Nation

Community based on common ethnic, cultural or political identity

For other uses, see Nation (disambiguation).

See also: National identity and Nationalism

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A nation is a type of social organization where a collective identity, a national identity, has emerged from a combination of shared features across a given population, such as language, history, ethnicity, culture, territory, or society. Some nations are constructed around ethnicity (see ethnic nationalism) while others are bound by political constitutions (see civic nationalism).[1]

A nation is generally more overtly political than an ethnic group.[2][3] Benedict Anderson defines a nation as "an imagined political community […] imagined because the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion",[4] while Anthony D. Smith defines nations as cultural-political communities that have become conscious of their autonomy, unity and particular interests.[5][6] Black's Law Dictionary also defines nation as a community of people inhabiting a defined territory and organized under an independent government.[2] Thus, nation can be synonymous with state or country. Indeed, according to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, what distinguishes nations from other forms of collective identity, like ethnicity, is this very relationship with the state.[7]

The consensus among scholars is that nations are socially constructed, historically contingent, organizationally flexible, and a distinctly modern phenomenon.[8][9] Throughout history, people have had an attachment to their kin group and traditions, territorial authorities and their homeland, but nationalism – the belief that state and nation should align as a nation state – did not become a prominent ideology until the end of the 18th century.[10]

## Etymology and terminology

[edit]

The English word nation from Middle English c. 1300, nacioun "a race of people, large group of people with common ancestry and language," from Old French nacion "birth (naissance), rank; descendants, relatives; country, homeland" (12c.) and directly from Latin nationem (nominative natio (nātĭō), supine of verb nascar « to birth » (supine : natum)) "birth, origin; breed, stock, kind, species; race of people, tribe," literally "that which has been born," from natus, past participle of nasci "be born" (Old Latin gnasci), from PIE root *gene- "give birth, beget," with derivatives referring to procreation and familial and tribal groups.[11]

In Latin, natio represents the children of the same birth and also a human group of same origin.[12] By Cicero, natio is used for "people".[13]

## Nations in History

[edit]

### The existence of earlier nations

[edit]

See also: Nationalism in Antiquity and Nationalism in the Middle Ages

The broad consensus amongst scholars of nationalism is that nations are a recent phenomenon.[14] However, some historians argue that their existence can be traced to the medieval period, or a minority believe even to antiquity.

Adrian Hastings argued that nations and nationalism are predominantly Christian phenomena, with Jews being the sole exception. He viewed them as the "true proto-nation" that provided the original model of nationhood through the foundational example of ancient Israel in the Hebrew Bible, despite losing their political sovereignty for nearly two millennia. The Jews, however, maintained a cohesive national identity throughout this period, which ultimately culminated in the emergence of Zionism and the establishment of modern lsrael.[15] Anthony D. Smith wrote that the Jews of the late Second Temple period provide "a closer approximation to the ideal type of the nation ... perhaps anywhere else in the ancient world."[16]

Susan Reynolds has argued that many European medieval kingdoms were nations in the modern sense, except that political participation in nationalism was available only to a limited prosperous and literate class,[17] while Hastings claims England's Anglo-Saxon kings mobilized mass nationalism in their struggle to repel Norse invasions. He argues that Alfred the Great, in particular, drew on biblical language in his law code and that during his reign selected books of the Bible were translated into Old English to inspire Englishmen to fight to turn back the Norse invaders. Hastings argues for a strong renewal of English nationalism (following a hiatus after the Norman conquest) beginning with the translation of the complete bible into English by the Wycliffe circle in the 1380s, positing that the frequency and consistency in usage of the word nation from the early fourteenth century onward strongly suggest English nationalism and the English nation have been continuous since that time.[18]

However, John Breuilly criticizes Hastings's assumption that continued usage of a term such as 'English' means continuity in its meaning.[19] Patrick J. Geary agrees, arguing names were adapted to different circumstances by different powers and could convince people of continuity, even if radical discontinuity was the lived reality.[20]

Florin Curta cites Medieval Bulgarian nation as another possible example. Danubian Bulgaria was founded in 680-681 as a continuation of Great Bulgaria. After the adoption of Orthodox Christianity in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the Cyrillic script in its capital Preslav on the eve of the 10th century.[21] Hugh Poulton argues the development of Old Church Slavonic literacy in the country had the effect of preventing the assimilation of the South Slavs into neighboring cultures and stimulated the development of a distinct ethnic identity.[22] A symbiosis was carried out between the numerically weak Bulgars and the numerous Slavic tribes in that broad area from the Danube to the north, to the Aegean Sea to the south, and from the Adriatic Sea to the west, to the Black Sea to the east, who accepted the common ethnonym "Bulgarians".[23] During the 10th century the Bulgarians established a form of national identity that was far from modern nationalism but helped them to survive as a distinct entity through the centuries.[24][25][clarification needed]

Anthony Kaldellis asserts in Hellenism in Byzantium (2008) that what is called the Byzantine Empire was the Roman Empire transformed into a nation-state in the Middle Ages.[page needed]

Azar Gat also argues China, Korea and Japan were nations by the time of the European Middle Ages.[26]

### Criticisms

[edit]

In contrast, Geary rejects the conflation of early medieval and contemporary group identities as a myth, arguing it is a mistake to conclude continuity based on the recurrence of names. He criticizes historians for failing to recognize the differences between earlier ways of perceiving group identities and more contemporary attitudes, stating they are "trapped in the very historical process we are attempting to study".[27]

Similarly, Sami Zubaida notes that many states and empires in history ruled over ethnically diverse populations, and "shared ethnicity between ruler and ruled did not always constitute grounds for favour or mutual support". He goes on to argue ethnicity was never the primary basis of identification for the members of these multinational empires.[28]

Paul Lawrence criticises Hastings's reading of Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People as evidence of an early English national identity, instead observing that those writing so-called 'national' histories may have "been working with a rather different notion of 'the nation' to those writing history in the modern period". Lawrence goes on to argue that such documents do not demonstrate how ordinary people identified themselves, pointing out that, while they serve as texts in which an elite defines itself, "their significance in relation to what the majority thought and felt was likely to have been minor".[29]

### Use of term nationes by medieval universities and other medieval institutions

[edit]

Main article: Nation (university)

A significant early use of the term nation, as natio, occurred at medieval universities[30] to describe the colleagues in a college or students, above all at the University of Paris, who were all born within a pays, spoke the same language and expected to be ruled by their own familiar law. In 1383 and 1384, while studying theology at Paris, Jean Gerson was elected twice as a procurator for the French natio. The University of Prague adopted the division of students into nationes: from its opening in 1349 the studium generale which consisted of Bohemian, Bavarian, Saxon and Polish nations.

In a similar way, the nationes were segregated by the Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem, who maintained at Rhodes the hostels from which they took their name "where foreigners eat and have their places of meeting, each nation apart from the others, and a Knight has charge of each one of these hostels, and provides for the necessities of the inmates according to their religion", as the Spanish traveller Pedro Tafur noted in 1436.[31]

## Early modern nations

[edit]

See also: Nation state

In his article, "The Mosaic Moment: An Early Modernist Critique of the Modernist Theory of Nationalism", Philip S. Gorski argues that the first modern nation-state was the Dutch Republic, created by a fully modern political nationalism rooted in the model of biblical nationalism.[32] In a 2013 article "Biblical nationalism and the sixteenth-century states", Diana Muir Appelbaum expands Gorski's argument to apply to a series of new, Protestant, sixteenth-century nation states.[33] A similar, albeit broader, argument was made by Anthony D. Smith in his books, Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity and Myths and Memories of the Nation.[34][35]

In her book Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity, Liah Greenfeld argued that nationalism was invented in England by 1600. According to Greenfeld, England was “the first nation in the world".[36][37]

For Smith, creating a 'world of nations' has had profound consequences for the global state system, as a nation comprises both a cultural and political identity. Therefore, he argues, "any attempt to forge a national identity is also a political action with political consequences, like the need to redraw the geopolitical map or alter the composition of political regimes and states".[38]

## Social science

[edit]

There are three notable perspectives on how nations developed. Primordialism (perennialism), which reflects popular conceptions of nationalism but has largely fallen out of favour among academics,[39] proposes that there have always been nations and that nationalism is a natural phenomenon. Ethnosymbolism explains nationalism as a dynamic, evolving phenomenon and stresses the importance of symbols, myths and traditions in the development of nations and nationalism. Modernization theory, which has superseded primordialism as the dominant explanation of nationalism,[40] adopts a constructivist approach and proposes that nationalism emerged due to processes of modernization, such as industrialization, urbanization, and mass education, which made national consciousness possible.[9][41]

Proponents of modernization theory describe nations as "imagined communities", a term coined by Benedict Anderson.[42] A nation is an imagined community in the sense that the material conditions exist for imagining extended and shared connections and that it is objectively impersonal, even if each individual in the nation experiences themselves as subjectively part of an embodied unity with others. For the most part, members of a nation remain strangers to each other and will likely never meet.[43] Nationalism is consequently seen an "invented tradition" in which shared sentiment provides a form of collective identity and binds individuals together in political solidarity. A nation's foundational "story" may be built around a combination of ethnic attributes, values and principles, and may be closely connected to narratives of belonging.[9][44][45]

Scholars in the 19th and early 20th century offered constructivist criticisms of primordial theories about nations.[46] A prominent lecture by Ernest Renan, "What is a Nation?", argues that a nation is "a daily referendum", and that nations are based as much on what the people jointly forget as on what they remember. Carl Darling Buck argued in a 1916 study, "Nationality is essentially subjective, an active sentiment of unity, within a fairly extensive group, a sentiment based upon real but diverse factors, political, geographical, physical, and social, any or all of which may be present in this or that case, but no one of which must be present in all cases."[46]

In the late 20th century, many social scientists[who?] argued that there were two types of nations, the civic nation of which French republican society was the principal example and the ethnic nation exemplified by the German peoples. The German tradition was conceptualized as originating with early 19th-century philosophers, like Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and referred to people sharing a common language, religion, culture, history, and ethnic origins, that differentiate them from people of other nations.[47] On the other hand, the civic nation was traced to the French Revolution and ideas deriving from 18th-century French philosophers. It was understood as being centred in a willingness to "live together", this producing a nation that results from an act of affirmation.[48] This is the vision, among others, of Ernest Renan.[47]

## Debate about a potential future of nations

[edit]

See also: Clash of Civilizations, Tribe (Internet), Global citizenship, Geographic mobility, Transnationalism, and Postnationalism

There is an ongoing debate about the future of nations − about whether this framework will persist as is and whether there are viable or developing alternatives.[49]

The theory of the clash of civilizations lies in direct contrast to cosmopolitan theories about an ever more-connected world that no longer requires nation states. According to political scientist Samuel P. Huntington, people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world.

The theory was originally formulated in a 1992 lecture[50] at the American Enterprise Institute, which was then developed in a 1993 Foreign Affairs article titled "The Clash of Civilizations?",[51] in response to Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.

Huntington began his thinking by surveying the diverse theories about the nature of global politics in the post–Cold War period. Some theorists and writers argued that human rights, liberal democracy and capitalist free market economics had become the only remaining ideological alternative for nations in the post–Cold War world. Specifically, Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, argued that the world had reached a Hegelian "end of history".

Huntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had reverted only to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines. Postnationalism is the process or trend by which nation states and national identities lose their importance relative to supranational and global entities. Several factors contribute to the trend Huntington identifies, including economic globalization, a rise in importance of multinational corporations, the internationalization of financial markets, the transfer of socio-political power from national authorities to supranational entities, such as multinational corporations, the United Nations and the European Union and the advent of new information and culture technologies such as the Internet. However attachment to citizenship and national identities often remains important.[52][53][54]

Jan Zielonka of the University of Oxford states that "the future structure and exercise of political power will resemble the medieval model more than the Westphalian one" with the latter being about "concentration of power, sovereignty and clear-cut identity" and neo-medievalism meaning "overlapping authorities, divided sovereignty, multiple identities and governing institutions, and fuzzy borders".[49]

## See also

[edit]

* Politics portal
* Society portal

* Citizenship
* City network
* Country
* Government
* Identity (social science)
* Imagined Communities
* Invented tradition
* Lists of people by nationality
* Meta-ethnicity
* Minzu (anthropology)
* Multinational state
* National emblem
* National god
* National memory
* Nationalism
* Nationality
* People
* Polity
* Race (human categorization)
* Separatism
* Irredentism
* Society
* Sovereign state
* Stateless nation
* Tribe
* Republic
* Republicanism

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Eller 1997.
2. ^ a b Garner, Bryan A., ed. (2014). "nation". Black's Law Dictionary (10th ed.). Thomson Reuters. p. 1183\. ISBN 978-0-314-61300-4.
3. ^ James, Paul (1996). Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community. London: SAGE Publications. Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2019.
4. ^ Anderson, Benedict R. O'G. (1991). Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso. pp. 6–7\. ISBN 978-0-86091-546-1.
5. ^ Smith, Anthony D. (8 January 1991). The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Wiley. p. 17\. ISBN 978-0-631-16169-1 – via Google Books.
6. ^ Smith, Anthony D. (1991). National Identity. London: Penguin. p. 99\. ISBN 9780140125658.
7. ^ Eriksen, Thomas Hylland (2010). Nationalism and Ethnicity (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 119.
8. ^ Mylonas, Harris; Tudor, Maya (2023). "Varieties of Nationalism: Communities, Narratives, Identities". Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108973298. ISBN 9781108973298. S2CID 259646325. "a broad scholarly consensus that the nation is a recent and imagined identity dominates political science"
9. ^ a b c Mylonas, Harris; Tudor, Maya (2021). "Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 109–132\. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841.
10. ^ Kohn, Hans (2018). Nationalism. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 12 January 2022.
11. ^ "nation | Etymology of nation by etymonline". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
12. ^ Dictionnaire Le Petit Robert, édition 2002.
13. ^ Dictionnaire Latin-Français, Gaffiot.
14. ^ Mylonas, Harris; Tudor, Maya (2023). "Varieties of Nationalism: Communities, Narratives, Identities". Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108973298. ISBN 9781108973298. S2CID 259646325. "a broad scholarly consensus that the nation is a recent and imagined identity dominates political science"
15. ^ Hastings, Adrian (1997). The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 186–187\. ISBN 0-521-59391-3.
16. ^ Smith, Anthony D. (1993). National Identity. Ethnonationalism in comparative perspective (Reprint ed.). Reno Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press. pp. 48–50\. ISBN 978-0-87417-204-1.
17. ^ Reynolds, Susan (1997). Kingdoms and Communities in Western Europe 900–1300. Oxford.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
18. ^ Hastings, Adrian (1997). The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
19. ^ Özkirimli, Umut (2010). Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction (2nd ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 78.
20. ^ Özkirimli, Umut (2010). Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction (2nd ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 77.
21. ^ Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250, Cambridge Medieval Textbooks. Cambridge University Press. pp. 221–222\. ISBN 9780521815390. Retrieved 11 February 2015 – via Google Books.
22. ^ Poulton, Hugh (2000). Who are the Macedonians? (2nd ed.). C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 19–20\. ISBN 978-1-85065-534-3 – via Google Books.
23. ^ Karloukovski, Vassil (1996). Srednovekovni gradovi i tvrdini vo Makedonija. Ivan Mikulčiḱ (Skopje, Makedonska civilizacija, 1996) Средновековни градови и тврдини во Македонија. Иван Микулчиќ (Скопје, Македонска цивилизација, 1996) [Medieval cities and fortresses in Macedonia. Ivan Mikulcic (Skopje, Macedonian Civilization, 1996)] (in Macedonian). Kroraina.com. p. 72\. ISBN 978-9989756078. Archived from the original on 15 September 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
24. ^ Giatzidis, Emil (2002). An Introduction to Post-Communist Bulgaria: Political, Economic and Social Transformations. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9780719060953. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2015 – via Google Books.
25. ^ Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. University of Michigan. p. 165\. ISBN 978-0472081493. Retrieved 11 February 2015 – via Google Books.
26. ^ Azar Gat, Nations: The Long History and Deep Roots of Political Ethnicity and Nationalism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2013, China, p. 93 Korea, p. 104 and Japan p., 105.
27. ^ Özkirimli, Umut (2010). Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction (2nd ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 77–78.
28. ^ Özkirimli, Umut (2010). Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction (2nd ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 77–78.
29. ^ Lawrence, Paul (2013). "Nationalism and Historical Writing". In Breuilly, John (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 715\. ISBN 978-0-19-876820-3.
30. ^ see: nation (university)
31. ^ Pedro Tafur, Andanças e viajes Archived 29 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
32. ^ Gorski, Philip S. (2000). "The Mosaic Moment: An Early Modernist Critique of the Modernist Theory of Nationalism". American Journal of Sociology. 105 (5): 1428–68\. doi:10.1086/210435. JSTOR 3003771. S2CID 144002511. Archived from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
33. ^ Appelbaum, Diana Muir (2013). "Biblical nationalism and the sixteenth-century states". National Identities. Vol. 15\. p. 317.
34. ^ Smith, Anthony D. (2003). Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity. Oxford University Press.
35. ^ Smith, Anthony D. (1999). Myths and Memories of the Nation. Oxford University Press.
36. ^ Guilbert, Steven. The Making of English National Identity. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
37. ^ Greenfeld, Liah (1992). Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity. Harvard University Press.
38. ^ Smith, Anthony D. (1991). National Identity. London: Penguin. p. 99\. ISBN 9780140125658.
39. ^ Coakley, J (2017). ""Primordialism" in nationalism studies: theory or ideology?" (PDF). Nations and Nationalism. 24 (2): 327–347\. doi:10.1111/nana.12349. S2CID 149288553. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
40. ^ Woods, Eric Taylor; Schertzer, Robert; Kaufmann, Eric (April 2011). "Ethno-national conflict and its management". Commonwealth & Comparative Politics. 49 (2): 154. doi:10.1080/14662043.2011.564469. S2CID 154796642.
41. ^ Smith, Deanna (2007). Nationalism (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-5128-6.
42. ^ Anderson, Benedict (1983). Imagined Communities. London: Verso Books.
43. ^ James, Paul (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In. London: SAGE Publications. Archived from the original on 29 April 2020. Retrieved 2 November 2017.
44. ^ Anderson, Benedict (1983). Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism. London: Verso Books.
45. ^ Hobsbawm, E.; Ranger, T. (1983). The Invention of Tradition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
46. ^ a b Buck, Carl Darling (1916). "Language and the Sentiment of Nationality". American Political Science Review. 10 (1): 45. doi:10.2307/1946302. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1946302. S2CID 146904598.
47. ^ a b Noiriel, Gérard (1992). Population, immigration et identité nationale en France:XIX-XX siècle (in French). Hachette. ISBN 2010166779.
48. ^ Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and nationhood in France and Germany, Harvard University Press, 1992, ISBN 978-0-674-13178-1
49. ^ a b "End of nations: Is there an alternative to countries?". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
50. ^ "U.S. Trade Policy — Economics". AEI. 15 February 2007. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
51. ^ Official copy (free preview): "The Clash of Civilizations?". Foreign Affairs. Summer 1993. Archived from the original on 29 June 2007.
52. ^ R. Koopmans and P. Statham; "Challenging the liberal nation-state? Postnationalism, multiculturalism, and the collective claims making of migrants and ethnic minorities in Britain and Germany"; American Journal of Sociology 105:652–96 (1999)
53. ^ R.A. Hackenberg and R.R. Alvarez; "Close-ups of postnationalism: Reports from the US-Mexico borderlands"; Human Organization 60:97–104 (2001)
54. ^ I. Bloemraad; "Who claims dual citizenship? The limits of postnationalism, the possibilities of transnationalism, and the persistence of traditional citizenship"; International Migration Review 38:389–426 (2004)

## Sources

[edit]

* Anderson, Benedict (1983). Imagined Communities. London: Verso Books.
* Gellner, Ernest (1983). Nations and Nationalism. Cambridge: Blackwell.
* James, Paul (1996). Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community. Vol. 1\. London: SAGE Publications.
* James, Paul (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In — Volume 2 of Towards a Theory of Abstract Community. London: Sage Publications.
* Smith, Anthony (1986). The Ethnic Origins of Nations. London: Blackwell.
* Bhabha, Homi K. (1990). Nations and Narration. New York: Routledge.
* Eller, Jack David (1997). "Ethnicity, Culture, and "The Past"". Michigan Quarterly Review. 36 (4). hdl:2027/spo.act2080.0036.411.
* Mylonas, Harris; Tudor, Maya (11 May 2021). "Nationalism: What We Know and What We Still Need to Know". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 109–132.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Manent, Pierre (2007). "What is a Nation?""Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2014.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), The Intercollegiate Review, Vol. XLII, No. 2, pp. 23–31.
* Renan, Ernest (1896). "What is a Nation?" In: The Poetry of the Celtic Races, and Other Essays. London: The Walter Scott Publishing Co., pp. 61–83.
* Leach, Michael (2016). Nation-Building and National Identity in Timor-Leste. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781315311647. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2022.
* Smith, Anthony D. (1981). The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521232678.
* Smith, Anthony D. (1995). Nations and Nationalism in a Global Era. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 9780745610191.
* Smith, Anthony D. (2000). The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism. Hanover: University Press of New England. ISBN 9781584650409.
* Smith, Anthony D. (2010) [2001]. Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History (2. ed.). Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 9780745651279.
* Smith, Anthony D. (2009). Ethno-symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781135999483.
* Smith, Anthony D. (2013). The Nation Made Real: Art and National Identity in Western Europe, 1600-1850. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199662975.

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* Influence
* Monoethnicity
* Nation
* Nationality
* Panethnicity
* Polyethnicity
* Population
* Race
* Supraethnicity
* Symbolic ethnicity
* Tribe

Ethnology|

* Anthropology
* Ethnic studies
* Ethnoarchaeology
* Ethnobiology
* Ethnobotany
* Ethnoecology
* Ethnomycology
* Ethnozoology
* Ethnocinema
* Ethnogeology
* Ethnography
* Autoethnography
* Clinical
* Critical
* Institutional
* Netnography
* Online
* Person-centered
* Salvage
* Transidioethnography
* Video
* Ethnohistory
* Ethnolinguistics
* Ethnology
* Ethnomathematics
* Ethnostatistics
* Ethnomedicine
* Ethnomethodology
* Ethnomuseology
* Ethnomusicology
* Ethnophilosophy
* Ethnopoetics
* Ethnopsychopharmacology
* Ethnoscience
* Ethnosemiotics
* Ethnotaxonomy

Groups by region|

* World
* Contemporary ethnic groups
* Countries by ethnic groups
* Africa
* Americas
* Indigenous
* Canada
* Greenland
* Mexico
* United States
* Caribbean
* Central America
* South America
* Asia
* Central Asia
* East Asia
* Northern Asia
* South Asia
* Southeast Asia
* West Asia
* Australia
* Aboriginal groups
* Torres Strait Islanders
* Europe
* Oceania
* Indigenous
* European

Identity and
ethnogenesis

* Cross-race effect
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural identity
* Demonym
* Development
* Endonym
* Ethnarch
* Ethnic flag
* Ethnic option
* Ethnic origin
* Ethnic religion
* Ethnicity in censuses
* Ethnofiction
* Ethnonym
* Folk religion
* Historical
* Imagined community
* Kinship
* Legendary progenitor
* Linguistic homeland
* Mores
* Mythomoteur
* Nation-building
* Nation state
* National language
* National myth
* Origin myth
* Pantribal sodality
* Statistext
* Tribal name
* Tribalism
* Detribalization
* Neotribalism
* White ethnic

Multiethnic society|

* Consociationalism
* Cultural appropriation
* Diaspora politics
* Dominant minority
* Ethnic democracy
* Ethnic enclave
* Ethnic interest group
* Ethnic majority
* Ethnic media
* Ethnic nationalism
* Ethnic pornography
* Ethnic theme park
* Ethnoburb
* Ethnocracy
* Ethnographic film
* Ethnographic village
* Ethnopluralism
* Indigenous rights
* Middleman minority
* Minority rights
* Model minority
* Model minority myth
* Multinational state

Ideology and
ethnic conflict

* Allophilia
* Ethnic bioweapon
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnic party
* Ethnic penalty
* Ethnic slurs
* Ethnic stereotype
* Ethnic violence
* Ethnic riots
* Ethnocentrism
* Ethnocide
* Ethnofuturism
* Ethnosymbolism
* Indigenism
* Indigenization
* Nativism
* Remigration
* Separatist movements
* Xenocentrism
* Xenophilia
* Xenophobia

Related|

* Minzu (anthropology)

* v
* t
* e

Political philosophy

Terms|

* Authority
* Citizenship‎
* Duty
* Elite
* Emancipation
* Freedom
* Government
* Hegemony
* Hierarchy
* Justice
* Law
* Legitimacy
* Liberty
* Monopoly
* Nation
* Obedience
* Peace
* People
* Pluralism
* Power
* Progress
* Propaganda
* Property
* Regime
* Revolution
* Rights
* Ruling class
* Society
* Sovereignty‎
* State
* Utopia
* War

Government|

* Aristocracy
* Oligarchy
* Autocracy
* Bureaucracy
* Dictatorship
* Democracy
* Ochlocracy
* Gerontocracy
* Meritocracy
* Monarchy
* Tyranny
* Plutocracy
* Technocracy
* Theocracy

Ideologies|

* Agrarianism
* Anarchism
* Capitalism
* Christian democracy
* Colonialism
* Communism
* Communitarianism
* Confucianism
* Conservatism
* Corporatism
* Distributism
* Environmentalism
* Fascism
* Feminism
* Feudalism
* Imperialism
* Islamism
* Liberalism
* Libertarianism
* Localism
* Marxism
* Monarchism
* Multiculturalism
* Nationalism
* Nazism
* Populism
* Republicanism
* Social Darwinism
* Social democracy
* Socialism
* Third Way

Concepts|

* Balance of power
* Bellum omnium contra omnes
* Body politic
* Clash of civilizations
* Common good
* Consent of the governed
* Divine right of kings
* Family as a model for the state
* Monopoly on violence
* Natural law
* Negative and positive rights
* Night-watchman state
* Noble lie
* Noblesse oblige
* Open society
* Ordered liberty
* Original position
* Overton window
* Separation of powers
* Social contract
* State of nature
* Statolatry
* Supermajority
* Tyranny of the majority

Philosophers|

| Antiquity|

* Aristotle
* Chanakya
* Cicero
* Confucius
* Han Fei
* Lactantius
* Mencius
* Mozi
* Plato
* political philosophy
* Polybius
* Shang
* Sun Tzu
* Thucydides
* Xenophon

|

Middle Ages|

* Al-Farabi
* Aquinas
* Averroes
* Bruni
* Dante
* Gelasius
* al-Ghazali
* Ibn Khaldun
* Marsilius
* Muhammad
* Nizam al-Mulk
* Ockham
* Plethon
* Wang

Early modern
period|

* Boétie
* Bodin
* Bossuet
* Calvin
* Campanella
* Filmer
* Grotius
* Guicciardini
* Hobbes
* political philosophy
* James
* Leibniz
* Locke
* Luther
* Machiavelli
* Milton
* More
* Müntzer
* Pufendorf
* Spinoza
* Suárez

18th and 19th
centuries|

* Bakunin
* Bastiat
* Beccaria
* Bentham
* Bolingbroke
* Bonald
* Burke
* Carlyle
* Comte
* Condorcet
* Constant
* Cortés
* Engels
* Fichte
* Fourier
* Franklin
* Godwin
* Haller
* Hegel
* Herder
* Hume
* Iqbal
* Jefferson
* Kant
* political philosophy
* Le Bon
* Le Play
* Madison
* Maistre
* Marx
* Mazzini
* Mill
* Montesquieu
* Nietzsche
* Owen
* Paine
* Renan
* Rousseau
* Sade
* Saint-Simon
* Smith
* Spencer
* de Staël
* Stirner
* Taine
* Thoreau
* Tocqueville
* Tucker
* Voltaire

20th and 21st
centuries|

* Agamben
* Ambedkar
* Arendt
* Aron
* Badiou
* Bauman
* Benoist
* Berlin
* Bernstein
* Burnham
* Chomsky
* Dmowski
* Du Bois
* Dugin
* Dworkin
* Evola
* Foucault
* Fromm
* Fukuyama
* Gandhi
* Gentile
* Gramsci
* Guénon
* Habermas
* Hayek
* Hoppe
* Huntington
* Kautsky
* Khomeini
* Kirk
* Kropotkin
* Laclau
* Lenin
* Luxemburg
* Mansfield
* Mao
* Marcuse
* Maurras
* Michels
* Mises
* Mosca
* Mouffe
* Negri
* Nozick
* Nussbaum
* Oakeshott
* Ortega
* Pareto
* Popper
* Qutb
* Rand
* Rawls
* Röpke
* Rothbard
* Russell
* Sartre
* Schmitt
* Scruton
* Shariati
* Sorel
* Spann
* Spengler
* Strauss
* Sun
* Taylor
* Voegelin
* Walzer
* Weber

Works|

* Republic (c. 375 BC)
* Politics (c. 350 BC)
* On the Republic (51 BC)
* Treatise on Law (c. 1274)
* Monarchy (1313)
* The Prince (1532)
* Leviathan (1651)
* Two Treatises of Government (1689)
* The Spirit of Law (1748)
* The Social Contract (1762)
* Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
* Rights of Man (1791)
* Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820)
* Democracy in America (1835–1840)
* The Communist Manifesto (1848)
* On Liberty (1859)
* The Revolt of the Masses (1929)
* The Road to Serfdom (1944)
* The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)
* The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
* A Theory of Justice (1971)
* The End of History and the Last Man (1992)

Related|

* Authoritarianism
* Collectivism and individualism
* Conflict theories
* Contractualism
* Critique of political economy
* Egalitarianism
* Elite theory
* Elitism
* History of political thought
* Institutional discrimination
* Jurisprudence
* Justification for the state
* Political ethics
* Political spectrum
* Left-wing politics
* Centrism
* Right-wing politics
* Political theology
* Political violence
* Separation of church and state
* Separatism
* Social justice
* Statism
* Totalitarianism

* Category:Political philosophy

* v
* t
* e

Military and war

Concepts|

* Military
* Service
* History
* Technology
* Occupational roles
* Recruitment
* National security
* Roles:
* Soldier
* Sailor
* Airman
* Enlisted rank
* Officer
* Commanding officer
* Executive officer

* Protocols and structure:
* Ranks
* List
* Uniforms
* Awards and decorations
* By country
* Highest
* Categories:
* Ranks

Forces|

* Command and control
* Defense ministry
* Armed Forces:
* Army
* Navy
* Air force
* Marines
* Space force
* Special forces
* Airborne forces
* Commando
* Frogman
* Militia
* Reserves
* Functional specialties:
* Communications
* Engineers
* Intelligence
* Reconnaissance
* List
* Medical
* Military police
* Gendarmerie
* Security forces
* Border guard
* Coast guard
* Logistics
* By country
* Categories:
* Combat occupations
* Development:
* Basic training
* Military maneuvers
* Combat training

Branches|

* Land units:
* Combat arms
* Infantry
* Armor
* Cavalry
* Artillery
* Special reconnaissance
* Signal corps
* Naval units:
* Warships
* Surface
* Littoral
* Patrol
* Submarines
* Aircraft carriers
* Landing craft
* Auxiliary ship
* Air units:
* Fighters
* Bombers
* Command
* Close air support
* Electronic-warfare
* Reconnaissance

Structure|

* Organization
* By country
* Armies by country
* Chain of command
* Unified combatant command
* General staff
* Land:
* Army group
* Field army
* Corps
* List
* Division
* List
* Brigade
* By type
* Regiment
* By country
* By type
* Battalion
* By country
* By type
* Platoon
* Squad
* Naval:
* Naval fleet
* Task force
* Carrier strike group
* Division
* Flotilla
* Squadron
* Air:
* Combat box
* Special units by nation:
* Battle Fleet; U.S. Navy
* Front; Russian land forces

Vehicles|

* Ground:
* Ground
* List
* Combat
* Tracked vehicles
* Wheeled vehicles
* Armor
* Tank
* Infantry fighting vehicle
* Lists
* By country
* Armored car
* Scout car
* Truck
* List
* Gun truck
* Self-propelled artillery
* List
* Anti-aircraft
* Rail

Weapons|

| Land|

* Weapons
* List
* Artillery:
* Artillery
* List
* By country
* Battery
* Field gun
* List
* Howitzer
* List
* Rocket
* List
* Infantry guns:
* Pistols
* Machine guns
* List
* Service rifles:
* Battle rifles
* List
* Assault rifle
* List
* Sniper rifle
* Other infantry weapons:
* Bazooka
* Anti-tank gun
* List
* Grenade
* List
* Flamethrower
* Bayonet
* Combat knife
* List
* Missiles:
* Shoulder-fired
* Anti-tank
* List
* By country
* Mortar
* Lists:
* Infantry
* Heavy
* Other:
* Land mine
* Shells

|

Sea/Air:|

* Guided missiles
* List
* Naval:
* Naval artillery
* List
* Anti-ship missiles
* Torpedoes
* Depth charges
* Close-in weapons
* Aerial:
* Guns
* Missiles
* Bombs

Equipment|

* Military equipment
* Lists
* By country
* Helmet
* List
* Camouflage
* List
* Body armor
* Facilities:
* Military base
* Lists
* Field hospital

Combat systems|

* Fire-control system
* Fire-control radar
* Director (military)
* Combat information center
* Sonar
* Radar
* Historical:
* Ship gun fire-control
* Gun data computer
* Torpedo Data Computer

Warfare|

* War
* Battle
* Strategy
* Tactics
* Combat
* Military science
* Diplomacy
* International law
* By era:
* Prehistoric
* Ancient
* Post-classical
* Early modern
* Late modern
* industrial
* fourth-gen
* By type:
* Armoured warfare
* Artillery
* Barrage
* Biological
* Camouflage
* Cavalry
* Chemical
* Class
* Combined arms
* Conventional
* Cyber
* Denial
* Disinformation
* Drone
* Electronic
* Infantry
* Lawfare
* Loitering
* Music
* Nuclear
* Psychological
* Radiological
* Unconventional

Battlespace|

* Aerospace
* Air
* Airborne
* Space
* Land
* Cold-region
* Desert
* Jungle
* Mountain
* Urban
* Sea
* Amphibious
* Blue
* Brown
* Green
* Surface
* Underwater
* Subterranean
* Tunnel
* Cyber
* Information

Tactics|

* List of military tactics
* Aerial
* Airlift
* Airbridge
* Airdrop
* Battle
* Cavalry
* Charge
* Counterattack
* Counterinsurgency
* Defeat in detail
* Foxhole
* Envelopment
* Guerrilla
* Morale
* Rapid dominance
* Siege
* Swarming
* Tactical objective
* Target saturation
* Trench
* Withdrawal

Operational|

* Military operation
* Operations research
* Blitzkrieg
* Expeditionary
* Deep operation
* Maneuver
* Operational manoeuvre group

Strategy|

* List of military strategies and concepts
* Military campaign
* Attrition
* Counter-offensive
* Culminating
* Defence in depth
* Fabian
* Mosaic
* Deception
* Defensive
* Depth
* Goal
* Naval
* Offensive
* Scorched earth

Policy|

* Diplomacy:
* Alliances
* Peace treaty
* Cooperation
* Deterrence theory
* United Nations
* Mediation
* Public policy:
* Conscription
* Defense budget
* List
* Past
* Per capita
* Defense policy
* Related:
* Government
* Nation

Lists|

* Military lists
* Wars
* Weapons
* Military tactics
* History lists:
* Wars
* Battles
* Military occupations
* Operations
* Sieges
* Related lists:
* War crimes
* Writers

Other namespace|

| Templates|

* {{War}}
* {{Weapons}}
* {{Ranks}}
* Vehicles and weapons
* {{Tanks}}
* {{Weapons}}
* {{Infantry fighting vehicles}}
* {{Modern warships}}
* {{Aircraft}}
* Specific modern wars
* {{Napoleonic Wars}}
* {{World War I}}
* {{World War II}}
* {{Cold War}}

|

Categories|

* Lists of wars by country
* Conflicts by time

Related|

* Peace
* Peace and conflict studies
* Peace movement
* Peace process
* Disarmament
* Pacifism
* Détente
* Global studies
* Conscientious objector
* Anti-war movement
* Idealism in international relations
* Humanitarianism
* International cooperation
* Crimes against humanity
* {{International relations}}
* Categories:
* Peace organizations

Category  Commons

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* Czech Republic
* 2
* Spain

Other|

* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
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