original on 2018-07-01. Retrieved 2018-05-07.
262. ^ "Meditation is touted as a cure for mental instability but can it actually be bad for you?". www.independent.co.uk. 2015. Archived from the original on 2018-05-08. Retrieved 2018-05-08.
263. ^ Chan-Ob, T; Boonyanaruthee, V (1999). "Meditation in association with psychosis". Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet Thangphaet. 82 (9): 925–30\. ISSN 0125-2208. PMID 10561951.
264. ^ Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 142 (5): 374–393\. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538.
265. ^ Goud, S. S. (2022). "A Double-Edged Sword-A Case Report of Psychosis Associated with Excessive Unguided Meditation". Case Reports in Psychiatry. 2022 (2661824). doi:10.1155/2022/2661824. PMC 9617715. PMID 36316997.
266. ^ Yadav, J.; Bhardwaj, A.; Jangid, P.; Singh, P.; Gupta, R. (2023). "Meditation-A Slippery Slope for Psychosis: A Case Series With Review of Evidence". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 211 (8): 634–638\. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000001656. PMID 37505896.
267. ^ Farias, M; Wikholm, C (2016). "Has the science of mindfulness lost its mind?". BJPsych Bulletin. 40 (6): 329–332\. doi:10.1192/pb.bp.116.053686. PMC 5353526. PMID 28377813.
268. ^ The Buddha Pill: Can Meditation Change You? by M. Farias and C. Wikholm, 2019 ISBN 9781780287188
269. ^ Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism by T. Joiner, 2017 ISBN 0190200626
270. ^ McMindfulness: How Mindfulness Became the New Capitalist Spirituality by R. Purser, 2019 ISBN 191224831X
271. ^ Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216643. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416643S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMC 6508707. PMID 31071152.
272. ^ Britton, W. B.; Lindahl, J. R.; Cooper, D. J.; Canby, N. K.; Palitsky, R (2021). "Defining and measuring meditation-related adverse effects in mindfulness-based programs". Clinical Psychological Science. 9 (6): 1185–1204\. doi:10.1177/2167702621996340. PMC 8845498. PMID 35174010.
273. ^ Britton, W. B.; Lindahl, J. R.; Cooper, D. J.; Canby, N. K.; Palitsky, R (2021). "Defining and measuring meditation-related adverse effects in mindfulness-based programs". Clinical Psychological Science. 9 (6): 1185–1204\. doi:10.1177/2167702621996340. PMC 8845498. PMID 35174010.
274. ^ Hafenbrack, A. C.; LaPalme, M. L.; Solal, I. (2022). "Mindfulness meditation reduces guilt and prosocial reparation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 123 (1): 28–54\. doi:10.1037/pspa0000298. PMID 34941333.
275. ^ Poulin, M. J.; Ministero, L. M.; Gabriel, S.; Morrison, C. D.; Naidu, E. (2021). "Minding Your Own Business? Mindfulness Decreases Prosocial Behavior for People With Independent Self-Construals". Psychological Science. 32 (11): 1699–1708\. doi:10.1177/09567976211015184. PMID 34705576.
276. ^ "How mindfulness can make you a darker person". bbc.com. March 3, 2022. Retrieved 2024-07-09.
277. ^ Vörös, Sebastjan (2016). "Sitting with the Demons – Mindfulness, Suffering, and Existential Transformation". Asian Studies. 4 (2): 59–83\. doi:10.4312/as.2016.4.2.59-83. Archived from the original on 2020-08-20. Retrieved 2020-01-31.
278. ^ a b Salguero, C. Pierce (2023). ""Meditation Sickness" in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and the Contemporary West" (PDF). Journal of Buddhist Ethics. 30 (2): 169–211\. ISSN 1076-9005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-06-03. Retrieved 2024-02-14.
279. ^ Chan EY (2019). "Mindfulness and willingness to try insects as food: The role of disgust". Food Quality and Preference. 71: 375–383\. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.08.014. S2CID 150289273.
280. ^ Chan EY, Wang Y (September 2019). "Mindfulness changes construal level: An experimental investigation". Journal of Experimental Psychology. General. 148 (9): 1656–1664\. doi:10.1037/xge0000654. PMID 31355654. S2CID 198965872.
281. ^ Wachs K, Cordova JV (October 2007). "Mindful relating: exploring mindfulness and emotion repertoires in intimate relationships". Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. 33 (4): 464–481\. doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2007.00032.x. PMID 17935530.
282. ^ McLean G, Lawrence M, Simpson R, Mercer SW (May 2017). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction in Parkinson's disease: a systematic review". BMC Neurology. 17 (1): 92. doi:10.1186/s12883-017-0876-4. PMC 5433018. PMID 28506263.
283. ^ Lever Taylor B, Cavanagh K, Strauss C (2016). "The Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Interventions in the Perinatal Period: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". PLOS ONE. 11 (5): e0155720. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1155720L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155720. PMC 4868288. PMID 27182732.
284. ^ Grossman P (April 2008). "On measuring mindfulness in psychosomatic and psychological research". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 64 (4): 405–408\. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.02.001. PMID 18374739.
285. ^ a b Wallace BA (2006). The attention revolution: Unlocking the power of the focused mind. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0861712762.
286. ^ Chiesa A (2012). "The Difficulty of Defining Mindfulness: Current Thought and Critical Issues". Mindfulness. 4 (3): 255–68\. doi:10.1007/s12671-012-0123-4. S2CID 2244732.
287. ^ Bazzano 2014.
288. ^ Giesler M, Veresiu E (2014). "Creating the Responsible Consumer: Moralistic Governance Regimes and Consumer Subjectivity". Journal of Consumer Research. 41 (October): 849–67\. doi:10.1086/677842. S2CID 145622639.
289. ^ Bond, Michael (September 13, 2017). "Lost in meditation: Two books argue over mindfulness". New Scientist.
290. ^ Joiner, Thomas (2017). Mindlessness: The Corruption of Mindfulness in a Culture of Narcissism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-020062-6.
291. ^ Purser R (June 14, 2019). "The mindfulness conspiracy". The Guardian. Retrieved 2020-01-15.
292. ^ Shonin E (August 27, 2015). Buddhist Foundations of Mindfulness (Mindfulness in Behavioral Health) (1st ed.). Springer. pp. 90–94.

## Sources

[edit]

### Printed sources

[edit]

* Analayo, Bhikku (2003). Satipaṭṭhāna, the direct path to realization. Windhorse Publications.
* Baer, Ruth A. (2003). "Mindfulness Training as a Clinical Intervention: A Conceptual and Empirical Review" (PDF). Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 10 (2): 125–143\. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bpg015.
* Bazzano M (2014). After Mindfulness: New Perspectives on Psychology and Meditation. Palgrave Macmillan.
* Bhikkhu Bodhi. "The Noble Eightfold Path". Access to Insight. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
* Bishop SR, Lau M, Shapiro S, Carlson L, Anderson ND, Carmody J, Segal ZV, Abbey S, Speca M, Velting D, Devins G (2004). "Mindfulness: A Proposed Operational Definition". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 11 (3): 230–241\. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.168.6212. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph077.
* Black, David S. (2011). "A Brief Definition of Mindfulness" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-27.
* Blanck, P.; Perleth, S; Heidenreich, T; Kröger, P; Ditzen, B.; Bents, H.; Mander, J. (2018). "Effects of mindfulness exercises as stand-alone intervention on symptoms of anxiety and depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 102: 25–35\. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0379-y. PMID 29291584.
* Buchholz, L. (2015). "Exploring the Promise of Mindfulness as Medicine". JAMA. 314 (13): 1327–1329\. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.7023. PMID 26441167.
* Creswell, J.D. (January 2017). "Mindfulness Interventions". Annual Review of Psychology. 68: 491–516\. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-042716-051139. PMID 27687118. "Methodologically rigorous RCTs have demonstrated that mindfulness interventions improve outcomes in multiple domains (e.g., chronic pain, depression relapse, addiction)."
* Deatherage, Gary (1975). "The clinical use of "mindfulness" meditation techniques in short-term psychotherapy" (PDF). Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 7 (2): 133–43.
* Didonna F (2008). Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness. Springer Science & Business Media.
* Dreyfus G (2013). "Is mindfulness present-centered and non-judgmental? A discussion of the cognitive dimensions of mindfulness". In Williams JM, Kabat-Zinn J (eds.). Mindfulness: Diverse Perspectives on its Meaning, Origins and Applications. Routledge.
* Gehart DR (2012). Mindfulness and Acceptance in Couple and Family Therapy. Springer Science & Business Media.
* Germer CK (2005). "Mindfulness. What Is It? What does It Matter?". In Germer CK, Siegel RD, Fulton PR (eds.). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. Guilford Press.
* Gkintoni, Evgenia; Vassilopoulos, Stephanos P.; Nikolaou, Georgios (March 3, 2025). "Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy in Clinical Practice: A Systematic Review of Neurocognitive Outcomes and Applications for Mental Health and Well-Being". Journal of Clinical Medicine. 14 (5). MDPI AG: 1703. doi:10.3390/jcm14051703. ISSN 2077-0383. PMC 11900371. PMID 40095733.
* Harrington, A; Dunne, JD (2015). "When mindfulness is therapy: Ethical qualms, historical perspectives". The American Psychologist. 70 (7): 621–631\. doi:10.1037/a0039460. PMID 26436312. S2CID 43129186.
* Harris MW (2009). The A to Z of Unitarian Universalism. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9780810863330.
* Hick SF (2010). "Cultivating Therapeutic Relationships: The Role of Mindfulness.". In Hick SF, Bien T (eds.). Mindfulness and the Therapeutic Relationship. Guilford Press.
* Hofmann SG, Sawyer AT, Witt AA, Oh D (April 2010). "The effect of mindfulness-based therapy on anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 78 (2): 169–183\. doi:10.1037/a0018555. PMC 2848393. PMID 20350028.
* Ihnen A, Flynn C (2008). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Mindfulness. Penguin.
* Kabat-Zinn J (July 2000). "Participatory medicine". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology. 14 (4): 239–240\. doi:10.1046/j.1468-3083.2000.00062.x. PMID 11204505. S2CID 35760167.
* Kabat-Zinn, Jon (2011). Mindfulness for Beginners: Reclaiming the Present Moment--and Your Life. Sounds True.
* Kabat-Zinn, J. (2013). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York: Bantam Dell. ISBN 978-0345539724.
* Kabat-Zinn, Jon (2013a). Arriving at Your Own Door: 108 Lessons in Mindfulness. Hyperion. ISBN 978-1306752299.
* Karunamuni N, Weerasekera R (2019). "Theoretical Foundations to Guide Mindfulness Meditation: A Path to Wisdom". Current Psychology. 38 (3): 627–646\. doi:10.1007/s12144-017-9631-7. S2CID 149024504.
* King R (2001). Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East". Taylor & Francis e-Library.
* Kipf D (1979). The Brahmo Samaj and the shaping of the modern Indian mind. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. ISBN 978-0691031255.
* Kristeller JL (2007). "Mindfulness Meditation". In Lehrer PM, Woolfolk RL, Sime WE (eds.). Principles and Practice of Stress Management (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
* Kvamme, Timo L.; Sandberg, Kristian; Silvanto, Juha (2024). "Mental imagery as part of an 'inwardly focused' cognitive style". Neuropsychologia. 204: 108988. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108988. PMID 39222775.
* Lee MJ (2020). Moral Transformation in Greco-Roman Philosophy of Mind: Mapping the Moral Milieu of the Apostle Paul and his Diaspora Jewish Contemporaries. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-1614-9660-8.
* Linehan M (1993). Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder. Guilford Press.
* Marlatt GA, Kristeller J (1999). "Mindfulness and meditation". In Miller WE (ed.). Integrating spirituality in treatment: Resources for practitioners. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Books. pp. 67–84.
* Matiz, Alessio (January 30, 2025). "Psychological and neuroscientific correlates of mindfulness in clinical and educational settings" (in Italian). Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza'. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
* McMahan DL (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195183276.
* Nisbet, Matthew (2017). "The Mindfulness Movement: How a Buddhist Practice Evolved into a Scientific Approach to Life". Skeptical Inquirer. 41 (3): 24–26\. Archived from the original on 2018-10-02. Retrieved 2018-10-02.
* Polak G (2011). Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology. UMCS.
* PTS. "Sati". The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary. Digital Dictionaries of South Asia, University of Chicago. Archived from the original on 2012-12-12.
* Repetti R (2022). Routledge Handbook on the Philosophy of Meditation. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-0005-7574-3.
* Sharf R (1995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" (PDF). Numen. 42 (3): 228–283\. doi:10.1163/1568527952598549. hdl:2027.42/43810. JSTOR 3270219.
* Sharf R (2014). "Mindfulness and Mindlessness in Early Chan". Philosophy East and West. 64 (4): 933–64\. doi:10.1353/pew.2014.0074. S2CID 144208166.
* Siegel, Ronald D. (2010). The Mindfulness Solution: Everyday Practices for Everyday Problems. The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-294-1
* Slagter, H.A.; Davidson, R.J.; Lutz, A. (2011). "Mental training as a tool in the neuroscientific study of brain and cognitive plasticity". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 5: 17. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00017. PMC 3039118. PMID 21347275.
* Tanay G, Bernstein A (December 2013). "State Mindfulness Scale (SMS): development and initial validation". Psychological Assessment. 25 (4): 1286–1299\. doi:10.1037/a0034044. PMID 24059475. S2CID 8659383.
* Teasdale JD, Segal ZV (2007). The Mindful Way Through Depression: Freeing Yourself from Chronic Unhappiness. Guilford Press.
* Thompson, Evan (2020). Why I Am Not a Buddhist. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 120\. ISBN 978-0-300-22655-3. "Buddhism has no single, agreed-upon traditional definition of mindfulness. Rather, Buddhism offers multiple and sometimes incompatible conceptions of mindfulness."
* Van Gordon W, Shonin E, Griffiths MD, Singh NN (2014). "There is Only One Mindfulness: Why Science and Buddhism Need to Work Together". Mindfulness. 6: 49–56\. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0379-y.
* Vetter T (1988). The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism. BRILL.
* Wilks, Jenny (2014). "Secular mindfulness: potential & pitfalls". Insight Journal.
* Williams P, Tribe A (2000). Buddhist Thought. Routledge.
* Wilson J (2014). Mindful America: the Mutual Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and American Culture. Oxford University Press.
* Zgierska A, Rabago D, Chawla N, Kushner K, Koehler R, Marlatt A (2009). "Mindfulness meditation for substance use disorders: a systematic review". Substance Abuse. 30 (4): 266–294\. Bibcode:2009JPkR...30..266Z. doi:10.1080/08897070903250019. PMC 2800788. PMID 19904664.

### Web sources

[edit]

1. ^ Farias M (June 5, 2015). "Mindfulness Has Lost Its Buddhist Roots, and it may not be doing you good". The Conversation. Retrieved 2020-02-05. "What was once a tool for spiritual exploration has been turned into a panacea for the modern age — a cure-all for common human problems, from stress, to anxiety, to depression. [...] Yet the potential for emotional and psychological disturbance is rarely talked about by mindfulness researchers, the media, or mentioned in training courses. [...] Mindfulness has been separated from its roots, stripped of its ethical and spiritual connotations, and sold to us as a therapeutic tool. [...] Instead, as Giles Coren recently claimed, this technique has been turned into a McMindfulness which only reinforces one's egocentric drives."
2. ^ a b "» Geoffrey Samuel Transcultural Psychiatry". Archived from the original on 2020-11-01. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
3. ^ a b "Translator for the Buddha: An Interview with Bhikkhu Bodhi". www.inquiringmind.com. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
4. ^ Young, Shinzen (April 2015). "See Hear Feel: An Introduction (Draft)" (PDF). 1.8.
5. ^ a b c d "Thesaurus results for 'Mindfulness'". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
6. ^ "Component Selection for 'mindfulness'". dico.isc.cnrs.fr. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
7. ^ a b c "I found great synonyms for "mindfulness" on the new Thesaurus.com!". www.thesaurus.com. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
8. ^ Komaroff A (March 31, 2014). "Does "mindfulness meditation" really help relieve stress and anxiety?". Ask Doctor K. Harvard Health Publications. Archived from the original on 2020-01-30. Retrieved 2014-04-22.
9. ^ "The Mindfulness Body Scan".
10. ^ "Beginner's Body Scan Meditation". mindful.org. January 27, 2023.
11. ^ "Body Scan Meditation (Greater Good in Action)". ggia.berkeley.edu.
12. ^ "History of MBSR". University of Massachusetts Medical School. November 17, 2016.
13. ^ Sister Ayya Khema. "All of Us". Access to Insight. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
14. ^ Reginald A. Ray (Summer 2004). "Vipashyana". Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly. Shambhala Sun Foundation. Archived from the original on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
15. ^ a b Satyadarshin. "Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO): Buddhism and Mindfulness". madhyamavani.fwbo.org. Retrieved 2018-01-07.
16. ^ a b Kabat-Zinn, Jon. "Mindfulness Meditation (For Everyday Life)" (PDF).
17. ^ Finseth IF. "The Emergence of Transcendentalism". virginia.edu. The University of Virginia. Archived from the original on 2014-11-06. Retrieved 2014-11-09.
18. ^ "Stress Reduction Program". University of Massachusetts Worcester Campus Center for Mindfulness. Archived from the original on 2012-04-14. "The Stress Reduction Program, founded by Dr. Jon Kabat-Zinn in 1979..."
19. ^ Drage M (February 22, 2018). "A history of mindfulness". Wellcome Collection. Retrieved 2019-12-13.
20. ^ "What Is Mindfulness?". The Greater Good Science Center. The Greater Good Science Center at the University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 2014-04-24.
21. ^ Israel I (May 30, 2013). "What's the Difference Between Mindfulness, Mindfulness Meditation and Basic Meditation?". The Huffington Post.
22. ^ Bernhard T (June 6, 2011). "6 Benefits of Practicing Mindfulness Outside of Meditation". Psychology Today.
23. ^ Wang, Y.; Lei, S. M.; Fan, J. (2023). "Effects of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Promoting Athletic Performance and Related Factors among Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trial". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 20 (3): 2038. doi:10.3390/ijerph20032038. PMC 9915077. PMID 36767403.
24. ^ "What is Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction?". Mindful Living Programs. Archived from the original on 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2014-04-15.
25. ^ a b "What is Mindfulness based Pain Management (MBPM)?". Breathworks CIC. January 22, 2019. Retrieved 2020-05-22.
26. ^ Booth R (May 7, 2014). "Politicians joined by Ruby Wax as parliament pauses for meditation". The Guardian - via www.theguardian.com.
27. ^ a b c Safran, Jeremy D. (June 13, 2014). "McMindfulness". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 2015-04-02.
28. ^ a b c d e f Purser, Ron; Loy, David (July 1, 2013). "Beyond McMindfulness". HuffPost.
29. ^ Caring-Lobel A (July 2, 2013). "Trike Contributing Editor David Loy takes on "McMindfulness"". Tricycle: The Buddhist Review.

## Further reading

[edit]

Look up 念 in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Look up Mindfulness in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

### Origins

[edit]

* McMahan DL (2008). The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195183276.
* Braun EB (2016). The Birth of Insight. Meditation, Modern Buddhism, and the Burmese Monk Ledi Sayadaw. The University Of Chicago Press.
* Wilson J (2014). Mindful America: Meditation and the Mutual Transformation of Buddhism and American Culture. Oxford University Press.

### Buddhism

[edit]

* Guenther HV, Kawamura LS (1975). Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" (Kindle ed.). Dharma Publishing.
* Nyanaponika (1962). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: Satipaṭṭhāna: a Handbook of Mental Training Based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness, with an Anthology of Relevant Texts Translated from the Pali and Sanskrit. Buddhist Publication Society.
* Nyanaponika (1968). The Power of Mindfulness. Buddhist Publication Society.
* Hart W (2011). The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation As Taught by S.N. Goenka. Pariyatti.

### Psychology

[edit]

* Benhard JD, Kristeller J, Kabat-Zinn J (September 1988). "Effectiveness of relaxation and visualization techniques as an adjunct to phototherapy and photochemotherapy of psoriasis". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 19 (3): 572–574\. doi:10.1016/S0190-9622(88)80329-3. PMID 3049703.
* Bowen S, Chawla N, Marlatt GA (2010). Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention for Addictive Behaviors: A Clinician's Guide. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-987-2.
* Brantley J (2007). Calming Your Anxious Mind: How Mindfulness & Compassion Can Free You from Anxiety, Fear, & Panic (2nd ed.). New Harbinger. ISBN 978-1-57224-487-0.
* Deckersbach T, Hölzel B, Eisner L, Lazar SW, Nierenberg AA (2014). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Bipolar Disorder. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1406-9.
* Didonna F (2008). Clinical Handbook of Mindfulness. Springer Science & Business Media.
* Ie A, Ngnoumen CT, Langer EJ (2014). The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Mindfulness (Two Volumes). John Wiley & Sons.
* Ockene JK, Ockene IS, Kabat-Zinn J, Greene HL, Frid D (1990). "Teaching risk-factor counseling skills to medical students, house staff, and fellows". American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 6 (2 Suppl): 35–42\. PMID 2383411.
* Ockene JK, Sorensen G, Kabat-Zinn J, Ockene IS, Donnelly G (March 1988). "Benefits and costs of lifestyle change to reduce risk of chronic disease". Preventive Medicine. 17 (2): 224–234\. doi:10.1016/0091-7435(88)90065-5. PMID 3047727.
* Orsillo SM, Roemer L (2011). The Mindful Way through Anxiety: Break Free from Chronic Worry and Reclaim Your Life. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-464-8.
* Pollak SM, Pedulla T, Siegel RD (2014). Sitting Together: Essential Skills for Mindfulness-Based Psychotherapy. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1398-7.
* Segal ZV, Williams JM, Teasdale JD (2012). Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-0750-4.
* Teasdale JD, Williams JM, Segal ZV (2014). The Mindful Way Workbook: An 8-Week Program to Free Yourself from Depression and Emotional Distress. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-0814-3.
* Williams M, Teasdale J, Segal Z, Kabat-Zinn J (2007). The Mindful Way through Depression: Freeing Yourself from Chronic Unhappiness. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-128-6.

### Other

[edit]

* Bell LG (2009). "Mindful Psychotherapy". Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health. 11 (1–2): 126–44\. doi:10.1080/19349630902864275. S2CID 218637476.1–2&rft.pages=126-44&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/19349630902864275&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218637476#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Linda+G&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Mindfulness" class="Z3988">
* Brahm A (2005). Mindfulness, Bliss, and Beyond: A Meditator's Handbook. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-275-5.
* Boccio FJ (2004). Mindfulness Yoga: The Awakened Union of Breath, Body and Mind. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-86171-335-4.
* Buddhadasa, Bhikkhu (2014). Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree. Wisdom publications.
* Germer CK (2009). The Mindful Path to Self-Compassion: Freeing Yourself from Destructive Thoughts and Emotions. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-975-6.
* Germer CK, Siegel R, Fulton PR, eds. (2013). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-1137-2.
* Germer CK, Siegel R, Fulton PR (2005). Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. The Guilford Press. ISBN 1-59385-139-1. (The use of mindfulness in psychology, and the history of mindfulness)
* Grossman P, Niemann L, Schmidt S, Walach H (July 2004). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits. A meta-analysis". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 57 (1): 35–43\. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(03)00573-7. PMID 15256293.
* Gunaratana BH (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 978-0-86171-906-8. Archived from the original on 2013-09-02. Retrieved 2008-07-28.
* Hanh TN (1996). The Miracle of Mindfulness: A Manual on Meditation. Beacon Press.
* Hayes SC, Follette VM, Linehan MM, eds. (2011). Mindfulness and Acceptance: Expanding the Cognitive-Behavioral Tradition. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60918-989-1.
* Hoopes A (2007). Zen Yoga: A Path to Enlightenment through Breathing, Movement and Meditation. Kodansha International.
* Kapleau P (1989). The Three Pillars of Zen: Teaching, Practice and Enlightenment. Anchor Books.
* King WL (1992). Theravada Meditation. The Buddhist Transformation of Yoga. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
* Koster F (2009). Basisprincipes Vipassana-meditatie. Mindfulness als weg naar bevrijdend inzicht. Asoka.
* Langer EJ (1989). Mindfulness. Merloyd Lawrence Books.
* Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. Hyperion Books. 2005. ISBN 1401307787.
* Mack P (2020). The Misted Mirror - Mindfulness for Schools and Universities. From the Heart Press.
* McCown D, Micozzi MS (2011). New World Mindfulness: From the Founding Fathers, Emerson, and Thoreau to Your Personal Practice. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co.
* McCracken LM, Gauntlett-Gilbert J, Vowles KE (September 2007). "The role of mindfulness in a contextual cognitive-behavioral analysis of chronic pain-related suffering and disability". Pain. 131 (1–2): 63–69\. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.12.013. PMID 17257755. S2CID 14841265.1–2&rft.pages=63-69&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14841265#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:pmid/17257755&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.pain.2006.12.013&rft.aulast=McCracken&rft.aufirst=LM&rft.au=Gauntlett-Gilbert,+J&rft.au=Vowles,+KE&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Mindfulness" class="Z3988">
* Melemis, Steven M. (2008). Make Room for Happiness: 12 Ways to Improve Your Life by Letting Go of Tension. Better Health, Self-Esteem and Relationships. Modern Therapies. ISBN 978-1-897572-17-7.
* Miller JJ, Fletcher K, Kabat-Zinn J (May 1995). "Three-year follow-up and clinical implications of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction intervention in the treatment of anxiety disorders". General Hospital Psychiatry. 17 (3): 192–200\. doi:10.1016/0163-8343(95)00025-M. PMID 7649463.
* Nyanaponika (1998). Het hart van boeddhistische meditatie [The heart of Buddhist Meditation] (in Dutch). Asoka.
* Saxe GA, Hébert JR, Carmody JF, Kabat-Zinn J, Rosenzweig PH, Jarzobski D, et al. (December 2001). "Can diet in conjunction with stress reduction affect the rate of increase in prostate specific antigen after biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer?". The Journal of Urology. 166 (6): 2202–2207\. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)65535-8. PMID 11696736.
* Siegel DJ (2007). The Mindful Brain: Reflection and Attunement in the Cultivation of Well-Being. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70470-9.
* Siegel RD (2009). The Mindfulness Solution: Everyday Practices for Everyday Problems. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-294-1.
* Singer MA (2007). The Untethered Soul. New Harbinger Publications/ Noetic Books. ISBN 978-1572245372.
* Singer MA (2015). The Surrender Experiment. Harmony/Rodale. ISBN 978-0804141109.
* Weiss A (2004). Beginning Mindfulness: Learning the Way of Awareness. New World Library.
* Williams JM, Duggan DS, Crane C, Fennell MJ (February 2006). "Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for prevention of recurrence of suicidal behavior". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 62 (2): 201–210\. doi:10.1002/jclp.20223. PMID 16342287.

### Critical

[edit]

* Levman B (2017). "Putting smṛti back into sati (Putting remembrance back into mindfulness)". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 13: 121–49\. ISSN 2047-1076.
* Sharf R (1995). "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience" (PDF). Numen. 42 (3): 228–283\. doi:10.1163/1568527952598549. hdl:2027.42/43810. JSTOR 3270219.
* Carrette JR, King R (2005). Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion. Psychology Press.
* Kabat-Zinn J, Williams M (2013). Mindfulness – Diverse perspectives on its meanings, origins and applications. Routledge.
* Thompson, Evan (2020). Why I am Not a Buddhist. Yale University Press.
* Wallis, Glenn (2018). A Critique of Western Buddhism: Ruins of the Buddhist Real. Bloomsbury Academic.Open access

* v
* t
* e

Topics in Buddhism

* Outline
* Glossary
* Index

Foundations|

* Four Noble Truths
* Three Jewels
* Buddha
* Dharma
* Sangha
* Noble Eightfold Path
* Nirvana
* Middle Way

The Buddha|

* Tathāgata
* Birthday
* Four sights
* Eight Great Events
* Great Renunciation
* Physical characteristics
* Life of Buddha in art
* Footprint
* Relics
* Iconography in Laos and Thailand
* Films
* Miracles
* Family
* Suddhodāna (father)
* Māyā (mother)
* Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother)
* Yaśodharā (wife)
* Rāhula (son)
* Ānanda (cousin)
* Devadatta (cousin)
* Bodhi tree
* Places where the Buddha stayed
* Buddha in world religions

Bodhisattvas|

* Avalokiteśvara
* Guanyin
* Mañjuśrī
* Mahāsthāmaprāpta
* Ākāśagarbha
* Kṣitigarbha
* Samantabhadra
* Vajrapāṇi
* Skanda
* Tārā
* Metteyya/Maitreya

Disciples|

* Kaundinya
* Assaji
* Sāriputta
* Mahamoggallāna
* Ānanda
* Mahākassapa
* Aṅgulimāla
* Anuruddha
* Mahākaccana
* Nanda
* Subhūti
* Puṇṇa Mantānīputta
* Upāli
* Mahapajapati Gotamī
* Khema
* Uppalavanna
* Asita
* Channa
* Yasa

Key concepts|

* Avidyā (Ignorance)
* Bardo
* Bodhicitta
* Buddha-nature
* Dhamma theory
* Dharma
* Enlightenment
* Five hindrances
* Indriya
* Karma
* Kleshas
* Mental factors
* Mindstream
* Parinirvana
* Pratītyasamutpāda
* Rebirth
* Saṃsāra
* Saṅkhāra
* Skandha
* Śūnyatā
* Taṇhā (Craving)
* Tathātā
* Ten Fetters
* Three marks of existence
* Anicca
* Dukkha
* Anattā
* Two truths doctrine

Cosmology|

* Ten spiritual realms
* Six Paths
* Deva realm
* Human realm
* Asura realm
* Hungry Ghost realm
* Animal realm
* Naraka
* Three planes of existence

Branches|

* Mahayana
* Zen
* Chinese Chan
* Japanese Zen
* Korean Seon
* Vietnamese Thiền
* Pure Land
* Tiantai
* Huayan
* Risshū
* Nichiren
* Madhyamaka
* Yogachara
* Vajrayana
* Tibetan Buddhism
* Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
* Shingon
* Dzogchen
* Theravada
* Navayana
* Early Buddhist schools
* Pre-sectarian Buddhism
* Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna
* Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism

Practices|

* Bhavana
* Bodhipakkhiyādhammā
* Brahmavihara
* Mettā
* Karuṇā
* Mudita
* Upekkha
* Buddhābhiṣeka
* Dāna
* Devotion
* Deity yoga
* Dhyāna
* Faith
* Five Strengths
* Iddhipada
* Meditation
* Mantras
* Kammaṭṭhāna
* Recollection
* Smarana
* Anapanasati
* Samatha-vipassanā (Vipassana movement)
* Shikantaza
* Zazen
* Tukdam
* Koan
* Ganana
* Mandala
* Tonglen
* Tantra
* Tertön
* Terma
* Merit
* Mindfulness
* Mindful Yoga
* Satipatthana
* Nekkhamma
* Nianfo
* Pāramitā
* Paritta
* Puja
* Offerings
* Prostration
* Music
* Refuge
* Sādhu
* Satya
* Sacca
* Seven Factors of Enlightenment
* Sati
* Dhamma vicaya
* Pīti
* Passaddhi
* Śīla
* Five precepts
* Eight precepts
* Bodhisattva vow
* Pratimokṣa
* Threefold Training
* Śīla
* Samadhi
* Prajñā
* Vīrya
* Four Right Exertions
* Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar
* Yujia Yankou
* Shuilu Fahui

Nirvana|

* Bodhi
* Bodhisattva
* Buddhahood
* Pratyekabuddhayāna
* Four stages of awakening
* Sotāpanna
* Sakadagami
* Anāgāmi
* Arhat

Monasticism|

* Bhikkhu
* Bhikkhunī
* Śrāmaṇera
* Śrāmaṇerī
* Anagārika
* Ajahn
* Sayadaw
* Zen master
* Rōshi
* Lama
* Rinpoche
* Geshe
* Tulku
* Western tulku
* Kappiya
* Donchee
* Householder
* Upāsaka and Upāsikā
* Achar
* Śrāvaka
* Ten principal disciples
* Shaolin Monastery

Major figures|

* The Buddha
* Nagasena
* Aśvaghoṣa
* Nagarjuna
* Asanga
* Vasubandhu
* Kumārajīva
* Buddhaghosa
* Buddhapālita
* Dignāga
* Bodhidharma
* Zhiyi
* Emperor Wen of Sui
* Songtsen Gampo
* Xuanzang
* Shandao
* Padmasambhava
* Saraha
* Atiśa
* Naropa
* Karmapa
* Hōnen
* Shinran
* Dōgen
* Nichiren
* Shamarpa
* Dalai Lama
* Panchen Lama
* Ajahn Mun
* B. R. Ambedkar
* Ajahn Chah
* Thích Nhất Hạnh

Texts|

* Early Buddhist texts
* Tripiṭaka
* Mahayana sutras
* Pali Canon
* Chinese Buddhist canon
* Tibetan Buddhist canon
* Dhammapada
* Sutra
* Vinaya
* Madhyamakālaṃkāra
* Abhidharmadīpa

Countries|

* Afghanistan
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Cambodia
* China
* India
* Indonesia
* Japan
* Korea
* Laos
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Russia
* Buryatia
* Kalmykia
* Tuva (ru)
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka
* Taiwan
* Thailand
* Tibet
* Vietnam
* Africa
* Senegal
* South Africa
* Central Asia
* Uzbekistan
* Middle East
* Iran
* Saudi Arabia
* Western countries
* Argentina
* Australia
* Brazil
* Canada
* Costa Rica
* Czech Republic
* France
* Germany
* Italy
* Mexico
* New Zealand
* Norway
* Poland
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

History|

* Timeline
* Ashoka
* Kanishka
* Buddhist councils
* History of Buddhism in India
* Decline of Buddhism in India
* Huichang persecution of Buddhism
* Greco-Buddhism
* Gandharan Buddhism
* Texts
* Menander I
* Buddhism and the Roman world
* Buddhism in the West
* Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
* Persecution of Buddhists
* In Afghanistan
* In Vietnam
* Rimé movement
* Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal
* Dalit Buddhist movement
* Chinese invasion of Tibet
* 1959 Tibetan uprising
* Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism
* Buddhist modernism
* Vipassana movement
* 969 Movement
* Engaged Buddhism
* Women in Buddhism

Philosophy|

* Abhidharma
* Atomism
* Buddhology
* Creator
* Buddhism and democracy
* Economics
* Eight Consciousnesses
* Engaged Buddhism
* Eschatology
* Ethics
* Evolution
* Humanism
* Logic
* Reality
* Secular Buddhism
* Socialism
* The unanswerable questions

Culture|

* Architecture
* Temple
* Vihāra
* Kyaung
* Wat
* Ordination hall
* Stupa
* Pagoda
* Burmese pagoda
* Candi
* Dzong architecture
* List of Buddhist architecture in China
* Japanese Buddhist architecture
* Buddhist temples in Korea
* Thai temple art and architecture
* Tibetan Buddhist architecture
* Art
* Greco-Buddhist
* Budai
* Buddha in art
* Calendar
* Cuisine
* Funeral
* Holidays
* Vesak
* Uposatha
* Māgha Pūjā
* Asalha Puja
* Vassa
* Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi
* Kasaya
* Mahabodhi Temple
* Mantra
* Om mani padme hum
* Mudra
* Music
* Pilgrimage
* Lumbini
* Maya Devi Temple
* Bodh Gaya
* Sarnath
* Kushinagar
* Poetry
* Prayer beads
* Hama yumi
* Prayer wheel
* Symbolism
* Dharmachakra
* Flag
* Bhavacakra
* Swastika
* Thangka
* Temple of the Tooth
* Vegetarianism

Miscellaneous|

* Abhijñā
* Amitābha
* Brahmā
* Dharma talk
* Hinayana
* Iddhi
* Kalpa
* Koliya
* Lineage
* Māra
* Siddhi
* Sacred languages
* Pāḷi
* Sanskrit

Comparison|

* Baháʼí Faith
* Christianity
* Influences
* Comparison
* East Asian religions
* Gnosticism
* Hinduism
* Jainism
* Judaism
* Psychology
* Science
* Theosophy
* Violence
* Western philosophy

Lists|

* Bodhisattvas
* Buddhas
* Buddhists
* Suttas
* Sutras
* Temples
* Festivals

* Category
* Buddhism portal

* v
* t
* e

Meditation

Main topics|

* Brain activity and meditation
* History of meditation
* Meditation in popular culture
* Mind–body interventions
* Research on meditation

Traditions|

* Anapanasati (Buddhist breathing meditation)
* Buddhist meditation
* Christian meditation
* Taoist meditation
* Dancemeditation
* Dhyāna (Buddhist meditation)
* Dhyāna (Hindu meditation)
* Henosis (Neoplatonic meditation)
* Islamic meditation
* Jain meditation
* Jewish meditation
* Muraqabah (Sufi meditation)
* New Age meditation
* Naam Japo (Sikism meditation)
* Neigong
* Pranayama (yoga breathing practice)
* Qigong
* Shikantaza (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)
* Silva Method
* Tantra
* Transcendental meditation (TM)
* Vipassanā (Silent meditation)
* Yoga
* Zazen (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)
* Zhan zhuang (tai chi standing meditation)
* 5Rhythms

Techniques|

* Biofeedback
* Brainwave entrainment
* Breathing
* Chanting
* Concentration
* Conscious breathing
* Counting
* Emptiness
* Guided meditation
* Higher consciousness
* Mantra
* Mindfulness
* Mindful Yoga
* Mudra
* Music
* Oneness
* Poetry
* Postures
* Prayer
* Relaxation
* Samyama
* Tantric sex
* Silence
* Sound
* Trance
* Visualization

Leaders|

* Focused attention
* Thich Nhat Hanh
* Open awareness
* Jon Kabat-Zinn
* Sam Harris
* Multiple methods
* Pema Chödrön
* Susan Piver
* S. N. Goenka
* Joseph Goldstein
* Yuval Harari
* 14th Dalai Lama
* Matthieu Ricard
* Sharon Salzberg
* Daniel Goleman
* Thubten Chodron
* Martine Batchelor
* Stephen Batchelor

Works|

* The Varieties of the Meditative Experience

Related|

* Meditation and pain

* Category

Classification|

* MeSH: D064866

|

Portals:

* Philosophy
* Psychology
* Buddhism

Mindfulness at Wikipedia's sister projects:

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Textbooks from Wikibooks
* Resources from Wikiversity

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Latvia
* Poland
* Israel

Other|

* IdRef
* 2

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template