Mycology

Study of fungi

Mature Mycena leaiana, a kind of Mushroom, in Mount Field National Park. Part of a series on

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Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their taxonomy, genetics, biochemical properties, and use by humans.[1] Fungi can be a source of tinder, food, traditional medicine, as well as entheogens, poison, and infection. Yeasts are among the most heavily utilized members of the fungus kingdom, particularly in food manufacturing.[2]

Mycology branches into the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases. The two disciplines are closely related, because the vast majority of plant pathogens are fungi. A biologist specializing in mycology is called a mycologist.

## Overview

[edit]

The word mycology comes from the Ancient Greek: μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus" and the suffix -λογία (-logia), meaning "study."[3] Pioneer mycologists included Elias Magnus Fries, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, Heinrich Anton de Bary, Elizabeth Eaton Morse, and Lewis David de Schweinitz. Beatrix Potter, author of The Tale of Peter Rabbit, also made significant contributions to the field.[4]

Pier Andrea Saccardo developed a system for classifying the imperfect fungi by spore color and form, which became the primary system used before classification by DNA analysis. He is most famous for his Sylloge Fungorum,[5] which was a comprehensive list of all of the names that had been used for mushrooms. Sylloge is still the only work of this kind that was both comprehensive for the botanical kingdom Fungi and reasonably modern.[6]

Many fungi produce toxins,[7] antibiotics,[8] and other secondary metabolites. For example, the cosmopolitan genus Fusarium and their toxins associated with fatal outbreaks of alimentary toxic aleukia in humans were extensively studied by Abraham Z. Joffe.[9]

Fungi are fundamental for life on earth in their roles as symbionts, e.g. in the form of mycorrhizae, insect symbionts, and lichens. Many fungi are able to break down complex organic biomolecules such as lignin, the more durable component of wood, and pollutants such as xenobiotics, petroleum, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. By decomposing these molecules, fungi play a critical role in the global carbon cycle.

Fungi and other organisms traditionally recognized as fungi, such as oomycetes and myxomycetes (slime molds), often are economically and socially important, as some cause diseases of animals (including humans) and of plants.[10]

Apart from pathogenic fungi, many fungal species are very important in controlling the plant diseases caused by different pathogens. For example, species of the filamentous fungal genus Trichoderma are considered one of the most important biological control agents as an alternative to chemical-based products for effective crop disease management.[11]

Field meetings to find interesting species of fungi are known as 'forays', after the first such meeting organized by the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club in 1868 and entitled "A foray among the funguses [sic]".[12]

Some fungi can cause disease in humans and other animals; the study of pathogenic fungi that infect animals is referred to as medical mycology.[13]

## History

[edit]

It is believed that humans started collecting mushrooms as food in prehistoric times. Mushrooms were first written about in the works of Euripides (480–406 BC). The Greek philosopher Theophrastos of Eresos (371–288 BC) was perhaps the first to try to systematically classify plants; mushrooms were considered to be plants missing certain organs. It was later Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD), who wrote about truffles in his encyclopedia Natural History.[14]

> Fungi and truffles are neither herbs, nor roots, nor flowers, nor seeds, but merely the superfluous moisture or earth, of trees, or rotten wood, and of other rotting things. This is plain from the fact that all fungi and truffles, especially those that are used for eating, grow most commonly in thundery and wet weather.

— Jerome Bock (Hieronymus Tragus), 1552[15]

The Middle Ages saw little advancement in the body of knowledge about fungi. However, the invention of the printing press allowed authors to dispel superstitions and misconceptions about the fungi that had been perpetuated by the classical authors.[16]

Group photograph taken at a meeting of the British Mycological Society in 1913

The start of the modern age of mycology begins with Pier Antonio Micheli's 1737 publication of Nova plantarum genera.[17] Published in Florence, this seminal work laid the foundations for the systematic classification of grasses, mosses and fungi. He originated the still current genus names Polyporus[18] and Tuber,[19] both dated 1729 (though the descriptions were later amended as invalid by modern rules).

The founding nomenclaturist Carl Linnaeus included fungi in his binomial naming system in 1753, where each type of organism has a two-word name consisting of a genus and species (whereas up to then organisms were often designated with Latin phrases containing many words).[20] He originated the scientific names of numerous well-known mushroom taxa, such as Boletus[21] and Agaricus,[22] which are still in use today. During this period, fungi were still considered to belong to the plant kingdom, so they were categorized in his Species Plantarum. Linnaeus' fungal taxa were not nearly as comprehensive as his plant taxa, however, grouping together all gilled mushrooms with a stem in genus Agaricus.[23][24] Thousands of gilled species exist, which were later divided into dozens of diverse genera; in its modern usage, Agaricus only refers to mushrooms closely related to the common shop mushroom, Agaricus bisporus.[25] For example, Linnaeus gave the name Agaricus deliciosus to the saffron milk-cap, but its current name is Lactarius deliciosus.[26] On the other hand, the field mushroom Agaricus campestris has kept the same name ever since Linnaeus's publication.[27] The English word "agaric" is still used for any gilled mushroom, which corresponds to Linnaeus's use of the word.[25]

Although mycology was historically considered a branch of botany, the 1969 discovery[28] of fungi's close evolutionary relationship to animals resulted in the study's reclassification as an independent field.[29] The term mycology and the complementary term mycologist are traditionally attributed to M.J. Berkeley in 1836.[30] However, mycologist appeared in writings by English botanist Robert Kaye Greville as early as 1823 in reference to Schweinitz.[31]

## Scope and importance

[edit]

### Production, trade, and food manufacturing

[edit]

Lumber and timber products are a key element of international trade,[32] as they are used for all things from architecture to firewood. The cultivation of forested ecosystems to produce this amount of usable wood is highly dependent on the mycorrhizal symbiotic relationships between plants, specifically trees, and fungi. The fungi provide a great number of benefits to their symbiotic plant partner, such as disease tolerance, improved growth and mineral nutrition, stress tolerance, and even fertilizer utilization.[33]

Another major component of international trade over recent years has been edible and medicinal mushrooms. While many fungal species can be cultivated in large farming installations, the cultivation of some coveted species has yet to be fully understood, which means that there are many species that can only be found naturally in the wild.[32] While the demand of wild mushroom species has increased worldwide over recent years, the rarity of these species has not changed. Even still, mushroom hunting has become a key factor in local economies.[34]

Increased scientific knowledge of fungal diversity has led to biotechnological advances in food manufacturing.[35] Humans have utilized this knowledge by cultivating various types of fungi, particularly yeasts. There are over 500 species of yeasts that have been cultivated for different purposes, the most common of which is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, also known as baker's yeast. As its common name suggests, S. cerevisiae has been used for winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times.[2]

Fermentation is one of the earliest forms of food preservation, with the earliest recorded use dating back over 13,000 years ago in Israel.[36] The cultivation of bacteria and fungi, particularly yeasts, have been used for centuries to increase the storage life of meats, vegetables, grains, and other foods.[37] Fermentation also plays a significant role in the production of various food products and alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine. About 90% of the world's beer production comes from lager beer and 5% from ale beer, while the rest is from spontaneous fermentation of a variety of yeasts and bacteria.[32] Production of alcoholic beverages play significant roles in the economics of many countries, with beer often being a crucial export.[32]

### Plant pathogenic fungi

[edit]

Plant pathogenic fungi are a serious threat when it comes to crop availability and food security. These fungi can infiltrate plants and food crops, which can cause serious economic issues for agricultural industries in numerous countries.[35] Various plant pathogens can cause cash crops to become inedible and virtually useless to the farmer that is growing them. This problem has increased over the years as the usage of monocultures have become more prevalent: a limited variety of plants in one area can lead to the rapid spread of specific pathogens.[38] Puccinia graminis is a type of stem rust that targets wheat crops worldwide from Africa to Europe.[39][40] Another devastating fungal pathogen is Sarocladium oryzae, which is a type of sheath rot fungus prevalent in India and is a great threat to rice cultivation.[41] Historically, one of the more well-known cases of plant-fungal pandemics was the potato blight of Ireland, which was caused by a water mold known as Phytophthora infestans. This event is known as the Great Famine of Ireland.[42]

## Mycology and drug discovery

[edit]

Main article: Medicinal fungi

For centuries, certain mushrooms have been documented as a folk medicine in China, Japan, and Russia.[43] Although the use of mushrooms in folk medicine is centered largely on the Asian continent, people in other parts of the world like the Middle East, Poland, and Belarus have been documented using mushrooms for medicinal purposes.[44]

Mushrooms produce large amounts of vitamin D when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light.[45] Penicillin, ciclosporin, griseofulvin, cephalosporin and psilocybin are examples of drugs that have been isolated from molds or other fungi.[46]

## See also

[edit]

* Fungi portal

* Ethnomycology
* Glossary of mycology
* Fungal biochemical test
* List of mycologists
* List of mycology journals
* Marine fungi
* Mushroom hunting
* Mycotoxicology
* Pathogenic fungi
* Protistology

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Arora, Dilip K.; Khachatourians, George G. (2001). Khachatourians, George G.; Arora (eds.). Agriculture and Food Production (1st ed.). Amsterdam New York: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-50657-3.
2. ^ a b Sage, Harmony (2019). Yeast Fermentation Handbook: Essential Guide and Recipes for Beer and Bread Makers (1st ed.). Callisto Publishing LLC. ISBN 9781641526746.
3. ^ Henry, Alexander (1861). A Glossary of Scientific Terms for General Use. p. 113\. ISBN 9781164123880. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
4. ^ Casadevall A, Kontoyiannis DP, Robert V (July 2019). "On the Emergence of Candida auris: Climate Change, Azoles, Swamps, and Birds". mBio. 10 (4): 1786–1787\. doi:10.3201/eid2509.ac2509. PMC 6711238. PMID 31337723.
5. ^ Saccardo, P. A.; Traverso, G. B.; Trotter, A. (1882). Sylloge fungorum omnium hucusque cognitorum. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.5371.[page needed]
6. ^ Bolman, Brad (September 2023). "What mysteries lay in spore: taxonomy, data, and the internationalization of mycology in Saccardo's Sylloge Fungorum". The British Journal for the History of Science. 56 (3): 369–390\. doi:10.1017/S0007087423000158. PMID 37248705.
7. ^ Wilson BJ (1971). Ciegler A, Kadis S, Ajl SJ (eds.). Microbial Toxins. Vol. 6: Fungal Toxins. New York: Academic Press. p. 251.
8. ^ Brian, P. W. (June 1951). "Antibiotics produced by fungi". The Botanical Review. 17 (6): 357–430\. Bibcode:1951BotRv..17..357B. doi:10.1007/BF02879038.
9. ^ Joffe, Abraham Z.; Yagen, Boris (January 1978). "Intoxication produced by toxic fungi Fusarium poae and F. sporotrichioides on chicks". Toxicon. 16 (3): 263–273\. Bibcode:1978Txcn...16..263J. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(78)90087-9. PMID 653754.
10. ^ De Lucca AJ (March 2007). "Harmful fungi in both agriculture and medicine". Revista Iberoamericana de Micologia. 24 (1): 3–13\. PMID 17592884.
11. ^ Ruano-Rosa, David; Prieto, Pilar; Rincón, Ana María; Gómez-Rodríguez, María Victoria; Valderrama, Raquel; Barroso, Juan Bautista; Mercado-Blanco, Jesús (June 2016). "Fate of Trichoderma harzianum in the olive rhizosphere: time course of the root colonization process and interaction with the fungal pathogen Verticillium dahliae". BioControl. 61 (3): 269–282\. Bibcode:2016BioCo..61..269R. doi:10.1007/s10526-015-9706-z. hdl:10261/157852.
12. ^ Anon (1868). "A foray among the funguses". Transactions of the Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club. 1868. Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club.: 184–192\. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
13. ^ San-Blas, Gioconda; Calderone, Richard A. (2008). Pathogenic Fungi: Insights in Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-913652-13-5.[page needed]
14. ^ Pliny the Elder. "Book 19, Chapter 11" [Natural History]. www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 4 April 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2021.
15. ^ De stirpium maxime earum quae in Germania nostra nascuntur, usitatis nomenclaturis. Strasbourg. In Ainsworth 1976, p. 13 quoting Buller AH (1915). "Micheli and the discovery of reproduction in fungi". Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. 3. 9: 1–25.
16. ^ Ainsworth 1976, p. 13.
17. ^ Ainsworth 1976, p. 4.
18. ^ "the Polyporus P. Micheli page". www.indexfungorum.org. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
19. ^ "the Tuber P. Micheli page". www.indexfungorum.org. Archived from the original on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
20. ^ Kibby, Geoffrey (2017). Mushrooms and Toadstools of Britain & Europe. Geoffrey Kibby. pp. 14–15\. ISBN 978-0-9572094-2-8.
21. ^ "the Boletus L. page". www.indexfungorum.org. Archived from the original on 11 November 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
22. ^ "the Agaricus L. page". www.indexfungorum.org. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
23. ^ "Home". fmhibd.library.cmu.edu. Archived from the original on 12 July 2018. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
24. ^ Linné, Carl von; Linné, Carl von; Salvius, Lars (1753). Caroli Linnaei ... Species plantarum :exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas... Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Holmiae: Impensis Laurentii Salvii. p. 1171\. Archived from the original on 6 May 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
25. ^ a b Læssøe, Thomas; Petersen, Jens Henrik (2019). Fungi of Temperate Europe. Princeton University Press. pp. 8, 500. ISBN 978-0-691-18037-3.
26. ^ "the Agaricus deliciosus L. page". www.speciesfungorum.org. Archived from the original on 1 December 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
27. ^ "the Agaricus campestris L. page". www.speciesfungorum.org. Archived from the original on 16 November 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
28. ^ Whittaker RH (10 January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms of organisms: evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms". Science. 163 (3863): 150–160\. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760.
29. ^ Woese, Carl; Kandler, Otto; Wheelis, M. L. (June 1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 87 (12): 4576–4579\. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 54159. PMID 2112744.
30. ^ Ainsworth 1976, p. 2.
31. ^ Greville, Robert Kaye (April 1823). "Observations on a New Genus of Plants, belonging to the Natural Order Gastromyci". The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. 8 (16): 257.
32. ^ a b c d Rai, Mahendra; Bridge, P. D., eds. (2009). Applied mycology. Wallingford, UK; Cambridge, Massachusetts: CABI. ISBN 978-1-84593-534-4. OCLC 298613581.
33. ^ Fulton, Susanne M. (2011). Mycorrhizal Fungi: Soil, Agriculture and Environmental Implications. Air, Water and Soil Pollution Science and Technology. Hauppauge: Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-61122-659-1.
34. ^ de Frutos, Pablo (1 March 2020). "Changes in world patterns of wild edible mushrooms use measured through international trade flows". Forest Policy and Economics. 112 102093\. Bibcode:2020ForPE.11202093D. doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2020.102093. ISSN 1389-9341.
35. ^ a b Arora, Dilip K.; Khachatourians, George G. (2001). Agriculture and Food Production (1st ed.). Amsterdam New York: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-50657-3.
36. ^ Liu, Li; Wang, Jiajing; Rosenburg, Danny; Zhao, Hao; Lengyel, Gyorgy; Nadel, Dani (8 September 2018). "Fermented beverage and food storage in 13,000 y-old stone mortars at Raqefet Cave Israel: Investigating Natufian ritual feasting". Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 21: 783–793\. Bibcode:2018JArSR..21..783L. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.08.008 - via Science Direct.
37. ^ Teng, Ting Shien; Chin, Yi Ling; Chai, Kong Fei; Chen, Wei Ning (5 May 2021). "Fermentation for future food systems: Precision fermentation can complement the scope and applications of traditional fermentation". EMBO Reports. 22 (5): e52680. doi:10.15252/embr.202152680. PMC 8097352. PMID 33908143.
38. ^ Madsen, Marianne Moss, ed. (2019). Encyclopedia of global resources (3rd ed.). Ipswich, Massachusetts : Amenia, New York: Salem Press, a division of EBSCO Information Services, Inc.; Grey House Publishing. ISBN 978-1-64265-056-3. OCLC 1101967096.
39. ^ Patpour, M.; Hovmøller, M. S.; Justesen, A. F.; Newcomb, M.; Olivera, P.; Jin, Y.; Szabo, L. J.; Hodson, D.; Shahin, A. A.; Wanyera, R.; Habarurema, I.; Wobibi, S. (February 2016). "Emergence of Virulence to SrTmp in the Ug99 Race Group of Wheat Stem Rust, Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, in Africa". Plant Disease. 100 (2): 522. Bibcode:2016PlDis.100..522P. doi:10.1094/PDIS-06-15-0668-PDN. ISSN 0191-2917.
40. ^ Olivera Firpo, P. D.; Newcomb, M.; Flath, K.; Sommerfeldt-Impe, N.; Szabo, L. J.; Carter, M.; Luster, D. G.; Jin, Y. (2017). "Characterization of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici isolates derived from an unusual wheat stem rust outbreak in Germany in 2013". Plant Pathology. 66 (8): 1258–1266\. Bibcode:2017PPath..66.1258O. doi:10.1111/ppa.12674. ISSN 1365-3059.
41. ^ Mehta, Amritpal; Singh, S. K.; Wani, Owais Ali; Ahanger, Shafat Ahmad; Basu, Umer; Vaid, Amrish; Sharma, Sonali; Basandrai, Ashwani Kumar (March 2023). "Effect of abiotic factors on progress and severity of sheath rot ( Sarocladium oryzae ) in rice". Journal of Phytopathology. 171 (7–8): 300–319\. Bibcode:2023JPhyt.171..300M. doi:10.1111/jph.13183. ISSN 0931-1785.7–8&rft.pages=300-319&rft.date=2023-03&rft.issn=0931-1785&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/jph.13183&rft_id=info:bibcode/2023JPhyt.171..300M&rft.aulast=Mehta&rft.aufirst=Amritpal&rft.au=Singh,+S.+K.&rft.au=Wani,+Owais+Ali&rft.au=Ahanger,+Shafat+Ahmad&rft.au=Basu,+Umer&rft.au=Vaid,+Amrish&rft.au=Sharma,+Sonali&rft.au=Basandrai,+Ashwani+Kumar&rft_id=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jph.13183&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Mycology" class="Z3988">
42. ^ Goss, Erica M.; Cardenas, Martha E.; Myers, Kevin; Forbes, Gregory A.; Fry, William E.; Restrepo, Silvia; Grünwald, Niklaus J. (16 September 2011). Allodi, Silvana (ed.). "The Plant Pathogen Phytophthora andina Emerged via Hybridization of an Unknown Phytophthora Species and the Irish Potato Famine Pathogen, P. infestans". PLOS ONE. 6 (9): e24543. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...624543G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024543. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3174952. PMID 21949727.
43. ^ Sullivan, Richard. Medicinal Mushrooms: Their therapeutic properties and current medical usage with special emphasis on cancer treatments. p. 5\. Archived from the original on 29 July 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
44. ^ Shashkina, M. Ya.; Shashkin, P. N.; Sergeev, A. V. (October 2006). "Chemical and medicobiological properties of chaga (review)". Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal. 40 (10): 560–568\. doi:10.1007/s11094-006-0194-4.
45. ^ Cardwell G, Bornman JF, James AP, Black LJ (October 2018). "A Review of Mushrooms as a Potential Source of Dietary Vitamin D". Nutrients. 10 (10): 1498. doi:10.3390/nu10101498. PMC 6213178. PMID 30322118.
46. ^ Hyde, K.D., Baldrian, P., Chen, Y. et al (2024). "Current trends, limitations and future research in the fungi?." Fungal Diversity. 125: 1–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13225-023-00532-5

### Cited literature

[edit]

* Ainsworth, G. C. (1976). Introduction to the History of Mycology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21013-3.

## External links

[edit]

Library resources about
Mycology

* * *

* Resources in your library

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mycology.

* Professional organizations
* BMS: British Mycological Society (United Kingdom)
* MSA: Mycological Society of America (North America)
* Amateur organizations
* MSSF: Mycological Society of San Francisco
* North American Mycological Association (list of amateur organizations in North America)
* Puget Sound Mycological Society
* Oregon Mycological Society
* IMA Illinois Mycological Association
* Miscellaneous links
* Online lectures in mycology University of South Carolina
* The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology
* MykoWeb links page
* Mycological Glossary at the Illinois Mycological Association
* FUNGI Magazine for professionals and amateurs – largest circulating U.S. publication concerning all things mycological
* Fungal Cell Biology Group at University of Edinburgh, UK.
* Mycological Marvels Cornell University, Mann Library

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Opisthokont: True fungi classification, fungal orders

Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(major groups
Metamonada
Discoba
Diaphoretickes

Hacrobia

Cryptista
Rhizaria
Alveolata
Stramenopiles
Plants
Amorphea

Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta

Animals
Fungi
Mesomycetozoea)

Rozellomyceta|

| Rozellomycota|

* Rozellomycetes

|

Microsporidiomycota|

* Morellosporales
* Nucleophagales
* Paramicrosporidiales

Microsporidia|

* Chytridiopsidea
* Metchnikovellea
* Microsporea

Aphelidiomyceta|

| Aphelidiomycota|

* Aphelidea

|

Eumycota|

| Zoosporic fungi
(paraphyletic)|

| Neocallimastigomycota|

* Neocallimastigomycetes

|

Monoblepharomycota|

* Hyaloraphidiomycetes
* Monoblepharidomycetes

Chytridiomycota|

* ?Caulochytriomycetes
* ?Coenomycetes
* Sanchytriomycetes
* Chytridiomycetes

Blastocladiomycota|

* Physodermatomycetes
* Blastocladiomycetes

Zygomycota
(paraphyletic)|

| Olpidiomycota|

* Olpidiomycetes

|

Basidiobolomycota|

* Basidiobolomycetes

Entomophthoromycota|

* Neozygitomycetes
* Entomophthoromycetes

Kickxellomycota|

* Zoopagomycetes
* Dimargaritomycetes
* Ramicandelaberomycetes
* Kickxellomycetes

Mortierellomycota|

* Mortierellomycetes

Calcarisporiellomycota|

* Calcarisporiellomycetes

Mucoromycota|

* Endogonomycetes
* Mucoromycetes

Glomeromycota|

* †Palaeovesiarbusmycetes
* Paraglomeromycetes
* Archaeosporomycetes
* Glomeromycetes

Dikarya|

| Entorrhizomycota|

* Entorrhizomycetes

|

Ascomycota
(sac fungi)|

| Taphrinomycotina|

* Archaeorhizomycetes
* Neolectomycetes
* Novakomycetes
* Pneumocystidomycetes
* Schizosaccharomycetes
* Taphrinomycetes

|

Saccharomycotina|

* Alloascoideomycetes
* Dipodascomycetes
* Lipomycetes
* Pichiomycetes
* Saccharomycetes
* Sporopachydermiomycetes
* Trigonopsidomycetes

Pezizomycotina|

| Other|

* Orbiliomycetes
* Pezizomycetes

|

Dothideomyceta|

* Candelariomycetes
* Coniocybomycetes
* Lichinomycetes
* Arthoniomycetes
* Collemopsidiomycetes
* Dothideomycetes
* Eurotiomycetes
* Lecanoromycetes
* Xylobotryomycetes

Sordariomyceta|

* Xylonomycetes
* Geoglossomycetes
* Leotiomycetes
* Laboulbeniomycetes
* Sareomycetes
* Sordariomycetes

Basidiomycota
(with basidia)|

| Pucciniomycotina|

* Tritirachiomycetes
* Mixiomycetes
* Agaricostilbomycetes
* Cystobasidiomycetes
* Microbotryomycetes
* Classiculomycetes
* Cryptomycocolacomycetes
* Atractiellomycetes
* Spiculogloeomycetes
* Pucciniomycetes

|

Ustilaginomycotina|

* Peribolosporomycetes
* Monilielliomycetes
* Malasseziomycetes
* Ustilaginomycetes
* Exobasidiomycetes

Agaricomycotina|

* Dacrymycetales
* Agaricomycetes
* Wallemiomycetes
* Bartheletiomycetes
* Tremellomycetes

See also: fungi imperfecti (polyphyletic group).

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Biology

* Introduction (Genetics, Evolution)
* Outline
* History
* Timeline
* Index

Biology|

| Overview|

* Science
* Life
* Properties (Adaptation, Energy processing, Growth, Order, Regulation, Reproduction (Self-replication), Response to environment)
* Hierarchy of life (Atom > Molecule > Organelle > Cell > Tissue > Organ > Organ system > Organism > Population > Community > Ecosystem > Biosphere)
* Reductionistic
* Emergent property
* Mechanistic
* Scientific method
* Taxonomic rank
* Theory
* Law
* Peer review
* Biology journals
* Common name

|

Chemical basis|

* Atoms
* Amino acids
* Carbohydrates
* Chemical bond
* Chemical element
* Lipids
* Matter
* Quantum
* Molecules
* Monomer
* Nucleic acids
* Organic compounds
* pH
* Polymer
* Proteins
* Water

Cells|

* ATP
* Cell cycle
* Cell theory
* Cell signaling
* Cellular respiration
* Energy transformation
* Enzyme
* Eukaryote
* Fermentation
* Metabolism
* Meiosis
* Mitosis
* Photosynthesis
* Prokaryote

Genetics|

* DNA
* Epigenetics
* Evolutionary developmental biology
* Gene expression
* Gene regulation
* Genomes
* Mendelian inheritance
* Post-transcriptional modification

Evolution|

* Adaptation
* Earliest known life forms
* Function
* Genetic drift
* Gene flow
* History of life
* Macroevolution
* Microevolution
* Mutation
* Natural selection
* Phylogenetics
* Speciation
* Taxonomy

Diversity|

* Archaea
* Bacteria
* Eukaryote
* Alga
* Animal
* Fungus
* Plant
* Protist
* Virus

Plant form
and function|

* Epidermis (botany)
* Flower
* Ground tissue
* Leaf
* Phloem
* Plant stem
* Root
* Shoot
* Vascular plant
* Vascular tissue
* Xylem

Animal form
and function|

* Breathing
* Circulatory system
* Endocrine system
* Digestive system
* Homeostasis
* Immune system
* Internal environment
* Muscular system
* Nervous system
* Reproductive system
* Respiratory system

Ecology|

* Biogeochemical cycle
* Biological interaction
* Biomass
* Biomes
* Biosphere
* Climate
* Climate change
* Community
* Conservation
* Ecosystem
* Habitat
* niche
* Microbiome
* Population dynamics
* Resources

Research
methods|

| Laboratory
techniques|

* Genetic engineering
* Transformation
* Gel electrophoresis
* Chromatography
* Centrifugation
* Cell culture
* DNA sequencing
* DNA microarray
* Green fluorescent protein
* vector
* Enzyme assay
* Protein purification
* Western blot
* Northern blot
* Southern blot
* Restriction enzyme
* Polymerase chain reaction
* Two-hybrid screening
* in vivo
* in vitro
* in silico

|

Field techniques|

* Belt transect
* mark and recapture
* species discovery curve

Branches|

* Abiogenesis
* Aerobiology
* Agronomy
* Agrostology
* Anatomy
* Anthropogeny
* Anthropology
* Astrobiology
* Bacteriology
* Biochemistry
* Biogeography
* Biogeology
* Bioinformatics
* Biological engineering
* Biomathematics
* Biomechanics
* Biophysics
* Biosemiotics
* Biostatistics
* Biotechnology
* Botany
* Cell biology
* Cellular microbiology
* Chemical biology
* Chronobiology
* Cognitive biology
* Computational biology
* Conservation biology
* Cryobiology
* Cytogenetics
* Dendrology
* Developmental biology
* Ecological genetics
* Ecology
* Embryology
* Epidemiology
* Epigenetics
* Evolutionary biology
* Freshwater biology
* Generative biology
* Genetics
* Genomics
* Geobiology
* Gerontology
* Herpetology
* Histology
* Human biology
* Ichthyology
* Immunology
* Lipidology
* Mammalogy
* Marine biology
* Microbiology
* Molecular biology
* Mycology
* Neontology
* Neuroscience
* Nutrition
* Ornithology
* Osteology
* Paleontology
* Parasitology
* Pathology
* Pharmacology
* Photobiology
* Phycology
* Phylogenetics
* Physiology
* Pomology
* Primatology
* Proteomics
* Protistology
* Quantum biology
* Relational biology
* Reproductive biology
* Sociobiology
* Structural biology
* Synthetic biology
* Systematics
* Systems biology
* Taxonomy
* Teratology
* Toxicology
* Virology
* Virophysics
* Welfare biology
* Xenobiology
* Zoology

Glossaries|

* Biology
* Botanical terms
* Ecological terms
* Plant morphology terms

* Biology portal
* Category
* Commons
* WikiProject

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Branches of biology

* Abiogenesis
* Aerobiology
* Agronomy
* Agrostology
* Anatomy
* Anthropogeny
* Anthropology
* Astrobiology
* Bacteriology
* Biochemistry
* Biogeography
* Biogeology
* Bioinformatics
* Biological engineering
* Biomathematics
* Biomechanics
* Biophysics
* Biosemiotics
* Biostatistics
* Biotechnology
* Botany
* Cell biology
* Cellular microbiology
* Chemical biology
* Chronobiology
* Cognitive biology
* Computational biology
* Conservation biology
* Cryobiology
* Cytogenetics
* Dendrology
* Developmental biology
* Ecological genetics
* Ecology
* Embryology
* Epidemiology
* Epigenetics
* Evolutionary biology
* Freshwater biology
* Generative biology
* Genetics
* Genomics
* Geobiology
* Gerontology
* Herpetology
* Histology
* Human biology
* Ichthyology
* Immunology
* Lipidology
* Mammalogy
* Marine biology
* Microbiology
* Molecular biology
* Mycology
* Neontology
* Neuroscience
* Nutrition
* Ornithology
* Osteology
* Paleontology
* Parasitology
* Pathology
* Pharmacology
* Photobiology
* Phycology
* Phylogenetics
* Physiology
* Pomology
* Primatology
* Proteomics
* Protistology
* Quantum biology
* Relational biology
* Reproductive biology
* Sociobiology
* Structural biology
* Synthetic biology
* Systematics
* Systems biology
* Taxonomy
* Teratology
* Toxicology
* Virology
* Virophysics
* Welfare biology
* Xenobiology
* Zoology

See also|

* History of biology
* Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
* Timeline of biology and organic chemistry

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Microbiology: Fungus

Outline of fungi · Outline of lichens

Branch|

* Ethnomycology
* Lichenology
* Marine fungi
* Medicinal fungi
* Mycology
* Mycosis
* Mycotoxicology

Structure|

| Reproduction/spore|

* teleomorph/sexual: Zygospore
* Ascospore/Ascus
* Basidiospore/Basidium/Teliospore

* anamorph/asexual: Sporangium
* Conidium
* Chlamydospore
* Oidium
* Pycniospore

|

Other|

* Hypha
* Haustorium
* Mycelium
* Cell wall
* Sporocarp

Growth patterns|

* Dimorphic fungi
* Mold
* Yeast
* Mushroom

List|

* Glossary of mycology
* List of fungal orders
* List of mycologists
* List of mycology journals

* Category
* Commons
* WikiProject

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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