Mosque

Place of worship for Muslims

"Masjed" and "Musjid" redirect here. For the Iranian villages, see Masjed, Iran (disambiguation). For the 19th-century British racehorse, see Musjid (horse).

The Prophet's Mosque (al-Masjid an-Nabawi) in Medina, one of the holiest mosques in Islam Part of a series on

Islam

Beliefs

* Oneness of God

* Angels
* Holy books

* Prophets
* Judgement Day

* Predestination

Practices

* Profession of faith
* Prayer

* Almsgiving
* Fasting
* Pilgrimage

* Texts
* Foundations

* Quran
* Sunnah (Hadith, Sirah)

* Tafsir (exegesis)
* Ijtihad
* Aqidah (creed)
* Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets)
* Mathnawi (poems)

* Fiqh (jurisprudence)
* Sharia (law)

History

* Timeline
* Jahiliyyah
* Muhammad
* Ahl al-Bayt
* Sahabah
* Rashidun
* Caliphate
* Imamate
* Spread of Islam
* Succession to Muhammad
* Abbasid Caliphate
* Al-Andalus
* Golden Age
* Seljuk Empire
* Ilkhanate
* Timurid Renaissance
* Gunpowder empires
* Ottoman Empire
* Saudi Arabia

Culture and society

* Academics
* Animals
* Art
* Association football
* Calendar
* Cats
* Censorship
* Children
* Circumcision
* Democracy
* Demographics
* Diaspora
* Denominations
* Sunni
* Shia
* Ibadi
* Economics
* Education
* Ethics
* Exorcism
* Feminism
* Festivals
* Finance
* Liberalism
* Madrasa
* Moral teachings
* Mosque
* Music
* Mysticism
* Philosophy
* Poetry
* Politics
* Proselytizing
* Science
* Sexuality
* LGBTQ
* Slavery
* Concubinage
* Social welfare
* Women

Related topics

* Arabic language
* Apostasy
* Criticism
* Muhammad
* Quran
* Hadith

* Other religions
* Islamism
* Violence
* terrorism
* war
* Islamophobia
* Jihad
* Jihadism
* Salafi jihadism
* Deobandi jihadism
* Military laws
* Peace
* Pacifism
* Glossary

* Islam portal

* v
* t
* e

A mosque (/mɒsk/ MOSK), also called a masjid (/ˈmæsdʒɪd, ˈmʌs-/ MASS-jid, MUSS-),[note 1] is a place of worship for Muslims.[1] The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Islamic prayers are performed; such as an outdoor courtyard.[2][3]

Originally, mosques were simple places of prayer for the early Muslims, and may have been open spaces rather than elaborate buildings.[4] In the first stage of Islamic architecture (650–750 CE), early mosques comprised open and closed covered spaces enclosed by walls, often with minarets, from which the Islamic call to prayer was issued on a daily basis.[5] It is typical of mosque buildings to have a special ornamental niche (a mihrab) set into the wall in the direction of the city of Mecca (the qibla), which Muslims must face during prayer,[1] as well as a facility for ritual cleansing (wudu).[1][6] The pulpit (minbar), from which public sermons (khutbah) are delivered on the event of Friday prayer, was, in earlier times, characteristic of the central city mosque, but has since become common in smaller mosques.[7][1] To varying degrees, mosque buildings are designed so that there are segregated spaces for men and women.[1] This basic pattern of organization has assumed different forms depending on the region, period, and Islamic denomination.[6]

In addition to being places of worship in Islam, mosques also serve as locations for funeral services and funeral prayers, marriages (nikah), vigils during Ramadan, business agreements, collection and distribution of alms, and homeless shelters.[1][7] To this end, mosques have historically been multi-purpose buildings functioning as community centres, courts of law, and religious schools. In modern times, they have also preserved their role as places of religious instruction and debate.[1][7] Special importance is accorded to, in descending order of importance: al-Masjid al-Haram in the city of Mecca, where Hajj and Umrah are performed; the Prophet's Mosque in the city of Medina, where Muhammad is buried; and al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Jerusalem, where Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven to meet God around 621 CE.[1] There's a growing realization among scholars that the present-day perception of mosques doesn't fully align with their original concept. Early Islamic texts and practices highlight mosques as vibrant centers integral to Muslim communities, supporting religious, social, economic, and political affairs.[8]

During and after the early Muslim conquests, mosques were established outside of Arabia in the hundreds; many synagogues, churches, and temples were converted into mosques and thus influenced Islamic architectural styles over the centuries.[7] While most pre-modern mosques were funded by charitable endowments (waqf),[1] the modern-day trend of government regulation of large mosques has been countered by the rise of privately funded mosques, many of which serve as bases for different streams of Islamic revivalism and social activism.[7]

## Etymology

[edit]

The word 'mosque' entered the English language from the French word mosquée, probably derived from Italian moschea (a variant of Italian moscheta), from either Middle Armenian մզկիթ (mzkit), Medieval Greek: μασγίδιον (masgídion), or Spanish mezquita, from Arabic: مسجد, romanized: masjid (meaning "site of prostration (in prayer)" and hence a place of worship), either from Nabataean masgĕdhā́ or from Arabic: سَجَدَ, romanized: sajada (meaning "to prostrate"), probably ultimately from Nabataean Arabic masgĕdhā́ or Aramaic sĕghēdh.[9]

## History

[edit]

### Origins

[edit]

See also: List of the oldest mosques

Islam was established in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE.[10] The first mosque in history could be either the sanctuary built around the Ka'bah in Mecca, known today as Al-Masjid al-Haram ('The Sacred Mosque'), or the Quba Mosque in Medina, the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622 CE,[11] both located in the Hejaz region in present-day Saudi Arabia.[12]

Other scholars reference Islamic tradition[13][14][15] and passages of the Quran,[16][17][18] according to which Islam as a religion precedes Muhammad, and includes previous prophets such as Abraham.[19] In Islamic tradition, Abraham is credited with having built the Ka'bah in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, Al-Masjid al-Haram, which is seen by Muslims as the first mosque that existed.[20][21][22][23] A hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the sanctuary of the Ka'bah was the first mosque on Earth, with the second mosque being Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem,[24] which is also associated with Abraham.[21] Since as early as 638 CE, the Sacred Mosque of Mecca has been expanded on several occasions to accommodate the increasing number of Muslims who either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage known as Hajj to the city.[25]

Either way, after the Quba Mosque, Muhammad went on to establish another mosque in Medina, which is now known as Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ('The Prophet's Mosque'). Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer the concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city.[26] The Prophet's Mosque is considered by some scholars of Islamic architecture to be the first mosque.[27][28] The mosque had a roof supported by columns made of palm tree trunks[29] and it included a large courtyard, a motif common among mosques built since then.[26] Rebuilt and expanded over time,[30] it soon became a larger hypostyle structure.[28] It probably served as a model for the construction of early mosques elsewhere.[27][28][29] It introduced some of the features still common in today's mosques, including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the mihrab (first added in the Umayyad period)[30] and the tiered pulpit called the minbar.[31]

* 2010 Aerial view of the largest mosque in the world, The Sacred Mosque (Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām) of Mecca in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia, with the Kaaba in the center

* Islam's second holiest site Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (The Prophet's Mosque) in Medina

* Islam's third holiest site Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem

* Inside view of another holy site, the Umayyad Mosque built by the Umayyad Caliphate

* The Quba Mosque in Medina, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia

* The Mosque of the Companions (Masjid As-Sahabah) in Massawa, Eritrea, Horn of Africa

* Masjid al-Qiblatayn (Mosque of the two Qiblahs) in Medina

* One of the holiest sites in Shia Islam, the Imam Hussayn Mosque in Karbala

### Diffusion and evolution

[edit]

Courtyard of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey

The Umayyad Caliphate was particularly instrumental in spreading Islam and establishing mosques within the Levant, as the Umayyads constructed among the most revered mosques in the region — Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.[32] The designs of the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque were influenced by Byzantine architecture, a trend that continued much later with the rise of the Ottoman Empire.[33]

The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present-day Tunisia was the first mosque built in the Maghreb (northwest Africa), with its present form (dating from the ninth century) serving as a model for other Islamic places of worship in the Maghreb. It was the first in the region to incorporate a square minaret, which was characteristic of later Maghrebi mosques, and includes naves akin to a basilica.[34][35] Those features can also be found in Andalusi mosques, including the Great Mosque of Cordoba, as they tended to reflect the architecture of the Moors instead of their Visigoth predecessors.[35] Still, some elements of Visigothic architecture, like horseshoe arches, were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb.[36]

Faisal Mosque in Islamabad is the largest mosque in Pakistan and in South Asia with a capacity of 300,000

Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques. Although mosques were first established in India during the seventh century, they were not commonplace across the subcontinent until the arrival of the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries. Reflecting their Timurid origins, Mughal-style mosques included onion domes, pointed arches, and elaborate circular minarets, features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles.[37] The Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, built in a similar manner in the mid-17th century,[38] remain two of the largest mosques on the Indian subcontinent.[39]

The first mosque in East Asia was established in the eighth century in Xi'an. The Great Mosque of Xi'an, whose current building dates from the 18th century, does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere.[40] Minarets were initially prohibited by the state.[41] Following traditional Chinese architecture, the Great Mosque of Xi'an, like many other mosques in eastern China, resembles a pagoda, with a green roof instead of the yellow roof common on imperial structures in China. Mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements, like domes and minarets, traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere.[40]

Kampung Hulu Mosque, the oldest mosque in Malaysia

A similar integration of foreign and local influences could be seen on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java, where mosques, including the Demak Great Mosque, were first established in the 15th century.[42] Early Javanese mosques took design cues from Hindu, Buddhist, and Chinese architectural influences, with tall timber, multi-level roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples; the ubiquitous Islamic dome did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century.[41][43] In turn, the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesia's Austronesian neighbors—Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines.[42]

Several of the early mosques in the Ottoman Empire were originally churches or cathedrals from the Byzantine Empire, with the Hagia Sophia (one of those converted cathedrals) informing the architecture of mosques from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople.[44] The Ottomans developed their own architectural style characterized by large central domes (sometimes surrounded by multiple smaller domes), pencil-shaped minarets, and open façades.[45]

Namazgah Mosque in 2018. It was the largest mosque in the Balkans at the time of completion.

Mosques from the Ottoman period are still scattered across Eastern Europe, but the most rapid growth in the number of mosques in Europe has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated to the continent. Many major European cities are home to mosques, like the Grand Mosque of Paris, that incorporate domes, minarets, and other features often found with mosques in Muslim-majority countries.[46] The first mosque in North America was founded by Albanian Americans in 1915, but the continent's oldest surviving mosque, the Mother Mosque of America, was built in 1934.[47] As in Europe, the number of American mosques has rapidly increased in recent decades as Muslim immigrants, particularly from South Asia, have come in the United States. Greater than forty percent of mosques in the United States were constructed after 2000.[48]

### Inter-religious conversion

[edit]

See also: Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques, List of former mosques in Spain, and List of former mosques in Portugal

The Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey, was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453

According to early Muslim historians, towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with the Muslims were allowed to retain their churches and the towns captured by Muslims had many of their churches converted to mosques.[49] One of the earliest examples of these kinds of conversions was in Damascus, Syria, where in 705 Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I bought the church of St. John from the Christians and had it rebuilt as a mosque in exchange for building a number of new churches for the Christians in Damascus. Overall, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Al-Waleed's father) is said to have transformed 10 churches in Damascus into mosques.[50]

The process of turning churches into mosques were especially intensive in the villages where most of the inhabitants converted to Islam.[citation needed] The Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun turned many churches into mosques. Ottoman Turks converted nearly all churches, monasteries, and chapels in Constantinople, including the famous Hagia Sophia, into mosques immediately after capturing the city in 1453. In some instances mosques have been established on the places of Jewish or Christian sanctuaries associated with Biblical personalities who were also recognized by Islam.[51]

Mosques have also been converted for use by other religions, notably in southern Spain, following the conquest of the Moors in 1492.[52] The most prominent of them is the Great Mosque of Cordoba, itself constructed on the site of a church demolished during the period of Muslim rule. Outside of the Iberian Peninsula, such instances also occurred in southeastern Europe once regions were no longer under Muslim rule.

## Religious functions

[edit]

See also: Congregational mosque

### Prayers

[edit]

Inside the Mosque, india, hyderabad, during Eid ul-Fitr

There are two holidays (Eids) in the Islamic calendar: ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā, during which there are special prayers held at mosques in the morning. These Eid prayers are supposed to be offered in large groups, and so, in the absence of an outdoor Eidgah, a large mosque will normally host them for their congregants as well as the congregants of smaller local mosques. Some mosques will even rent convention centers or other large public buildings to hold the large number of Muslims who attend. Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are the majority, will also host Eid prayers outside in courtyards, town squares or on the outskirts of town in an Eidgah.[53][54]

### Ramadan

[edit]

Iftar at Taipei Grand Mosque, Taiwan during Ramadan

Islam's holiest month, Ramaḍān, is observed through many events. As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host Ifṭār dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, that is Maghrib. Food is provided, at least in part, by members of the community, thereby creating daily potluck dinners. Because of the community contribution necessary to serve iftar dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the iftar dinners daily. Some mosques will also hold Suḥūr meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, Fajr. As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead. Mosques will often invite poorer members of the Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable.[55]

Following the last obligatory daily prayer (ʿIshāʾ) special, optional Tarāwīḥ prayers are offered in larger mosques. During each night of prayers, which can last for up to two hours each night, usually one member of the community who has memorized the entire Quran (a Hafiz) will recite a segment of the book.[56] Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe Laylat al-Qadr, the night Muslims believe that Muhammad first received Quranic revelations.[56] On that night, between sunset and sunrise, mosques employ speakers to educate congregants in attendance about Islam. Mosques or the community usually provide meals periodically throughout the night

Vault ceiling of the Nasir al-Mulk Mosque in Shiraz, Iran

During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques within the Muslim community will host Iʿtikāf, a practice in which at least one Muslim man from the community must participate. Muslims performing itikaf are required to stay within the mosque for ten consecutive days, often in worship or learning about Islam. As a result, the rest of the Muslim community is responsible for providing the participants with food, drinks, and whatever else they need during their stay.[56]

### Charity

[edit]

Adina Mosque, once the largest mosque in South Asia, in Pandua, the first capital of the Bengal Sultanate.

The third of the Five Pillars of Islam states that Muslims are required to give approximately one-fortieth of their wealth to charity as Zakat.[57] Since mosques form the center of Muslim communities, they are where Muslims go to both give zakat and, if necessary, collect it. Before the holiday of Eid ul-Fitr, mosques also collect a special zakat that is supposed to assist in helping poor Muslims attend the prayers and celebrations associated with the holiday.

### Frequency of attendance

[edit]

The frequency by which Muslims attend mosque services vary greatly around the world. In some countries, weekly attendance at religious services is common among Muslims while in others, attendance is rare. A study of American Muslims did not find differences in mosque attendance by gender or age.[58]

| Percentage of Muslims who attend mosque at least once a week, 2009–2012[59]

Countries |  | Percentage
Ghana |

| 99%
Liberia |

| 94%
Ethiopia |

| 93%
Uganda |

| 93%
Guinea-Bissau |

| 92%
Mozambique |

| 92%
Kenya |

| 91%
Niger |

| 88%
Nigeria |

| 87%
Democratic Republic of the Congo |

| 85%
Cameroon |

| 84%
Djibouti |

| 84%
Tanzania |

| 82%
Chad |

| 81%
Mali |

| 79%
Indonesia |

| 72%
Jordan |

| 65%
Senegal |

| 65%
Afghanistan |

| 61%
Egypt |

| 61%
Pakistan |

| 59%
Malaysia |

| 57%
United Kingdom[note 2][60] |

| 56%
Palestine |

| 55%
Iraq |

| 54%
Spain[61] |

| 54%
Bangladesh |

| 53%
Thailand[note 3] |

| 52%
Yemen[note 4][62] |

| 51%
Israel[note 5][63] |

| 49%
Italy[64] |

| 49%
Canada[note 6][65] |

| 48%
Algeria[note 7][66] |

| 47%
Tunisia |

| 47%
United States of America[67] |

| 47%
Turkey |

| 44%
Australia[note 8][68] |

| 40%
Morocco |

| 40%
Germany[note 9][69] |

| 35%
Lebanon |

| 35%
Libya[note 10][62] |

| 35%
Bosnia and Herzegovina |

| 30%
France[note 11][70] |

| 30%
Tajikistan |

| 30%
Belgium[64] |

| 28%
Iran[note 12][66] |

| 27%
Saudi Arabia[note 13][66] |

| 27%
Denmark[71] |

| 25%
Netherlands[72] |

| 24%
Kyrgyzstan |

| 23%
Kosovo |

| 22%
Bulgaria[note 14][73] |

| 21%
Russian Federation |

| 19%
Georgia[note 15][73] |

| 14%
Kazakhstan |

| 10%
Uzbekistan |

| 9%
Albania |

| 5%
Azerbaijan |

| 1%

## Architecture

[edit]

Further information: Islamic architecture

### Styles

[edit]

The Khanqah-e-Moula, a 14th-century mosque in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are the earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques have square or rectangular plans with an enclosed courtyard (sahn) and covered prayer hall. Historically, in the warm Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates, the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer halls, which required the use of numerous columns and supports.[51] One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain, the building being supported by over 850 columns.[74] Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades (riwaq) so that visitors can enjoy the shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The simplicity of the Arab plan limited the opportunities for further development, the mosques consequently losing popularity.[51]

Huseina Čauša džamija (a.k.a. Džindijska), 17th-century traditional wooden mosque in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina

The first departure within mosque design started in Persia (Iran). The Persians had inherited a rich architectural legacy from the earlier Persian dynasties, and they began incorporating elements from earlier Parthian and Sassanid designs into their mosques, influenced by buildings such as the Palace of Ardashir and the Sarvestan Palace.[75] Thus, Islamic architecture witnessed the introduction of such structures as domes and large, arched entrances, referred to as iwans. During Seljuq rule, as Islamic mysticism was on the rise, the four-iwan arrangement took form. The four-iwan format, finalized by the Seljuqs, and later inherited by the Safavids, firmly established the courtyard façade of such mosques, with the towering gateways at every side, as more important than the actual buildings themselves.[75] They typically took the form of a square-shaped central courtyard with large entrances at each side, giving the impression of gateways to the spiritual world.[76] The Persians also introduced Persian gardens into mosque designs. Soon, a distinctly Persian style of mosques started appearing that would significantly influence the designs of later Timurid, and also Mughal, mosque designs.

Great Mosque of Xi'an in China built in 742

The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century. These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having a large central dome, a common feature is smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed.[77] This style was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture with its use of large central domes.[51]

Islam forbids figurative art, on the grounds that the artist must not imitate God's creation. Mosques are, therefore, decorated with abstract patterns and beautiful inscriptions. Decoration is often concentrated around doorways and the miḥrāb. Tiles are used widely in mosques. They lend themselves to pattern-making, can be made with beautiful subtle colors, and can create a cool atmosphere, an advantage in the hot Arab countries. Quotations from the Quran often adorn mosque interiors. These texts are meant to inspire people by their beauty, while also reminding them of the words of Allah.[78]

### Prayer hall

[edit]

The prayer hall, also known as the muṣallá (Arabic: مُصَلَّى), rarely has furniture; chairs and pews are generally absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as possible to line the room.[79] Some mosques have Islamic calligraphy and Quranic verses on the walls to create a more religious atmosphere for worshippers.[56]

Often, a limited part of the prayer hall is sanctified formally as a masjid in the sharīʿah sense (although the term masjid is also used for the larger mosque complex as well). Once designated, there are onerous limitations on the use of this formally designated masjid, and it may not be used for any purpose other than worship; restrictions that do not necessarily apply to the rest of the prayer area, and to the rest of the mosque complex (although such uses may be restricted by the conditions of the waqf that owns the mosque).[80]

In many mosques, especially the early congregational mosques, the prayer hall is built in the hypostyle form (the roof held up by a multitude of columns).[81] One of the finest examples of the hypostyle-plan mosques is the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia.[82]

Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall (the direction of Mecca, and thus the direction towards which Muslims should face for prayer), the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The qibla wall should, in a properly oriented mosque, be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca, where the Kaaba is located.[83] Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qiblah wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In the qibla wall, usually at its center, is the miḥrāb, a niche or depression indicating the direction of Mecca. Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. A raised minbar (pulpit) is located to the right side of the mihrab for a khaṭīb (preacher), or some other speaker, to offer a khuṭbah (sermon) during the ritual Friday prayers.

The mihrab serves as the location where the imam or mullah leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.[84] Left to the mihrab, in the front left corner of the mosque, sometimes there is a kursu (Turkish: kürsü, Bosnian: ćurs/ћурс), a small elevated plateau (rarely with a chair or other type of seat) used for less formal preaching and speeches.

* Main prayer hall with hypostyle in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Tunisia

* Ottoman-style prayer hall of the Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey

* Wooden prayer hall of the Wooden Mosque, a building which is concentrated with wood, in Nishapur, Iran

* Moorish Revival prayer hall of the Grand Mosque of Paris in Paris, France

* Chinese Islamic-style prayer hall of the Songjiang Mosque in Shanghai, China

* International and New Formalism-style prayer hall of the Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta, Indonesia

#### Women's prayer hall

[edit]

Stairs toward the maqfil

View of the maqfil

Women who pray in mosques are separated from men. Their part for prayer is called maqfil[85] (Bosnian: makfil/макфил). It is located above the main prayer hall, elevated in the background as stairs-separated gallery or plateau (surface-shortened to the back relative to the bottom main part). It usually has a perforated fence at the front, through which the imam or mullah and the other male worshippers in the main hall can be partially seen.

### Mihrab

[edit]

Mihrab in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, Medina, Saudi Arabia

A miḥrāb, also spelled as mehrab is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that faces the qiblah (i.e. the "front" of the mosque); the imam stands in this niche and leads prayer. Given that the imam typically stands alone in the frontmost row, this niche's practical effect is to save unused space.[86] The minbar is a pulpit from which the Friday sermon is delivered. While the minbar of Muhammad was a simple chair, later it became larger and attracted artistic attention. Some remained made of wood, albeit exquisitely carved, while others were made of marble and featured friezes.[87]

### Minarets

[edit]

Main article: Minaret

One of the oldest standing minarets in the world, at the Great Mosque of Kairouan, in Tunisia

A common feature in mosques is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area.

Two minarets made of clay with twenty layers of horizontal protruding wooden sticks from the Great Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso in Burkina Faso

The origin of the minaret and its initial functions are not clearly known and have long been a topic of scholarly discussion.[88][89] The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and the call to prayer was often performed from smaller structures or elevated platforms.[90][91][92] The early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer from the doorway or the roof of the house of Muhammad, which doubled as a place for prayer.[93] The first confirmed minarets in the form of towers date from the early 9th century under Abbasid rule and they did not become a standard feature of mosques until the 11th century.[94][95] These first minaret towers were placed in the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall.[96] Among them, the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, dating from 836, is well-preserved and is one of the oldest surviving minarets in the world today.[97][95][98]

Before the five required daily prayers, a Mu'adhdhin (Arabic: مُـؤَذِّن) calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret. In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not the majority, mosques are prohibited from loudly broadcasting the Adhān (Arabic: أَذَان, Call to Prayer), although it is supposed to be said loudly to the surrounding community. The adhan is required before every prayer. Nearly every mosque assigns a muezzin for each prayer to say the adhan as it is a recommended practice or Sunnah (Arabic: سُـنَّـة) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. At mosques that do not have minarets, the adhan is called instead from inside the mosque or somewhere else on the ground.[56] The Iqâmah (Arabic: إِقَـامَـة), which is similar to the adhan and proclaimed right before the commencement of prayers, is usually not proclaimed from the minaret even if a mosque has one.

### Domes

[edit]

The 201 Dome Mosque in Tangail District, Bangladesh

Domes have been a prominent feature in mosque architecture for centuries, evolving both in form and function. Traditionally placed above the main prayer hall, they symbolize the connection between the earthly and divine, often representing the vaults of heaven and sky.[99] Initially, domes were small structures above the mihrab, but over time, they expanded to cover the entire roof of the prayer hall. The shape of the dome evolved from simple hemispherical forms to more complex designs, with the Mughals in India popularizing the onion-shaped dome, which became a hallmark of South Asian and Arabic mosque architecture.[100] The design and function of domes have been influenced by various cultures, including Persian, Byzantine, and Central Asian traditions, each contributing to the techniques and aesthetics used in their construction. Today, domes continue to serve both structural and spiritual purposes, with modern innovations further enhancing their functionality and sustainability.

Structural and functional roles

Domes not only serve as architectural focal points but also enhance mosque acoustics, amplifying the sound of the prayer and the sermon. Structurally, they allow vast interior spaces with minimal internal supports and they make the mosque appear bigger on the inside. Their placement above the prayer hall symbolizes the connection between the earthly and the divine, reinforcing the mosque's spiritual purpose.[101]

Origin of mosque domes

The origin of domes in mosque architecture can be traced back to the early Islamic period, particularly under the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 AD). The Umayyads, played a key role in incorporating domes into mosque architecture, drawing heavily from pre-Islamic Byzantine and Sassanian traditions. One of the earliest and most significant examples is the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, constructed in 691 AD by the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik. This structure was not a mosque but a shrine, yet it set a precedent for the use of domes in Islamic architecture, symbolizing the vault of heaven and the connection between the divine and earthly realms.[102]

Initially, domes in mosques were modest in size and positioned above the mihrab, emphasizing their symbolic function as markers of spiritual focus.[citation needed] As the Islamic empire expanded, architects incorporated techniques from different regions.

Persian and Byzantine influences

Whilst squinches and pendentives were not first used in mosques, they were later incorporated in dome design and were essential in transitioning from square rooms to circular domes.[103] Squinches, which originated in Persian and Roman architecture, fill the corners of a square space to support a dome, while pendentives, a Byzantine innovation, allowed smooth transitions from a square base to a circular dome.[103] These techniques are exemplified by the Dome of Soltaniyeh.

Domes in South Asian mosque architecture

Domes became a defining feature of South Asian mosque architecture during the Delhi Sultanate and reached their peak under the Mughal Empire. Influenced by Persian and Central Asian traditions, the Mughals introduced the iconic onion-shaped domes, seen in landmarks like the Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore.[citation needed] These domes were not only visually striking but also represented remarkable engineering, using techniques such as iron dowels for strength and timber centering for precision. The Mughal architectural style still influences mosque design today.[citation needed]

Modern innovations

One prime example of modern innovation is the Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah in Malaysia, which features a Low-E (low emissivity) glass dome. The use of Low-E glass allows for significant energy efficiency by reducing heat gain while still allowing natural light to illuminate the interior space.[104] This technique helps to maintain a comfortable temperature inside the mosque, minimizing reliance on air conditioning, and promoting sustainability.

### Ablution facilities

[edit]

The wudu ("ablution") area, where Muslims wash their hands, forearm, face and feet before they pray. Example from the Badshahi Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan

As ritual purification precedes all prayers, mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. Worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard.[74] This desire for cleanliness extends to the prayer halls where shoes are disallowed to be worn anywhere other than the cloakroom. Thus, foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques.[79]

### Contemporary features

[edit]

Modern mosques have a variety of amenities available to their congregants. As mosques are supposed to appeal to the community, they may also have additional facilities, from health clinics and clubs (gyms) to libraries to gymnasiums, to serve the community.[105]

### Symbols

[edit]

Certain symbols are represented in a mosque's architecture to allude to different aspects of the Islamic religion. One of these feature symbols is the spiral. The "cosmic spiral" found in designs and on minarets is a references to heaven as it has "no beginning and no end".[106] Mosques also often have floral patterns or images of fruit and vegetables. These are allusions to the paradise after death.[106]

## Rules and etiquette

[edit]

### Prayer leading

[edit]

Appointment of a prayer leader is considered desirable, but not always obligatory.[107] The permanent prayer leader (imam) must be a free honest individual and is authoritative in religious matters.[107] In mosques constructed and maintained by the government, the prayer leader is appointed by the ruler;[107] in private mosques, appointment is made by members of the congregation through majority voting. According to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, the individual who built the mosque has a stronger claim to the title of imam, but this view is not shared by the other schools.[107]

Leadership at prayer falls into three categories, depending on the type of prayer: five daily prayers, Friday prayer, or optional prayers.[107] According to the Hanafi and Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, appointment of a prayer leader for Friday service is mandatory because otherwise the prayer is invalid. The Shafi'i and Hanbali schools argue that the appointment is not necessary and the prayer is valid as long as it is performed in a congregation. A slave may lead a Friday prayer, but Muslim authorities disagree over whether the job can be done by a minor.[107] An imam appointed to lead Friday prayers may also lead at the five daily prayers; Muslim scholars agree to the leader appointed for five daily services may lead the Friday service as well.[107]

All Muslim authorities hold the consensus opinion that only men may lead prayer for men.[107] Nevertheless, women prayer leaders are allowed to lead prayer in front of all-female congregations.[108]

### Cleanliness

[edit]

See also: Ritual purity in Islam

Storage for shoes

All mosques have rules regarding cleanliness, as it is an essential part of the worshippers' experience. Muslims before prayer are required to cleanse themselves in an ablution process known as wudu. Shoes must not be worn inside the carpeted prayer hall. Some mosques will also extend that rule to include other parts of the facility even if those other locations are not devoted to prayer. Congregants and visitors to mosques are supposed to be clean themselves. It is also undesirable to come to the mosque after eating something that smells, such as garlic.[109]

### Dress

[edit]

Islam requires that its adherents wear clothes that portray modesty. Men are supposed to come to the mosque wearing loose and clean clothes that do not reveal the shape of the body. Likewise, it is recommended that women at a mosque wear loose clothing that covers to the wrists and ankles, and cover their heads with a Ḥijāb (Arabic: حِجاب), or other covering. Many Muslims, regardless of their ethnic background, wear Middle Eastern clothing associated with Arabic Islam to special occasions and prayers at mosques.[56]

### Concentration

[edit]

As mosques are places of worship, those within the mosque are required to remain respectful to those in prayer. Loud talking within the mosque, as well as discussion of topics deemed disrespectful, is forbidden in areas where people are praying. In addition, it is disrespectful to walk in front of or otherwise disturb Muslims in prayer.[110] The walls within the mosque have few items, except for possibly Islamic calligraphy, so Muslims in prayer are not distracted.[111] Muslims are also discouraged from wearing clothing with distracting images and symbols so as not to divert the attention of those standing behind them during prayer. In many mosques, even the carpeted prayer area has no designs, its plainness helping worshippers to focus.

### Gender separation

[edit]

See also: Gender segregation and Islam, Women's mosques, and Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in the Mosque

A women-only mosque in Byblos, Lebanon

There is nothing written in the Qur'an about the issue of space in mosques and gender separation. Traditional rules have segregated women and men. By traditional rules, women are most often told to occupy the rows behind the men. In part, this was a practical matter as the traditional posture for prayer - kneeling on the floor, head to the ground - made mixed-gender prayer uncomfortably revealing for many women and distracting for some men. Traditionalists try to argue that Muhammad preferred women to pray at home rather than at a mosque, and they cite a ḥadīth in which Muhammad supposedly said: "The best mosques for women are the inner parts of their houses," although women were active participants in the mosque started by Muhammad. Muhammad told Muslims not to forbid women from entering mosques. They are allowed to go in.[112] The second Sunni caliph 'Umar at one time prohibited women from attending mosques especially at night because he feared they might be sexually harassed or assaulted by men, so he required them to pray at home.[113] Sometimes a special part of the mosque was railed off for women; for example, the governor of Mecca in 870 had ropes tied between the columns to make a separate place for women.[51]

Many mosques today will put the women behind a barrier or partition or in another room. Mosques in South and Southeast Asia put men and women in separate rooms, as the divisions were built into them centuries ago. In nearly two-thirds of American mosques, women pray behind partitions or in separate areas, not in the main prayer hall; some mosques do not admit women at all due to the lack of space and the fact that some prayers, such as the Friday Jumuʻah, are mandatory for men but optional for women.[114] Although there are sections exclusively for women and children, the Grand Mosque in Mecca is desegregated.[115]

### Non-Muslim inclusion

[edit]

President George W. Bush inside the Islamic Center of Washington D.C., US

Under most interpretations of sharia, non-Muslims are permitted to enter mosques provided that they respect the place and the people inside it.[additional citation(s) needed] A dissenting opinion and minority view is presented by followers of the Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence, who argue that non-Muslims may not be allowed into mosques under any circumstances.[107]

The Quran addresses the subject of non-Muslims, and particularly polytheists, in mosques in two verses in its ninth chapter, Sura At-Tawba. The seventeenth verse of the chapter prohibits those who join gods with Allah—polytheists—from maintaining mosques:

> It is not for the polytheists to maintain the mosques of Allah while they openly profess disbelief. Their deeds are void, and they will be in the Fire forever.

— Surah At-Tawbah 9:17

The twenty-eighth verse of the same chapter is more specific as it only considers polytheists in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca:

> O believers! Indeed, the polytheists are ˹spiritually˺ impure, so they should not approach the Sacred Mosque after this year. If you fear poverty, Allah will enrich you out of His bounty, if He wills. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise.

— Surah At-Tawbah 9:28

According to Ahmad ibn Hanbal, these verses were followed to the letter at the times of Muhammad, when Jews and Christians, considered monotheists, were still allowed to Al-Masjid Al-Haram. The Umayyad caliph Umar II later forbade non-Muslims from entering mosques, and his ruling remains in practice in present-day Saudi Arabia.[51] Today, the decision on whether non-Muslims should be allowed to enter mosques varies. With few exceptions, mosques in the Arabian Peninsula as well as Morocco do not allow entry to non-Muslims. For example, the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca is one of only two mosques in Morocco currently open to non-Muslims.[116]

There are many other mosques in the West and Islamic world which non-Muslims are welcome to enter. Most mosques in the United States, for example, report receiving non-Muslim visitors every month. Many mosques throughout the United States welcome non-Muslims as a sign of openness to the rest of the community as well as to encourage conversions to Islam.[117][118]

In modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Grand Mosque and all of Mecca are open only to Muslims. Likewise, Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi and the city of Medina that surrounds it are also off-limits to those who do not practice Islam.[119] For mosques in other areas, it has most commonly been taken that non-Muslims may only enter mosques if granted permission to do so by Muslims, and if they have a legitimate reason. All entrants regardless of religious affiliation are expected to respect the rules and decorum for mosques.[56]

In modern Turkey, non-Muslim tourists are allowed to enter any mosque, but there are some strict rules. Visiting a mosque is allowed only between prayers; visitors are required to wear long trousers and not to wear shoes, women must cover their heads; visitors are not allowed to interrupt praying Muslims, especially by taking photos of them; no loud talk is allowed; and no references to other religions are allowed (no crosses on necklaces, no cross gestures, etc.) Similar rules apply to mosques in Malaysia, where larger mosques that are also tourist attractions (such as the Masjid Negara) provide robes and headscarves for visitors who are deemed inappropriately attired.[120]

In certain times and places, non-Muslims were expected to behave a certain way in the vicinity of a mosque: in some Moroccan cities, Jews were required to remove their shoes when passing by a mosque;[121] in 18th-century Egypt, Jews and Christians had to dismount before several mosques in veneration of their sanctity.[122][better source needed]

The association of the mosque with education remained one of its main characteristics throughout history,[123] and the school became an indispensable appendage to the mosque. From the earliest days of Islam, the mosque was the center of the Muslim community, a place for prayer, meditation, religious instruction, political discussion, and a school. Anywhere Islam took hold, mosques were established, and basic religious and educational instruction began.[124]

## Role in contemporary society

[edit]

See also: Political aspects of Islam

The East London Mosque was one of the first in Britain to be allowed to use loudspeakers to broadcast the adhan[125]

### Political mobilization

[edit]

The late 20th century saw an increase in the number of mosques used for political purposes. While some governments in the Muslim world have attempted to limit the content of Friday sermons to strictly religious topics, there are also independent preachers who deliver khutbas that address social and political issues, often in emotionally charged terms. Common themes include social inequalities, necessity of jihad in the face of injustice, and the universal struggle between good and evil.[1] In Islamic countries like Bangladesh, Pakistan, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, political subjects are preached by imams at Friday congregations on a regular basis.[126] Mosques often serve as meeting points for political opposition in times of crisis.[1]

Countries with a minority Muslim population are more likely than Muslim-majority countries of the Greater Middle East to use mosques as a way to promote civic participation.[127] Studies of US Muslims have consistently shown a positive correlation between mosque attendance and political involvement. Some of the research connects civic engagement specifically with mosque attendance for social and religious activities other than prayer.[128] American mosques host voter registration and civic participation drives that promote involving Muslims, who are often first- or second-generation immigrants, in the political process. As a result of these efforts as well as attempts at mosques to keep Muslims informed about the issues facing the Muslim community, regular mosque attendants are more likely to participate in protests, sign petitions, and otherwise be involved in politics.[127] Research on Muslim civic engagement in other Western countries "is less conclusive but seems to indicate similar trends".[128]

### Political controversy

[edit]

Historic wooden Kruszyniany Mosque, used by the Polish Tatar community, and targeted by an Islamophobic attack in 2014

In the western world, and in the United States in particular, anti-Muslim sentiment and targeted domestic policy has created challenges for mosques and those looking to build them. There has been government and police surveillance of mosques in the US[129] and local attempts to ban mosques and block constructions,[130] despite data showing that in fact, most Americans oppose banning the building of mosques (79%) and the surveillance of U.S. mosques (63%) as shown in a 2018 study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding.[131][clarification needed]

Since 2017, Chinese authorities have destroyed or damaged two-thirds of the mosques in China's Xinjiang province.[132] Ningxia officials were notified on 3 August 2018 that the Weizhou Grand Mosque would be forcibly demolished because it had not received the proper permits before construction.[133][134][135] Officials in the town said that the mosque had not been given proper building permits, because it is built in a Middle Eastern style and includes numerous domes and minarets.[133][134] The residents of Weizhou alarmed each other through social media and finally stopped the mosque destruction by public demonstrations.[134]

### Role in violent conflicts

[edit]

See also: Islamophobia and Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Mosque in Gaza, destroyed during the Gaza War in 2009

As they are considered important to the Muslim community, mosques, like other places of worship, can be at the heart of social conflicts. The Babri Mosque in India was the subject of such a conflict up until the early 1990s when it was demolished. Before a mutual solution could be devised, the mosque was destroyed on December 6, 1992, as the mosque was built by Babur allegedly on the site of a previous Hindu temple marking the birthplace of Rama.[136] The controversy surrounded the mosque was directly linked to rioting in Bombay (present-day Mumbai) as well as bombings in 1993 that killed 257 people.[137]

Bombings in February 2006 and June 2007 seriously damaged Iraq's al-Askari Mosque and exacerbated existing tensions. Other mosque bombings in Iraq, both before and after the February 2006 bombing, have been part of the conflict between the country's groups of Muslims. In June 2005, a suicide bombing killed at least 19 people at an Afghan Shia mosque near Jade Maivand.[138] In April 2006, two explosions occurred at India's Jama Masjid.[139] Following the al-Askari Mosque bombing in Iraq, imams and other Islamic leaders used mosques and Friday prayers as vehicles to call for calm and peace in the midst of widespread violence.[140]

A study 2005 indicated that while support for suicide bombings is not correlated with personal devotion to Islam among Palestinian Muslims, it is correlated with mosque attendance because "participating in communal religious rituals of any kind likely encourages support for self-sacrificing behaviors that are done for the collective good."[141]

Following the September 11 attacks, several American mosques were targeted in attacks ranging from simple vandalism to arson.[142] Furthermore, the Jewish Defense League was suspected of plotting to bomb the King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California.[143] Similar attacks occurred throughout the United Kingdom following the 7 July 2005 London bombings. Outside the Western world, in June 2001, the Hassan Bek Mosque was the target of vandalism and attacks by hundreds of Israelis after a suicide bomber killed 19 people in a night club in Tel Aviv.[144][145][146] Although mosquegoing is highly encouraged for men, it is permitted to stay at home when one feels at risk from Islamophobic persecution.[147]

### Saudi influence

[edit]

Although the Saudi involvement in Sunni mosques around the world can be traced back to the 1960s, it was not until later in the 20th century that the government of Saudi Arabia became a large influence in foreign Sunni mosques.[148] Beginning in the 1980s, the Saudi Arabian government began to finance the construction of Sunni mosques in countries around the world. An estimated US$45 billion has been spent by the Saudi Arabian government financing mosques and Sunni Islamic schools in foreign countries. Ain al-Yaqeen, a Saudi newspaper, reported in 2002 that Saudi funds may have contributed to building as many as 1,500 mosques and 2,000 other Islamic centers.[149]

Saudi citizens have also contributed significantly to mosques in the Islamic world, especially in countries where they see Muslims as poor and oppressed. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, in 1992, mosques in war-torn Afghanistan saw many contributions from Saudi citizens.[148] The King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California and the Islamic Cultural Center of Italy in Rome represent two of Saudi Arabia's largest investments in foreign mosques as former Saudi king Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud contributed US$8 million[148] and US$50 million[150] to the two mosques, respectively.

## See also

[edit]

* Dambana
* Holiest sites in Islam
* Jama'at Khana
* Lists of mosques

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Arabic: مَسْجِد [ˈmasdʒid] (lit. 'place of ritual prostration')
2. ^ Survey was conducted in 2016, not 2009–2012.
3. ^ Survey was only conducted in the southern five provinces.
4. ^ Survey was conducted in 2013, not 2009–2012. Sample was taken from entire population of Yemen, which is approximately 99% Muslim.
5. ^ Survey was conducted in 2015, not 2009–2012.
6. ^ Survey was conducted in 2016, not 2009–2012.
7. ^ Survey was conducted in 2008, not 2009–2012.
8. ^ Survey was conducted in 2015, not 2009–2012.
9. ^ Survey was conducted in 2008, not 2009–2012.
10. ^ Survey was conducted in 2013, not 2009–2012. Sample was taken from entire population of Libya, which is approximately 97% Muslim.
11. ^ Survey was conducted in 2016, not 2009–2012.
12. ^ Survey was conducted in 2008, not 2009–2012.
13. ^ Survey was conducted in 2008, not 2009–2012.
14. ^ Survey was conducted in 2017, not 2009–2012.
15. ^ Survey was conducted in 2017, not 2009–2012.

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Mosque". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on December 25, 2017.
2. ^ Longhurst, Christopher E., "Theology of a Mosque: The Sacred Inspiring Form, Function and Design in Islamic Architecture", Lonaard Journal. Mar 2012, Vol. 2 Issue 8, pp. 3–13 [11]. "Since submission to God is the essence of divine worship, the place of worship is intrinsic to Islam's self-identity. This 'place' is not a building per se but what is evidenced by the etymology of the word 'mosque' which derives from the Arabic 'masjid' meaning 'a place of sujud (prostration).'
3. ^ Colledge, R. (1999). "The mosque". In: Mastering World Religions. Macmillan Master Series. Palgrave, London. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-14329-0_16 "A mosque is a building where Muslims bow before Allah to show their submission to His will. It is not necessary to have a building to do this. Muhammad said that 'Wherever the hour of prayer overtakes you, you shall perform the prayer. That place is the mosque'. In his early days in Makkah there was no mosque, so he and his friends would pray anywhere."
4. ^ Grabar 1969, p. 34: "The main characteristic, then, of this first stage was the creation of a space which served exclusively Muslim purposes and which, in cities that were entirely Muslim, existed on two separate levels of exclusivity. The word masjid is always associated with these spaces, but it does not yet possess any formal structure nor does it have any precise function other than that of excluding non-Muslims."
5. ^ Grabar 1969, pp. 34–35: "A second stage occurred between 650 and 750. To my knowledge, twenty-seven masjids from this period are archaeologically definable... All mosques had a certain relationship between open and closed covered spaces. The problems posed by this relationship pertain primarily to the history of art, except on one point, which is the apparent tendency to consider the covered parts as the bayt al-salat, i.e. place of prayer, and the rest of the building as an overflow area for prayer. All these buildings were enclosed by walls and did not have an exterior façade. Their orderly form appeared only from the inside where the balance between open and covered spaces served, among other things, to indicate the direction of qibla. Their only outward symbol was the minaret, a feature which appeared early in mosques built in old cities with predominantly non-Muslim populations and only later in primarily Muslim ones."
6. ^ a b Nuha N. N. Khoury (2009). "Mosque". In Juan Eduardo Campo (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing.
7. ^ a b c d e Patrick D. Gaffney (2004). "Masjid". In Richard C. Martin (ed.). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference.
8. ^ Utaberta, Nangkula; Asif, Nayeem; Rasdi, Mohd Tajuddin Mohd; Yunos, Mohd Yazid Mohd; Ismail, Nor Atiah; Ismail, Sumarni (2015-04-01). "The Concept of Mosque Based on Islamic Philosophy: A Review Based on Early Islamic Texts and Practices of the Early Generation of the Muslims". Advances in Environmental Biology. 9 (5): 371–375\. Archived from the original on 2024-02-24. Retrieved 2024-03-03.
9. ^ For the word's origin from French and probable origin from Italian moscheta, see "mosque, n.". OED Online. December 2011. Oxford University Press. [1] Archived 2014-08-10 at the Wayback Machine. For the derivation of moscheta from Arabic sajada see "mesquita, n.". OED Online. December 2011. Oxford University Press. [2] Archived 2014-08-10 at the Wayback Machine. For the probable origin of "sajada" from Aramaic, and the meanings of sajada and masjid in Arabic, see "masjid, n.". OED Online. December 2011. Oxford University Press. [3]. For the inclusion of Spanish mesquita, possible derivation from Nabataean masgĕdhā́, and the Aramaic sĕghēdh, see Klein, E., A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (Elsevier Publishing, 1966), p. 1007.
10. ^ Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2019-06-30.
11. ^ Tajuddin 1998, p. 135
12. ^ Palmer, Allison Lee (2016). Historical Dictionary of Architecture (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 236\. ISBN 978-1-4422-6309-3. Archived from the original on 2023-12-26. Retrieved 2023-12-26. "The first mosque is considered to be either the one built around the Kaaba, or "House of God", in Mecca, now called Al-Masjid Al-Haram, or the Quba Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia, built when Muhammad arrived there from Mecca in 622."
13. ^ Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
14. ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
15. ^ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
16. ^ Quran 2:7-286
17. ^ Quran 3:96
18. ^ Quran 22:25-37
19. ^ Alli, Irfan (2013). 25 Prophets of Islam. eBookIt.com. ISBN 978-1-4566-1307-5. Archived from the original on 2021-04-14. Retrieved 2019-06-30.
20. ^ Kuban 1974, p. 1
21. ^ a b Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies (1986). Goss, V.P.; Bornstein, C. V. (eds.). The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades. Vol. 21\. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University. p. 208\. ISBN 978-0-9187-2058-0. Archived from the original on 2023-12-28. Retrieved 2019-06-30.
22. ^ Mustafa Abu Sway. "The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Qur'an, Sunnah and other Islamic Literary Source" (PDF). Central Conference of American Rabbis. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-28.
23. ^ Dyrness, W. A. (2013). Senses of Devotion: Interfaith Aesthetics in Buddhist and Muslim Communities. Vol. 7\. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 25\. ISBN 978-1-62032-136-2.
24. ^ "55. Prophets – Sahih Al-Bukhari – 585". www.searchtruth.com. Archived from the original on 2018-06-13. Retrieved 2018-06-05.
25. ^ Dumper & Stanley 2007, p. 241
26. ^ a b Chiu 2010, pp. 67–8
27. ^ a b Petersen 1996, pp. 195–196: "The first mosque was the house of the Prophet Muhammad in Medina. This was a simple rectangular (53 by 56 m) enclosure containing rooms for the Prophet and his wives and a shaded area on the south side of the courtyard which could be used for prayer in the direction of Mecca. This building became the model for subsequent mosques which had the same basic courtyard layout with a prayer area against the qibla wall."
28. ^ a b c Bloom & Blair 2009, p. 549, Mosque: "The first mosque, a building that Muhammad erected at Medina in 622, is usually described as the Prophet's house but was probably intended from the outset as a community center as well. Initially, it was a rectangular enclosure of unbaked brick, a little over 50 m square, but a portico of palm trunks supporting a roof of palm-frond thatch was quickly erected on the north side of the court, facing Jerusalem, the first qibla, or direction in which Muslims sent their prayers [...]. In 624 when the qibla was changed to Mecca, another such arcade was built on the south side, facing that city. Muhammad and his family lived in rooms built on to one side of the enclosure, and Muhammad was buried in one of these rooms in 632. During the 7th and early 8th centuries, Muhammad's mosque was repeatedly enlarged and rebuilt, becoming a flat-roofed hypostyle structure with a central court and a prayer-hall deeper than the three other porticos. [...] The form of the mosque of the Prophet was closely imitated in the early congregational mosques built in the Iraqi cities of Wasit, Kufa and Basra, and in the mosque built at Daybul in Sind (now Banbhore, Pakistan)."
29. ^ a b Tabbaa, Yasser (2007). "Architecture". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16165-8. "If Mecca provided the first Muslim shrine, the city of Medina, to which Muḥammad migrated in 622 C.E., may have provided the germ of the idea for the Muslim place of prayer, the masjid, in the form of the house of the Prophet himself. Descriptions of the house allow us to reconstruct it as a mud-brick rectangular enclosure consisting of an open courtyard, a three-aisled roofed space to the south, a one-bay space inside the northern wall, and eight separate rooms annexed to the eastern wall. The eight rooms housed Muḥammad's wives; the northern vestibule was a waiting area; the southern space served various residential, official, and ritual functions. The roof was supported by palm trunks and its southern wall, after 6/628, contained a three-stepped platform (minbar), from which Muḥammad spoke and adjudicated. Despite its rudimentary form and construction, Muḥammad's house would provide the basic model for the first mosques."
30. ^ a b Petersen 1996, pp. 182–184.
31. ^ Cosman & Jones 2008, p. 610
32. ^ Kuban 1985, p. 27
33. ^ Flood 2001, pp. 101–103
34. ^ "Minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan". The Qantara Project. 2008. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
35. ^ a b Elleh 2002, pp. 114–115
36. ^ Ruggles 2002, p. 38
37. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, p. 182
38. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, p. 187
39. ^ Asher 1992, p. 202
40. ^ a b Cowen 1985, pp. 30–35
41. ^ a b Ahmed 2002, p. 109
42. ^ a b Bloom & Blair 2009, p. 439
43. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, p. 281
44. ^ Essa & Ali 2010, pp. 230–231
45. ^ Essa & Ali 2010, pp. 231–232
46. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, p. 193
47. ^ Nimer 2002, pp. 39–40
48. ^ Grossman, Cathy Lynn (29 February 2012). "Number of U.S. mosques up 74% since 2000". USA Today. Archived from the original on 17 September 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
49. ^ Houtsma, M. Th. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopedia of Islam, 1913–1936. Brill. p. 320\. ISBN 978-90-04-09791-9. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
50. ^ Houtsma p. 21
51. ^ a b c d e f Hillenbrand, R. "Masdjid. I. In the central Islamic lands". In P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
52. ^ Wagner, William (2004). How Islam Plans to Change the World. Kregel Publications. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-8254-3965-0. "When the Moors were driven out of Spain in 1492, most of the mosques were converted into churches"
53. ^ "'Id Prayers (Salatul 'Idain)". Compendium of Muslim Texts. University of Southern California. Archived from the original on December 23, 2005. Retrieved April 8, 2006.
54. ^ "Performance of Eid Salah in Eidgah (Open Field)". www.central-mosque.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-15. Retrieved 2012-02-01.
55. ^ "Charity". Compendium of Muslim Texts. University of Southern California. Archived from the original on February 5, 2006. Retrieved April 17, 2006.
56. ^ a b c d e f g Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Waris (2003). Teach Yourself Islam (2nd ed.). Chicago: McGraw-Hill. pp. 57–58, 72–75, 112–120\. ISBN 978-0-07-141963-5.
57. ^ Clarke, Matthew (2011). Development and Religion: Theology and Practice. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 156\. ISBN 978-0-85793-073-6. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
58. ^ "American Muslim Poll 2017 | ISPU". Institute for Social Policy and Understanding. 2017-03-21. Archived from the original on 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2018-06-28.
59. ^ "Chapter 2: Religious Commitment". August 9, 2012. Archived from the original on August 5, 2022. Retrieved August 5, 2022.
60. ^ "'What Muslims Want': A survey of British Muslims by ICM on behalf of Policy Exchange" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-02-06.
61. ^ "Valores, Actitudes y Opiniones de los Inmigrantes de Religión Musulmana". Archived from the original on 2020-10-03. Retrieved 2017-02-02.
62. ^ a b "WVS Database". www.worldvaluessurvey.org. Archived from the original on 2021-03-31. Retrieved 2022-08-05.
63. ^ "Israel's Religiously Divided Society". March 8, 2016. Archived from the original on July 14, 2023. Retrieved August 5, 2022.
64. ^ a b "Sondage auprès des jeunes Marocains résidant en Europe" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-01-30.
65. ^ "Survey of Muslims in Canada 2016" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-05-01.
66. ^ a b c "Religious Regimes and Prospects for Liberal Politics: Futures of Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-13. Retrieved 2017-02-04.
67. ^ "Section 2: Religious Beliefs and Practices". August 30, 2011. Archived from the original on September 1, 2022. Retrieved August 5, 2022.
68. ^ "The resilience and ordinariness of Australian Muslims: Attitudes and experiences of Muslims Report" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-29.
69. ^ "Muslim Life in Germany: A study conducted on behalf of the German Conference on Islam" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-06-11.
70. ^ "A French Islam is possible" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-15. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
71. ^ Aslan, Ednan (2009). Islamic Education in Europe. Böhlau Verlag Wien. p. 82\. ISBN 978-3-205-78310-7.
72. ^ Statistiek, Centraal Bureau voor de (29 July 2009). "Religie aan het begin van de 21ste eeuw". Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2017.
73. ^ a b "Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe: Final Topline" (PDF). Pew Research Center. 10 May 2017. p. 118\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 May 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
74. ^ a b "Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on July 20, 2012. Retrieved April 9, 2006.
75. ^ a b "The Royal Mosque (Masjed-e-Emam) in Isfahan, Iran". Ne.jp. Archived from the original on 2023-04-18. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
76. ^ Blake, Stephen P. (1999). Half the world: the social architecture of Safavid Isfahan, 1590–1722. Mazda Pub. pp. 143–144\. ISBN 978-1-56859-087-5. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
77. ^ "Vocabulary of Islamic Architecture". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on September 18, 2006. Retrieved April 9, 2006.
78. ^ Encyclopedia, Illustrated Family (2005). Mosques. London: DK. p. 572\. ISBN 0-14-306302-2.
79. ^ a b "Mosque FAQ". The University of Tulsa. Archived from the original on March 30, 2007. Retrieved April 9, 2006.
80. ^ "Fiqh of Masjid & Musalla". Qa.sunnipath.com. 2005-07-03. Archived from the original on 2011-10-19. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
81. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (2010). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Cengage Learning. p. 265\. ISBN 978-0-495-57355-5. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
82. ^ Kleiner, Fred S. (2010). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: The Western Perspective. Cengage Learning. p. 267\. ISBN 978-0-495-57355-5. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
83. ^ Bierman, Irene A. (December 16, 1998). Writing Signs: Fatimid Public Text. University of California Press. p. 150\. ISBN 978-0-520-20802-5.
84. ^ "Terms 1: Mosque". University of Tokyo Institute of Oriental Culture. Archived from the original on February 12, 2012. Retrieved April 9, 2006.
85. ^ "State of cultural heritage of religious minorities in Georgia" (PDF). humanrights.ge. 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-04. Retrieved 2019-10-29.
86. ^ Kuban 1974, p. 4.
87. ^ Kuban 1974, pp. 5–6.
88. ^ Hillenbrand 1994, pp. 129–137.
89. ^ Bloom 2013, Chapter 1: The History of Scholarship and the Nature of the Problem.
90. ^ Bloom 2013, pp. 29–46.
91. ^ Creswell, K. A. C. (March 1926). "The Evolution of the Minaret, with Special Reference to Egypt-I". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 48 (276): 134–140\. JSTOR 862832.
92. ^ Hillenbrand 1994, pp. 136–137.
93. ^ Bloom 2013, pp. 23–30, 46.
94. ^ Bloom 2013, pp. xvii, 64, 72.
95. ^ a b Petersen 1996, pp. 187–188.
96. ^ Bloom 2013, pp. 73–82.
97. ^ Bloom & Blair 2009, Minaret
98. ^ Bloom 2013, pp. 73–75.
99. ^ Mainzer, Klaus (1996). "Art and Architecture". Symmetries of Nature: A Handbook for Philosophy of Nature and Science. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 124\. ISBN 978-3-11-012990-8. "the dome arching over the believers like the spherical dome of the sky"
100. ^ Asher 1992, p. 256
101. ^ "Dome". referenceworks. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_26080. Retrieved 2024-10-22.
102. ^ Grabar, Oleg (December 1963). ""The Islamic Dome, Some Considerations."". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 22 (4): 191–198\. doi:10.2307/988190. JSTOR 988190.
103. ^ a b Blessing, Patricia (15 March 2022). "Squinch and Pendentive". Khamseen: Islamic Art History Online.
104. ^ Lasindu, Gamage (10 December 2023). ""The Evolution of the Islamic Architectural Dome Feature"". Malaysia Architectural Journal. 5 (3): 38–41.
105. ^ "Student Life – Masjid DarusSalam". masjidds.org. Retrieved 2024-11-14.
106. ^ a b Erzen, Jale Nejdet (2011), "Reading Mosques: Meaning and Architecture in Islam", The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 69 (1): 126–129, doi:10.1111/j.1540-6245.2010.01453.x, hdl:11511/36200, JSTOR 42635843
107. ^ a b c d e f g h i Abu al-Hasankok Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib, Al-Mawardi (2000). The Ordinances of Government (Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya w'al-Wilayat al-Diniyya). Lebanon: Garnet Publishing. p. 184\. ISBN 978-1-85964-140-8.
108. ^ Karin van Nieuwkerk, 'Women Embracing Islam'. University of Texas Press. 2006. p. 63\. ISBN 978-0-292-77376-9.
109. ^ "Chapter 16. The Description of the Prayer". SunniPath Library. SunniPath. Archived from the original on November 28, 2006. Retrieved July 12, 2006.
110. ^ Connecting Cultures, Inc. "Building Cultural Competency: Understanding Islam, Muslims, and Arab Culture". MAEC. Connecting Cultures, Inc.: 15. Archived from the original (Doc) on July 24, 2006. Retrieved July 12, 2006.
111. ^ Renard, John (1996). Seven Doors to Islam: Spirituality and the Religious Life of Muslims. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91747-7.
112. ^ Mohammad Izzhar Faizzy Osman. "Al-Kafi #936: Tempat Solat Yang Terbaik Bagi Seorang Wanita" [Al-Kafi #936: The Best Prayer Place For A Woman]. Mufti of Federal Territory's Office (in Malay). Retrieved 1 July 2024.
113. ^ Doi, Abdur Rahman I. "Women in Society". Compendium of Muslim Texts. University of Southern California. Archived from the original on April 9, 2006. Retrieved April 15, 2006.
114. ^ Kim Syazie (20 March 2024). "Wanita dari Maghribi terkejut kaum Hawa di Malaysia tak solat Jumaat, masjid pula dipenuhi kaum Adam sahaja" [A woman from Morocco is surprised that women in Malaysia doesn't perform Friday prayer, instead the mosque is only filled with men]. Malaysia Dateline (in Malay). Retrieved 1 July 2024. "Beberapa individu menerangkan bahawa ruangan solat wanita akan dibuka kepada golongan lelaki sewaktu solat Jumaat. Ini kerana mereka akan terpaksa bersembahyang di luar masjid atau atas jalan tar dengan ruangan solat yang tidak mencukupi." [Some individuals explained that women's prayer space will be opened to men during Friday prayer. This is because they would have to pray outside the mosque or on top of the paved road due to inadequate prayer space.]
115. ^ Rezk, Rawya (January 26, 2006). "Muslim Women Seek More Equitable Role in Mosques". The Columbia Journalist. Archived from the original on May 27, 2006. Retrieved April 9, 2006.
116. ^ "Morocco travel". CNN. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved September 22, 2006.
117. ^ Takim, Liyakatali (July 2004). "From Conversion to Conversation: Interfaith Dialogue in Post 9–11 America" (PDF). The Muslim World. 94 (3): 343–355\. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2004.00058.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 18, 2006. Retrieved June 16, 2006. Liyakatali Takim Archived 2012-02-18 at the Wayback Machine is a professor at McMaster University
118. ^ "Laptop link-up: A day at the mosque". BBC. December 5, 2005. Archived from the original on April 18, 2023. Retrieved June 16, 2006.
119. ^ Goring, Rosemary (1997). Dictionary of Beliefs & Religions. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 978-1-85326-354-5.
120. ^ Turner, Peter; Taylor, Chris; Finlay, Hugh (1996). Malaysia, Singapore & Brunei (6th ed.). Hawthorn, Vic.: Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-0-86442-393-1.
121. ^ Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-8276-0116-1.
122. ^ Bat Ye'or (2002). Islam and Dhimmitude. Where Civilizations Collide. Madison/Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses. p. 98\. ISBN 978-0-8386-3943-6.
123. ^ Nizamoglu, Cem (2001-08-12). "Education in Islam - The Role of the Mosque". Muslim Heritage. Archived from the original on 2022-11-06. Retrieved 2023-08-03.
124. ^ Qureshi, M. 1990. The Role of the Mosque in Islam. New Delhi: International Islamic Publishers.
125. ^ Eade, John (1996). "Nationalism, Community, and the Islamization of Space in London". In Metcalf, Barbara Daly (ed.). Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20404-1. Retrieved 19 April 2015. "As one of the few mosques in Britain permitted to broadcast calls to prayer (azan), the mosque soon found itself at the center of a public debate about "noise pollution" when local non-Muslim residents began to protest."
126. ^ "What Muslims Hear at Friday Prayers". Der Spiegel. April 19, 2006. Archived from the original on May 16, 2012. Retrieved October 31, 2010.
127. ^ a b Jamal, Amany. "The Role of Mosques in the Civic and Political Incorporation of Muslim American". Teachers' College – Columbia University. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved April 22, 2006.
128. ^ a b Aubrey Westfall (2018). "Mosques and political engagement in Europe and North America". Project on Middle East Political Science.[permanent dead link]
129. ^ "Factsheet: The NYPD Muslim Surveillance Program". American Civil Liberties Union. Archived from the original on 2019-05-07. Retrieved 2018-06-28.
130. ^ Goodstein, Laurie (7 August 2010). "Battles Around Nation Over Proposed Mosques". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2010-08-11. Retrieved 2018-06-28.
131. ^ "American Muslim Poll 2018: Full Report | ISPU". Institute for Social Policy and Understanding. 2018-04-30. Archived from the original on 2019-04-05. Retrieved 2018-06-28.
132. ^ "Thousands of Xinjiang mosques destroyed or damaged, report finds". The Guardian. 25 September 2020. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
133. ^ a b "China mosque demolition sparks standoff in Ningxia". bbc.com. BBC News. 10 August 2018. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
134. ^ a b c Osborne, Samuel (10 August 2018). "Thousands of Muslims protest China's plans to demolish mosque in rare demonstration against government". The Independent. Independent. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
135. ^ Harris, Rachel (7 April 2019). "Bulldozing mosques: the latest tactic in China's war against Uighur culture". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 December 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
136. ^ Romey, Kristen M. (July–August 2004). "Flashpoint Ayodhya". Archaeology. Archived from the original on 2012-11-22. Retrieved 2006-04-23.
137. ^ Rollins, John (2010). International Terrorism and Transnational Crime: Security Threats, U. S. Policy, and Considerations for Congress. Diane Publishing. p. 15\. ISBN 978-1-4379-2756-6. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
138. ^ Aizenman, N.C. (June 2, 2006). "Suicide Bomber Kills 20 in Afghan Mosque". The Washington Post. p. A16. Archived from the original on October 7, 2008. Retrieved April 23, 2006.
139. ^ Darpan, Pratiyogita (February 2009). Pratiyogita Darpan. Pratiyogita Darpan. p. 1509. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
140. ^ "Friday prayer plea for Iraq calm". BBC. February 24, 2006. Archived from the original on March 26, 2023. Retrieved April 23, 2006.
141. ^ Swanbrow, Diane (June 23, 2005). "Study: Islam devotion not linked to terror". The University Record Online. Archived from the original on December 30, 2006. Retrieved February 24, 2007.
142. ^ "IPA NY Voices That Must Be Heard". Indypressny.org. Archived from the original on May 24, 2016. Retrieved November 3, 2008.
143. ^ "JDL Chairman, Follower Accused of Plotting to Bomb Mosque, Congressman". Associated Press via Fox News. December 13, 2001. Archived from the original on May 20, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2006.
144. ^ "Arafat orders immediate ceasefire". BBC. June 3, 2001. Archived from the original on March 26, 2023. Retrieved April 23, 2006.
145. ^ Harris, John (April 22, 2006). "Paranoia, poverty and wild rumours – a journey through BNP country". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on December 19, 2007. Retrieved May 28, 2006.
146. ^ Carlile, Jennifer (May 25, 2006). "Italians fear mosque plans". NBC News. Archived from the original on February 27, 2014. Retrieved May 28, 2006.
147. ^ Rahman, Fazlur (2009). Major Themes of the Qur'an (2nd ed.). p. 147.
148. ^ a b c Ottoway, David B. (August 19, 2004). "U.S. Eyes Money Trails of Saudi-Backed Charities". The Washington Post. p. A1. Archived from the original on July 14, 2018. Retrieved February 24, 2007.
149. ^ Kaplan, David E. (December 15, 2003). "The Saudi Connection". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on June 16, 2006. Retrieved April 17, 2006.
150. ^ "Islamic Center in Rome, Italy". King Fahd bin Abdul Aziz. Archived from the original on January 8, 2002. Retrieved April 17, 2006.

### Sources

[edit]

* Ahmed, Akbar S. (2002). Discovering Islam: Making Sense of Muslim History and Society. Abingdon, Eng.: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-28525-4.
* Asher, Catherine B. (1992). "Aurangzeb and the Islamization of the Mughal style". Architecture of Mughal India. The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26728-1.
* Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
* Bellows, Keith, ed. (2008). Sacred Places of a Lifetime: 500 of the World's Most Peaceful and Powerful Destinations. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-1-4262-0336-7.
* Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1.
* Bloom, Jonathan M. (2013). The minaret. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3725-6. OCLC 856037134.
* Budge, E. A. Wallis (2001). Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th-Century Travel Guide. Toronto: Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-14953-0.
* Chiu, Y. C. (2010). An Introduction to the History of Project Management: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900, Part 1900. Delft, the Netherlands: Eburon Uitgeverij B.V. ISBN 978-90-5972-437-2.
* Cosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2008). Handbook to Life in the Medieval World. New York: Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0907-7.
* Cowen, Jill S. (July–August 1985). "Muslims in China". Saudi Aramco World. 36 (4). Archived from the original on 2006-03-22. Retrieved 2006-04-17.
* Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E., eds. (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5.
* Elleh, Nnamdi (2002). Architecture and Power in Africa. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-97679-8.
* Essa, Ahmed; Ali, Othman (2010). Title Studies in Islamic Civilization: The Muslim Contribution to the Renaissance. Herndon, Va.: The International Institute of Islamic Thought. ISBN 978-1-56564-350-5.
* Flood, Finbarr Barry (2001). The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Ummayyad Visual Culture. Islamic History and Civilization. Leiden, the Netherlands: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-11638-2.
* Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr.; Davidson, Lawrence (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7.
* Hillenbrand, Robert (1994). Islamic Architecture: Form, Function, and Meaning (Casebound ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10132-5. OCLC 30319450. Archived from the original on 2023-03-26. Retrieved 2023-02-22.
* Kuban, Doğan (1974). The Mosque and Its Early Development. Iconography of Religions: Islam. Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4.
* Kuban, Doğan (1985). Muslim Religious Architecture: Development of Religious Architecture in Later Periods. Iconography of Religions: Islam. Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-07084-4.
* Netton, Ian Richard (1996). Seek Knowledge: Thought and Travel in the House of Islam (annotated ed.). Abingdon, Eng.: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-0340-1.
* Nielsen, Jørgen Schøler; Akgönül, Samim; Alibašić, Ahmet; Goddard, Hugh; Maréchal, Brigitte, eds. (2011). Yearbook of Muslims in Europe. Vol. 3\. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-20516-1.
* Nimer, Mohamed (2002). The North American Muslim Resource Guide: Muslim Community Life in the United States and Canada. New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-93728-3.
* Petersen, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-20387-3.
* Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2002). Gardens, Landscape, and Vision in the Palaces of Islamic Spain. University Park: Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-04272-5.
* Tajuddin, Mohamed (1998). The Mosque as a Community Development Centre: Programme and Architectural Design Guidelines for Contemporary Muslim Societies. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit UTM. ISBN 978-983-52-0131-8.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Yahya Abdullahi; Mohamed Rashid Bin Embi (2013). "Evolution of Islamic geometric patterns". Frontiers of Architectural Research. 2 (2): 243–251\. doi:10.1016/j.foar.2013.03.002.
* Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.
* Campanini, Massimo, Mosque, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1-61069-177-6
* Grabar, Oleg (1969). "The Architecture of the Middle Eastern City from Past to Present: The Case of the Mosque". In Lapidus, Ira M. (ed.). Middle Eastern Cities. University of California Press. pp. 26–46\. doi:10.1525/9780520323803-005. ISBN 978-0-520-32380-3.
* Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyard Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24072-7.
* Kahera, Akel (2008). Deconstructing the American Mosque: Space, Gender and Aesthetics. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-74344-1.
* Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.
* Kramer, Martin, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8.
* Lewis, Bernard (1993). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9217-4.
* Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
* Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.
* Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
* Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5.
* Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
* Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0.
* Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.
* Stachowski, Marek (2017). Janyšková I.; Karlíková H.; Boček V. (eds.). Slawische Bezeichnungen für Moschee unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Polnischen, Schlesischen, Tschechischen und Slowakischen. pp. 361–369\. Archived from the original on 2021-03-02. Retrieved 2018-06-19: Etymological research into Czech (=Studia Etymologica Brunensia 22), Brno.

## External links

[edit]

Mosque at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource
* Textbooks from Wikibooks
* Resources from Wikiversity

* Images of mosques from throughout the world Archived 2017-10-18 at the Wayback Machine, from the Aga Khan Documentation Center at MIT
* Devostock Public domain images Archived 2020-10-03 at the Wayback Machine, Images of mosques from around the world

* v
* t
* e

People and things in the Quran

Characters

Non-humans

* Allāh ('The God')
* Names of Allah found in the Quran, such as Karīm (Generous)

| Animals|

| Related|

* The baqara (cow) of Israelites
* The dhiʾb (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph
* The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians
* Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey)
* The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon
* The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave
* The namlah (female ant) of Solomon
* The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah
* The nāqat (she-camel) of Ṣāliḥ

|

Non-related|

* ʿAnkabūt (Female spider)
* Dābbat al-Arḍ (Beast of the Earth)
* Ḥimār (Wild ass)
* Naḥl (Honey bee)
* Qaswarah ('Lion', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter')

Malāʾikah (Angels)|

* Angels of Hell
* Mālik
* Zabāniyah
* Bearers of the Throne
* Harut and Marut
* Jundallah
* Kirāman Kātibīn (Honourable Scribes)
* Raqib
* Atid

| Muqarrabun|

* Jibrīl (Gabriel, chief)
* Ar-Rūḥ ('The Spirit')
* Ar-Rūḥ al-Amīn ('The Trustworthy Spirit')
* Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus ('The Holy Spirit')
* Angel of the Trumpet (Isrāfīl or Raphael)
* Malakul-Mawt (Angel of Death, Azrael)
* Mīkāil (Michael)

|

Jinn (Genies)|

* Jann
* ʿIfrīt
* Sakhr (Asmodeus)
* Qarīn

Shayāṭīn (Demons)|

* Iblīs ash-Shayṭān (the (chief) Devil)
* Mārid ('Rebellious one')

Others|

* Ghilmān or Wildān
* Ḥūr

Prophets

| Mentioned|

* Ādam (Adam)
* Al-Yasaʿ (Elisha)
* Ayyūb (Job)
* Dāwūd (David)
* Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?)
* Hārūn (Aaron)
* Hūd (Eber?)
* Idrīs (Enoch?)
* Ilyās (Elijah)
* ʿImrān (Joachim the father of Maryam)
* Isḥāq (Isaac)
* Ismāʿīl (Ishmael)
* Dhabih Ullah
* Lūṭ (Lot)
* Ṣāliḥ
* Shuʿayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)
* Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David)
* ʿUzair (Ezra?)
* Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah)
* Yaʿqūb (Jacob)
* Isrāʾīl (Israel)
* Yūnus (Jonah)
* Dhūn-Nūn ('He of the Fish (or Whale)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)')
* Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūt ('Companion of the Whale')
* Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob)
* Zakariyyā (Zechariah)

| Ulul-ʿAzm
('Those of the
Perseverance
and Strong Will')|

* Muḥammad
* Aḥmad
* Other names and titles of Muhammad
* ʿĪsā (Jesus)
* Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah)
* Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)
* Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God)
* Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God)
* Nūḥ (Noah)

|

Debatable ones|

* Dhūl-Qarnain
* Luqmān
* Maryam (Mary)
* Ṭālūt (Saul or Gideon?)

Implied|

* Irmiyā (Jeremiah)
* Ṣamūʾīl (Samuel)
* Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)

People of Prophets

| Good ones|

* Adam's immediate relatives
* Martyred son
* Wife
* Believer of Ya-Sin
* Family of Noah
* Father Lamech
* Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos
* Luqman's son
* People of Abraham
* Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo
* Ishmael's mother
* Isaac's mother
* People of Jesus
* Disciples (including Peter)
* Mary's mother
* Zechariah's wife
* People of Solomon
* Mother
* Queen of Sheba
* Vizier
* Zayd (Muhammad's adopted son)

| People of
Joseph|

* Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon)
* Egyptians
* ʿAzīz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin)
* Malik (King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd))
* Wife of ʿAzīz (Zulaykhah)
* Mother

|

People of
Aaron and Moses|

* Egyptians
* Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura)
* Imraʾat Firʿawn (Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim the Wife of Pharaoh, who adopted Moses)
* Magicians of the Pharaoh
* Wise, pious man
* Moses' wife
* Moses' sister-in-law
* Mother
* Sister

Evil ones|

* Āzar (possibly Terah)
* Firʿawn (Pharaoh of Moses' time)
* Hāmān
* Jālūt (Goliath)
* Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses)
* As-Sāmirī
* Abū Lahab
* Slayers of Ṣāliḥ's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)

Implied or
not specified|

* Abraha
* Abu Bakr
* Bal'am/Balaam
* Barṣīṣā
* Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua
* Luqman's son
* Nebuchadnezzar II
* Nimrod
* Rahmah the wife of Ayyub
* Shaddad

Groups

| Mentioned|

* Aṣḥāb al-Jannah
* People of Paradise
* People of the Burnt Garden
* Aṣḥāb as-Sabt (Companions of the Sabbath)
* Jesus' apostles
* Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus)
* Companions of Noah's Ark
* Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?
* Companions of the Elephant
* People of al-Ukhdūd
* People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin
* People of Yathrib or Medina
* Qawm Lūṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)
* Nation of Noah

| Tribes,
ethnicities
or families|

* ‘Ajam
* Ar-Rūm (literally 'The Romans')
* Banī Isrāʾīl (Children of Israel)
* Muʾtafikāt (Sodom and Gomorrah)
* People of Ibrahim
* People of Ilyas
* People of Nuh
* People of Shuaib
* Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)
* Aṣḥāb al-Aykah ('Companions of the Wood')
* Qawm Yūnus (People of Jonah)
* Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog
* People of Fir'aun
* Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)
* Aṣḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad)
* Anṣār (literally 'Helpers')
* Muhajirun (Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)
* People of Mecca
* Wife of Abu Lahab
* Children of Ayyub
* Sons of Adam
* Wife of Nuh
* Wife of Lut
* Yaʾjūj wa Maʾjūj (Gog and Magog)
* Son of Nuh

Aʿrāb (Arabs
or Bedouins)|

* ʿĀd (people of Hud)
* Companions of the Rass
* Qawm Tubbaʿ (People of Tubba)
* People of Sabaʾ or Sheba
* Quraysh
* Thamūd (people of Ṣāliḥ)
* Aṣḥāb al-Ḥijr ('Companions of the Stoneland')

Ahl al-Bayt
('People of the
Household')|

* Household of Abraham
* Brothers of Yūsuf
* Lot's daughters
* Progeny of Imran
* Household of Moses
* Household of Muhammad
* ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim
* Daughters of Muhammad
* Muhammad's wives
* Household of Salih

Implicitly
mentioned|

* Amalek
* Ahl as-Suffa (People of the Verandah)
* Banu Nadir
* Banu Qaynuqa
* Banu Qurayza
* Iranian people
* Umayyad Dynasty
* Aus and Khazraj
* People of Quba

Religious
groups|

* Ahl al-Dhimmah
* Kāfirūn
* disbelievers
* Majūs Zoroastrians
* Munāfiqūn (Hypocrites)
* Muslims
* Believers
* Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book)
* Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil)
* Ruhban (Christian monks)
* Qissis (Christian priest)
* Yahūd (Jews)
* Ahbār (Jewish scholars)
* Rabbani/Rabbi
* Sabians
* Polytheists
* Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad
* Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot

Locations

Mentioned|

* Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ('The Holy Land')
* 'Blessed' Land'
* Al-Jannah (Paradise, literally 'The Garden')
* Jahannam (Hell)
* Door of Hittah
* Madyan (Midian)
* Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn
* Miṣr (Mainland Egypt)
* Salsabīl (A river in Paradise)

| In the
Arabian Peninsula
(excluding Madyan)|

* Al-Aḥqāf ('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills')
* Iram dhāt al-ʿImād (Iram of the Pillars)
* Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)
* ʿArafāt and Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām
* Al-Ḥijr (Hegra)
* Badr
* Ḥunayn
* Makkah (Mecca)
* Bakkah
* Ḥaraman Āminan ('Sanctuary (which is) Secure')
* Kaʿbah (Kaaba)
* Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)
* Safa and Marwa
* Sabaʾ (Sheba)
* ʿArim Sabaʾ (Dam of Sheba)
* Rass

|

Sinai Region
or Tīh Desert|

* Al-Wād Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan (The Holy Valley of Tuwa)
* Al-Wādil-Ayman (The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and Mount Sinai)
* Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ('The Blessed Place')
* Mount Sinai or Mount Tabor

In Mesopotamia|

* Al-Jūdiyy
* Munzalanm-Mubārakan ('Place-of-Landing Blessed')
* Bābil (Babylon)
* Qaryat Yūnus ('Township of Jonah,' that is Nineveh)

Religious
locations|

* Bayʿa (Church)
* Miḥrāb
* Monastery
* Masjid (Mosque, literally 'Place of Prostration')
* Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām ('The Sacred Grove')
* Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā (Al-Aqsa, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration')
* Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca)
* Masjid al-Dirar
* A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:
* Masjid Qubāʾ (Quba Mosque)
* The Prophet's Mosque
* Salat (Synagogue)

Implied|

* Antioch
* Antakya
* Arabia
* Al-Ḥijāz (literally 'The Barrier')
* Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad (Black Stone) & Al-Hijr of Isma'il
* Cave of Hira
* Ghār ath-Thawr (Cave of the Bull)
* Hudaybiyyah
* Ta'if
* Ayla
* Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn
* Bayt al-Muqaddas & 'Ariha
* Bilād ar-Rāfidayn (Mesopotamia)
* Canaan
* Cave of Seven Sleepers
* Dār an-Nadwa
* Jordan River
* Nile River
* Palestine River
* Paradise of Shaddad

Events, incidents, occasions or times

* Incident of Ifk
* Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Decree)
* Event of Mubahala
* Sayl al-ʿArim (Flood of the Great Dam of Ma'rib in Sheba)
* The Farewell Pilgrimage
* Treaty of Hudaybiyyah

| Battles or
military expeditions|

* Battle of al-Aḥzāb ('the Confederates')
* Battle of Badr
* Battle of Hunayn
* Battle of Khaybar
* Battle of Uhud
* Expedition of Tabuk
* Conquest of Mecca

|

Days|

* Al-Jumuʿah (The Friday)
* As-Sabt (The Sabbath or Saturday)
* Days of battles
* Days of Hajj
* Doomsday

Months of the
Islamic calendar|

* 12 months: Four holy months
* Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred or Forbidden Month)
* Ramaḍān

Pilgrimages|

* Al-Ḥajj (literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage)
* Al-ʿUmrah (The Lesser Pilgrimage)

Times for prayer
or remembrance|

Times for Duʿāʾ ('Invocation'), Ṣalāh and Dhikr ('Remembrance', including Taḥmīd ('Praising'), Takbīr and Tasbīḥ):

* Al-ʿAshiyy (The Afternoon or the Night)
* Al-Ghuduww ('The Mornings')
* Al-Bukrah ('The Morning')
* Aṣ-Ṣabāḥ ('The Morning')
* Al-Layl ('The Night')
* Al-ʿIshāʾ ('The Late-Night')
* Aẓ-Ẓuhr ('The Noon')
* Dulūk ash-Shams ('Decline of the Sun')
* Al-Masāʾ ('The Evening')
* Qabl al-Ghurūb ('Before the Setting (of the Sun)')
* Al-Aṣīl ('The Afternoon')
* Al-ʿAṣr ('The Afternoon')
* Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams ('Before the rising of the Sun')
* Al-Fajr ('The Dawn')

Implied|

* Ghadir Khumm
* Laylat al-Mabit
* First Pilgrimage

Other

Holy books|

* Al-Injīl (The Gospel of Jesus)
* Al-Qurʾān (The Book of Muhammad)
* Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm (Scroll(s) of Abraham)
* At-Tawrāt (The Torah)
* Ṣuḥuf-i-Mūsā (Scroll(s) of Moses)
* Tablets of Stone
* Az-Zabūr (The Psalms of David)
* Umm al-Kitāb ('Mother of the Book(s)')

Objects
of people
or beings|

* Heavenly food of Jesus' apostles
* Noah's Ark
* Staff of Musa
* Tābūt as-Sakīnah (Casket of Shekhinah)
* Throne of Bilqis
* Trumpet of Israfil

| Mentioned idols
(cult images)|

* 'Ansāb
* Jibt and Ṭāghūt (False god)

| Of Israelites|

* Baʿal
* The ʿijl (golden calf statue) of Israelites

|

Of Noah's people|

* Nasr
* Suwāʿ
* Wadd
* Yaghūth
* Yaʿūq

Of Quraysh|

* Al-Lāt
* Al-ʿUzzā
* Manāt

Celestial
bodies|

Maṣābīḥ (literally 'lamps'):

* Al-Qamar (The Moon)
* Kawākib (Planets)
* Al-Arḍ (The Earth)
* Nujūm (Stars)
* Ash-Shams (The Sun)

Plant matter|

* Baṣal (Onion)
* Fūm (Garlic or wheat)
* Shaṭʾ (Shoot)
* Sūq (Plant stem)
* Zarʿ (Seed)

| Fruits|

* ʿAdas (Lentil)
* Baql (Herb)
* Qith-thāʾ (Cucumber)
* Rummān (Pomegranate)
* Tīn (Fig)
* Zaytūn (Olive)
* In Paradise
* Forbidden fruit of Adam

|

Bushes, trees
or plants|

* Plants of Sheba
* Athl (Tamarisk)
* Sidr (Lote-tree)
* Līnah (Tender Palm tree)
* Nakhl (Date palm)
* Sidrat al-Muntahā
* Zaqqūm

Liquids|

* Māʾ (Water or fluid)
* Nahr (River)
* Yamm (River or sea)
* Sharāb (Drink)

Note: Names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)

* v
* t
* e

Islam topics

Outline of Islam

| Beliefs|

* God in Islam
* Allah
* Tawhid
* Muhammad
* In Islam
* Prophets of Islam
* Angels
* Revelation
* Qadar
* Judgement Day
* Holiest sites

|

Five Pillars|

* Shahada
* Salah
* Sawm
* Zakat
* Hajj

* History
* Leaders

* Timeline of the history of Islam
* Succession to Muhammad
* Early conquests
* Golden Age
* Historiography
* Sahaba
* Ahl al-Bayt
* Shi'a Imams
* Caliphates
* Rashidun
* Umayyad
* Abbasid
* Córdoba
* Fatimid
* Almohad
* Sokoto
* Ottoman

Religious texts|

* Quran
* Hadith
* Tafsir
* Seerah
* Story of Prophets

Denominations|

* Sunni
* Ash'arism
* Atharism
* Maturidism
* Mu'tazili
* Salafi
* Wahhabism
* Sufi
* Shia
* Twelver Shi'ism
* Isma'ilism
* Alawites
* Alevism
* Bektashi Alevism
* Zaydism
* Muhakkima/Khawarij
* Azariqa
* Moderate Kharijites
* Ibadi
* Azzabas
* Nukkari
* Wahbi
* Sufri
* Najdat
* Nation of Islam
* Ahmadiyya
* Lahori
* Quranism
* Non-denominational

* Life
* Culture

* Animals
* Art
* Association football
* Calendar
* Children
* Clothing
* Flags
* Holidays
* Mosques
* Madrasas
* Moral teachings
* Music
* Peace
* Pacifism
* Philosophy
* Political aspects
* Democracy
* Petro-Islam
* Liberalism and progressivism
* Qurbani
* Science
* Social welfare
* Women
* LGBT
* Islam by country

* Law
* Jurisprudence

| Economics|

* Banking
* Economic history
* Sukuk
* Takaful
* Murabaha
* Riba

|

Hygiene|

* Ghusl
* Miswak
* Najis
* Tayammum
* Toilet
* Wudu

* Family
* Marriage
* Sex

* Haya
* Marriage contract
* Mahr
* Mahram
* Nikah
* Nikah mut'ah
* Zina

Other aspects|

* Baligh
* Cleanliness
* Criminal
* Violence
* Domestic violence
* Islamic extremism
* Islamic terrorism
* Apostasy
* Blasphemy
* Death penalty
* Dhabiĥa
* Dhimmi
* Divorce
* Diet
* Ethics
* Etiquette
* Gambling
* Gender segregation
* Honorifics
* Hudud
* Inheritance
* Jizya
* Leadership
* Ma malakat aymanukum
* Military
* POWs
* Slavery
* Sources of law
* Theological
* Kalam
* Schools of islamic jurisprudence

Islamic studies

| Arts|

* Arabesque
* Architecture
* Calligraphy
* Carpets
* Gardens
* Geometric patterns
* Music
* Pottery

|

Medieval science|

* Alchemy and chemistry
* Astronomy
* Cosmology
* Geography and cartography
* Mathematics
* Medicine
* Ophthalmology
* Physics

Philosophy|

* Early
* Contemporary
* Eschatology
* Theological

Other areas|

* Astrology
* Creationism (evolution)
* Feminism
* Inventions
* Literature
* poetry
* Psychology
* Shu'ubiyya
* Conversion to mosques

Other

| Other religions|

* Christianity
* Catholicism
* Mormonism
* Protestantism
* Druzism
* Hinduism
* Jainism
* Judaism
* Sikhism

|

Apostasy|

* Apostasy in Islam by country
* Ex-Muslims
* List of former Muslims
* List of ex-Muslim organisations

Related topics|

* Criticism of Islam
* Muhammad
* Quran
* Cultural Muslim
* Islamism
* Criticism
* Post-Islamism
* Qutbism
* Islamophobia
* Islamic view of miracles
* Nursing
* Persecution of Muslims
* Minority Muslim
* Sectarian
* Quran and miracles
* Symbolism

* Islam portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Islamic architecture

Styles|

* Abbasid
* Anatolian Seljuk
* Ayyubid
* Chinese
* Fatimid
* Hausa
* Indo-Islamic
* Bengali
* Deccan
* Qutb Shahi
* Mughal
* Indonesian / Malaysian
* Ilkhanid
* Iranian
* Great Seljuk
* Ilkhanid
* Timurid
* Safavid
* Mamluk
* Moorish
* Aghlabid
* Almoravid
* Almohad
* Hafsid
* Zayyanid
* Ottoman
* Somali
* Sudano-Sahelian
* Swahili
* Tatar
* Umayyad
* Yemeni

Elements|

| Materials|

* Qadad
* Tadelakt

|

Arches|

* Chahartaq
* Discharging arch
* Four-centred arch
* Horseshoe arch
* Lambrequin arch
* Multifoil arch
* Ogee arch
* Pointed arch
* Squinch
* Vaulting

Roofs|

* Dome (Arabic dome / Onion dome / Persian dome / South Asian dome)
* Semi-dome
* Tajug
* Chhajja

Religious
objects|

* Anaza
* Bedug
* Dikka (or müezzin mahfili)
* Gonbad
* Hussainiya
* Imamzadeh
* Kiswah
* Loudspeakers
* Maqsurah
* Mihrab
* Minaret
* Minbar
* Qibla
* Zarih

Decorations|

* (For overview, see Islamic ornament)
* Ablaq
* Āina-kāri
* Alfiz
* Arabesque
* Banna'i
* Girih
* Girih tiles
* Haft-rang
* Islamic calligraphy
* Islamic geometric patterns
* Jali
* Mo'araq
* Mosque lamp
* Muqarnas
* Nagash painting
* Qashani
* Sebka (Darj-wa-ktaf)
* Shabaka
* Shamsa
* Sitara
* Socarrat
* Stucco decoration
* Zellij

Rooms|

* Andaruni
* Harem
* Iwan
* Liwan
* Mirador
* Hosh
* Qa’a
* Zenana

Gardens|

* Bagh
* Charbagh
* Islamic garden
* Mughal garden
* Paradise garden
* Persian gardens
* Reflecting pool
* Riad

Outdoor
objects|

* Chhatri
* Eidgah
* Fina
* Mechouar
* Sebil
* Shadirvan

Passive
cooling|

* Hypostyle
* Howz
* Jharokha
* Kucheh
* Mashrabiya
* Riwaq
* Sahn
* Salsabil
* Shabestan
* Shading Umbrellas
* Windcatcher

Types|

| Religious|

* Congregational mosque
* Dar al-Muwaqqit
* Dargah
* Gongbei
* Jama'at Khana
* Külliye
* Kuttab (or maktab)
* Madrasa
* Maqam
* Maqbara
* Mazar
* Mosque
* Musalla
* Qubba
* Rauza
* Surau
* Sufi lodge (khanqah)
* Takyeh
* Türbe
* Zawiya

|

Civilian|

* Baradari
* Bazaar
* Caravanserai
* Bimaristan
* Ghorfa
* Hammam
* Hasht-Bihisht
* Kasbah
* Mahal
* Medina quarter
* Souq
* Well house

Military|

* Albarrana tower
* Alcázar
* Amsar
* Kasbah
* Ksar
* Qalat
* Ribat

Resources|

* Aga Khan Award for Architecture
* ArchNet
* Museum with No Frontiers

Influences|

* Indo-Saracenic Revival
* Influences on Western architecture
* Moorish Revival
* Mudéjar

Part of Islamic arts • Architecture portal • Islam portal

* v
* t
* e

Sufism terminology

Sufis|

* Abdal
* Ahl al-Khutwa
* Al-Insān al-Kāmil
* Bash Hezzab
* Dervish
* Fakir
* Hafiz
* Hezzab
* Imam
* Khatib
* Majzoob
* Marabout
* Mudaqiq [ar]
* Muqaddam
* Muqarrab
* Murshid
* Mutahaqiq [ar]
* Murid
* Nass al-Houdhour
* Pir
* Qalandar
* Qāriʾ
* Qutb
* Rabbani
* Salik
* Sheikh
* Siddiq
* Sufis ranks
* Talibe
* The Seven ranks [ar]
* Wali
* Wasil

Concepts|

* Aayane [ar]
* Aayane Thabita [ar]
* Aql
* Baqaa
* Dhawq
* Fana
* Ghaflah
* Hal
* Hijab
* Huwa
* Ihsan
* Ishq
* Ismul Azam
* Lataif-e-Sitta
* Maqam
* Nafs
* Qalb
* Ran
* Rūḥ
* Sadr
* Yaqeen

Awrad|

* Dhikr
* Djamaa [ar]
* Djoua [ar]
* Dua
* Ibara [ar]
* Ichara [ar]
* Latifa
* Lazimi
* Muhasabah
* Muraqabah
* Raising hands in Dua
* Sabr
* Sahar [ar]
* Salat al-Fatih
* Salawat
* Samt [ar]
* Shuhud [ar]
* Shukr
* Sufism pillars
* Tafakur
* Tahara [ar]
* Tahlia [ar]
* Takhlia [ar]
* Tawajud [ar]
* Tawakkul
* Tawassul
* Tazkiah
* Uzla [ar]
* Wajd
* Wazifa
* Zarruqiyya
* Wird
* Zuhd

Waridates|

* Barakah
* Basirah
* Bast [ar]
* Djadba [ar]
* Fath [ar]
* Haqiqa
* Hidayah
* Ilham
* Irfan
* Ishrak
* Karamat
* Kashf
* Khatir
* Ma'rifa
* Nūr
* Qabdh [ar]
* Rabita [ar]
* Ru'ya
* Secret
* Tajalli
* Thawab
* Uns [ar]
* Walayah
* Warid

Misconducts|

* Antinomianism
* Rahbaniya
* Shath
* Taqabbur
* Zandaqa

Ceremonies|

* Ashura
* Bay'ah
* Hadra
* Hizb Rateb
* Idjaza
* Mawlid
* Mawsim
* Salka
* Sbooa [fr]
* Sebiba
* Silsila
* Sufi orders
* Tariqa
* Tweeza
* Wezeea
* Ziyarat

Arts|

* Ashewiq [ar]
* Madih nabawi
* Nasheed
* Naʽat
* Qawwali
* Sama
* Sufi cosmology
* Sufism history
* Sufi literature
* Sufi metaphysics
* Sufi music
* Sufis persecution
* Sufi philosophy
* Sufi poetry
* Sufi psychology
* Sufi whirling

Places|

* Daara
* Dargah
* Datuk Keramat
* Eidgah
* Gonbad
* Gongbei
* Jama masjid
* Jama'at Khana
* Khalwa
* Khalawi
* Khanqah
* Külliye
* Kuttab
* Madrasa
* Maqam
* Maqbara
* Mausoleum
* Mazar
* Mosque
* Musalla
* Qubba
* Rauza
* Ribat
* Surau
* Takya
* Turbah
* Türbe
* Zawiya

Objects|

* Ammama
* Balgha
* Burnous
* Djellaba
* Gandoura
* Jellabiya
* Khirqa
* Misbaha
* Miswak
* Prayer rug
* Qashabiya
* Tagelmust
* Taqiyah
* Tarboosh
* Turban

* v
* t
* e

Places of worship

Baháʼí Faith |

Baháʼí House of Worship

Buddhism |

* Buddhist Monastery or Vihāra
* Chaitya
* Pagoda
* Shaolin Monastery
* Stupa
* Wat

Christianity |

Church

Hinduism |

* Hindu temple or Mandir
* Balinese temple or Pura

Jainism |

Jain temple or Derasar or Basadi

Judaism |

Synagogue or Shul

Islam |

* Mosque
* Dargah
* Gongbei

Mandaeism |

Mandi or Mashkhanna or Beth Manda

Paganism & modern paganism |

* Heathen hof or Germanic pagan temple
* Magic circle

Shintoism |

Shinto Shrine or Jinja

Sikhism |

Gurdwara

Taoism |

Taoist temple or Dàoguàn

Zoroastrianism |

Fire temple or Agiary or Atashkadeh or Atashgah or Dar-e Mehr

Varying religions and beliefs|

* Altar
* Cult
* Architecture
* Asylum
* Cult image
* Sacred space
* Sanctuary
* Shrine
* Temple
* Sun temple

Note: Sorted alphabetically except the last one

Portals:

* Religion
* Islam
* Education
* Psychology
* Art
* Architecture

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Israel

Other|

* IdRef
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi
* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[lit.]: literal translation