National Congress of American Indians

Native American rights organization

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National Congress of American Indians

Abbreviation| NCAI
Formation| November 17, 1944; 80 years ago (1944-11-17)
Registration no.| EIN 53-0210846[1]
Purpose| Public affairs, ethnic and racial minority rights, cultural awareness[1]
Headquarters| Embassy of Tribal Nations
Location|

* Washington, D.C., U.S.[1]

President

| Mark Macarro (Pechanga)[2]

First Vice President

| Brian Weeden (Mashpee Wampanoag)[2]

Secretary

| Nickolaus D. Lewis (Lummi)[2]

Treasurer

| David Woerz (Chickasaw)[2]
Website| ncai.org

The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) is an American Indian and Alaska Native rights organization.[1] It was founded in 1944[3] to represent the tribes and resist U.S. federal government pressure for termination of tribal rights and assimilation of their people. These were in contradiction of their treaty rights and status as sovereign entities. The organization continues to be an association of federally recognized and state-recognized Indian tribes.

## Organization

[edit]

NCAI was founded in 1944 and incorporated as a 501(c)(4) nonprofit organization based in Washington, D.C., in 1962.[1] The organizational structure of the National Congress of American Indians includes a General Assembly, an Executive Council, and seven committees.

In addition to the four executive positions, the NCAI executive board also consists of 12 area vice presidents and 12 alternative area vice presidents.[4]

Chuck Trimble was the former chief executive.[5]

### Current administration

[edit]

The executive board of the NCAI is as follows:

* President: Mark Macarro (Pechanga)
* First Vice President: Brian Weeden (Mashpee Wampanoag)[2]
* Secretary: Nickolaus D. Lewis (Lummi)[2]
* Treasurer: David Woerz (Chickasaw)[2]

## History

[edit]

Representatives of various tribes attending organizational meeting, 1944; all were alumni of the Carlisle Indian School. J.T. Goombi (Kiowa), former first vice president of the National Congress of American Indians

Native Americans in the United States have independent governments and distinct cultures, histories, and territories. However, the need to create a unified voice in dealing with the U.S. federal government led to an intertribal coalition.

In the 20th century, a generation of Native Americans came of age who were educated in intertribal boarding schools. They began thinking with a broad pan-Native American vision and learned to form alliances across tribes. They increasingly felt the need to work together politically to exert their power in dealing with the United States federal government. In addition, with the efforts after 1934 to reorganize tribal governments, activists believed that Indians had to work together to strengthen their political position. Activists formed the National Congress of American Indians to find ways to organize the tribes to deal in a more unified way with the US government. They wanted to challenge the government on its failure to implement treaties, to work against the tribal termination policy, and to improve public opinion of and appreciation for Indian cultures.

The NCAI's initial organization was largely created by Native American men who worked for the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and represented many tribes. Among this group was D'Arcy McNickle of the BIA.[6][7] At the second national convention, Indian women attended as representatives in numbers equal to the men. The convention decided that BIA employees should be excluded from serving as general officers or members of the executive committee. The first president of the NCAI was Napoleon B. Johnson, a judge in Oklahoma. Dan Madrano (Caddo) was the first secretary-treasurer; he also had been serving as an elected member of the Oklahoma State Legislature.[8] From 1945 to 1952, the executive secretary of the NCAI was Ruth Muskrat Bronson (Cherokee), who established the organization's legislative news service.[9][10] Bronson's work was largely voluntary, as the organization could not afford to pay her to act as its executive secretary.[11]

In 1950, John Rainer became the first paid executive director of NCAI.[12] He was replaced by Bronson in 1951, who resigned in 1952. Frank George, a Nez Perce from the Colville Indian Reservation, briefly held the post[10] before Helen Peterson (Cheyenne-Lakota) took over the post as the executive director of the organization in 1953. That same year, W. W. Short replaced Johnson as president of NCAI.[13] In 1954, Short was replaced by Joseph Garry (Coeur d'Alene), a veteran of both World War II and the Korean War. Garry significantly enlarged the organizational direction away from its focus on issues of Native Americans in the Great Plains and the Southwest, making it more inclusive of tribes in the Midwest and Northwest.[14]

In 1966, the NCAI mustered nearly 80 tribal leaders from 62 tribes to protest their exclusion from a US-Congress sponsored conference on reorganizing the BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs). The congressional event was organized by Morris Udall, chairman of the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, to discuss the reorganization of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Udall eventually allowed the NCAI representatives to attend. He confirmed that the Tribal Advisory Commission, composed of tribe members, would be created to advise him.[15]

During the late 20th century, NCAI contributed to gaining legislation to protect and preserve Indian culture, including NAGPRA. They worked with the tribes to assert their sovereignty in dealing with the federal government.

In the early 21st century, key goals of the NCAI are:[16][17][18][19]

* Enforce for Indians all rights under the Constitution and laws in the United States;
* Expand and improve educational opportunities provided for Indians;
* Improve methods for finding productive employment and developing tribal and individual resources;
* Increase number and quality of health facilities;
* Settle Indian claims equitably; and
* Preserve Indian cultural values.

On November 3, 2009, the Embassy of Tribal Nations was opened in Washington, D.C.[20] The building serves as a headquarters and central meeting place for the NCAI.[20]

In 2013, the NCAI passed a resolution to establish a National American Indian Holocaust Museum space inside a museum of the Smithsonian Institution.[21] However, the Smithsonian has been uncooperative.[21]

In 2017, the NCAI took over the assets of the Indian Country Media Network, which were donated by the Oneida Indian Nation in New York. In March 2021, the publication became independent from the NCAI.[22] “This is an exciting time for Indian Country Today to become fiscally independent and to continue its tradition of an autonomous free press," NCAI President Fawn Sharp said in a press release regarding the change. “This is a new day for ICT, which has a long history as a premier source of news for and about Indigenous communities, written and produced by Indigenous journalists.” The publication's current president and CEO is Karen Michel, Ho Chunk.

In 2023, NCAI founded the NCAI Foundation (NCAIF) to promote philanthropy by and for Native American communities.[23]

## Constitution

[edit]

The NCAI Constitution says that its members seek to provide themselves and their descendants with the traditional laws, rights, and benefits. It lists the by-laws and rules of order regarding membership, powers, and dues. There are four classes of membership: tribal, Indian individual, individual associate, and organization associate. Voting rights are reserved for tribal and Indian individual members. According to section B of Article III regarding membership, any tribe, band or group of American Indians and Alaska Natives shall be eligible for tribal membership provided it fulfills the following requirements:

* A substantial number of its members reside upon the same reservation or (in the absence of a reservation) in the same general locality.
* It maintain a Tribal organization, with regular officers and the means of transacting business and arriving at a reasonably accurate count of its membership;
* It is not a mere offshoot or fraction of an organized Tribe itself eligible for membership
* It is recognized as a Tribe or other identifiable group of Native Americans by the Department of the Interior, Court of Claims, the Indian Claims Commission, or a State. An Indian or Alaska Native organization incorporated/chartered under state law is not eligible for tribal membership.[24][25]

## Achievements

[edit]

The NCAI has maintained a policy of non-protesting. During the 1960s NCAI carried a banner with the slogan, "INDIANS DON'T DEMONSTRATE":[26]

* In 1949, the NCAI made charges against Federal job bias towards the Indians
* In 1950, the NCAI influenced the insertion of an anti-reservation clause to the Alaska Statehood Act. This clause removes the ban against reservations for Alaskan Natives.
* On July 8, 1954, NCAI won its fight against legislation that would have allowed the states to take civil and criminal jurisdictions over Indians.
* On June 19, 1952, a self-help parley was opened in Utah where 50 agents for 12 groups proposed several self-help action plans
* Indians had annual conventions nationwide and dealt with various topics such as health care, employment, and safety issues[27][16][28]
* In 2015 the organization successfully lobbied the State of California to ban the term "redskins" from being used by public schools in the state of California.[29]

## Internal policy differences

[edit]

In the early 1960s, a shift in attitude occurred. Many young American Indians branded the older generation as sell-outs and called for harsh militancy. Two important militant groups were born: the American Indian Movement (AIM) and the National Indian Youth Council (NIYC). The two groups protested several conventions.[30]

In 2023, two amendments to the NCAI constitution were proposed which would remove state-recognized tribes from full tribal membership to only associate non-voting tribal membership, as well as require candidates for NCAI national leadership to be enrolled members of federally-recognized tribes. The amendments received the vocal support of the principal chiefs of several federally-recognized tribes including the Cherokee Nation and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. Members from other federally-recognized nations, such as the Tunica-Biloxi and the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians, opposed the measure. After a heated debate, the measures failed with 55.67 percent against and 44.3 percent in support.[31]

After 80 years of existence, NCAI membership has gone from 270 member tribes to 146 member tribes.[32]

## Ongoing issues

[edit]

The advertising firm of DeVito/Verdi created a poster for the NCAI to highlight stereotypical Native American mascots.

The NCAI has been advocating for improved living conditions on reservations, arguing that 560 tribes are federally recognized but fewer than 20 tribes gain profits from casinos to turn the tribe's economy around. [citation needed] Other issues and topics include:[citation needed]

* Protection of programs and services to benefit Indian families, specifically targeting Indian Youth and elders
* Promotion and support of Indian education, including Head Start, elementary, post-secondary and Adult Education
* Enhancement of Indian health care, including prevention of juvenile substance abuse, HIV-AIDS prevention and other major diseases
* Support of environmental protection and natural resources management
* Protection of Indian cultural resources and religious freedom rights
* Promotion of the Rights of Indian economic opportunity both on and off reservations, including securing programs to provide incentives for economic development and the attraction of private capital to Indian Country
* Protection of the Rights of all Indian people to decent, safe and affordable housing.
* Spreading of state-specific information on voter ID requirements through its partnership with the non-partisan VoteRiders[33] organization.[34]

In 2001, the advertising firm of DeVito/Verdi created an advertising campaign and poster for the NCAI to highlight offensive and racist sports team images and mascots.[35] In October 2013, the NCAI published a report on sports teams using harmful and racial "Indian" mascots.[36]

### Past leadership

[edit]

Past leadership[37][better source needed] Year  | Meeting location  | President  | Executive Director

|
|
|

1944 | Denver, CO | Napoleon B. Johnson, Cherokee | Ruth Muskrat Bronson, Cherokee
1945 | Browning, MT | N.B. Johnson | Ruth Muskrat Bronson
1946 | Oklahoma City, OK | N.B. Johnson | Ruth Muskrat Bronson
1947 | Santa Fe, NM | N.B. Johnson | Ruth Muskrat Bronson
1948 | Denver, CO | N.B. Johnson | Ruth Muskrat Bronson
1949 | Rapid City, SD | N.B. Johnson | Louis R. Bruce, St. Regis Mohawk,
Edward Rogers, Minnesota Chippewa
1950 | Bellingham, WA | N.B. Johnson | John C. Rainer, Taos Pueblo
1951 | St. Paul, MN | N.B. Johnson | Ruth Muskrat Bronson, Cherokee
1952 | Denver, CO | N.B. Johnson | Frank George, Colville
1953 | Phoenix, AZ | Joseph R. Garry, Coeur D'Alene | Helen Peterson, Oglala Lakota
1954 | Omaha, NE | Joseph R. Garry | Helen Peterson
1955 | Spokane, WA | Joseph R. Garry | Helen Peterson
1956 | Salt Lake City, UT | Joseph R. Garry | Helen Peterson
1957 | Claremore, OK | Joseph R. Garry | Helen Peterson
1958 | Missoula, MT | Joseph R. Garry | Helen Peterson
1959 | Phoenix, AZ | Joseph R. Garry | Helen Peterson
1960 | Denver, CO | Walter Wetzel, Blackfeet | Robert Burnett, Rosebud Sioux
1961 | Lewiston, ID | Walter Wetzel | Robert Burnett
1962 | Cherokee, NC | Walter Wetzel | Robert Burnett
1963 | Bismarck, ND | Walter Wetzel | Robert Burnett
1964 | Sheridan, WY | Walter Wetzel | Vine Deloria Jr., Standing Rock Sioux
1965 | Scottsdale, AZ | Clarence Wesley, San Carlos Apache | Vine Deloria, Jr.
1966 | Oklahoma City, OK | Clarence Wesley | Vine Deloria, Jr.
1967 | Portland, OR | Wendell Chino, Mescalero Apache | Vine Deloria, Jr.
1968 | Omaha, NE | Wendell Chino | John Belindo, Navajo/Kiowa
1969 | Albuquerque, NM | Earl Old Person, Blackfeet | Bruce Wilkie, Makah
1970 | Anchorage, AK | Earl Old Person | Franklin Ducheneaux, Cheyenne River Sioux
1971 | Reno, NV | Leon F. Cook, Red Lake Chippewa | Leo W. Vocu, Oglala Sioux
1972 | Sarasota, FL | Leon F. Cook | Charles Trimble, Oglala Sioux
1973 | Tulsa, OK | Mel Tonasket, Colville | Charles Trimble
1974 | San Diego, CA | Mel Tonasket | Charles Trimble
1975 | Portland, OR | Mel Tonasket | Charles Trimble
1976 | Salt Lake City, UT | Mel Tonasket | Charles Trimble
1977 | Dallas, TX | Veronica L. Murdock, Mohave (Colorado River Indian Tribes) | Charles Trimble
1978 | Rapid City, SD | Veronica L. Murdock | Andrew E. Ebona, Tlingit
1979 | Albuquerque, NM | Edward Driving Hawk, Sioux | Ronald Andrade, Luiseño/Kumeyaay
1980 | Spokane, WA | Edward Driving Hawk | Ronald Andrade
1981 | Anchorage, AK | Joseph DeLaCruz, Quinault | Ronald Andrade
1982 | Bismarck, ND | Joseph DeLaCruz | Ronald Andrade
1983 | Green Bay, WI | Joseph DeLaCruz | Silas Whitman, Nez Perce
1984 | Spokane, WA | Joseph DeLaCruz | Suzan Shown Harjo, Cheyenne/Muscogee
1985 | Tulsa, OK | Reuben A. Snake Jr., Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska | Suzan Shown Harjo
1986 | Phoenix, AZ | Reuben A. Snake Jr. | Suzan Shown Harjo
1987 | Tampa, FL | Reuben A. Snake Jr. | Suzan Shown Harjo
1988 | Sioux City, SD | John Gonzales, San Ildefonso Pueblo |

Suzan Shown Harjo

1989 | Oklahoma City, OK | John Gonzales | Suzan Shown Harjo
1990 | Albuquerque, NM | Wayne L. Ducheneaux, Cheyenne River Sioux | A. Gay Kingman, Cheyenne River Sioux
1991 | San Francisco, CA | Wayne L. Ducheneaux | A. Gay Kingman
1992 | Arlington, VA | gaiashkibos, Lac Courte Oreilles | Michael J. Anderson, Creek/Choctaw
1993 | Reno, NV | gaiashkibos | Rachel A. Joseph, Shoshone/Paiute/Mono
1994 | Denver, CO | gaiashkibos | JoAnn K. Chase, Mandan/Hidatsa/Arikara
1995 | San Diego, CA | gaiashkibos | JoAnn K. Chase
1996 | Phoenix, AZ | W. Ron Allen, Jamestown S’Klallam | JoAnn K. Chase
1997 | Santa Fe, NM | W. Ron Allen | JoAnn K. Chase
1998 | Myrtle Beach, SC | W. Ron Allen | JoAnn K. Chase
1999 | Palm Springs, CA | W. Ron Allen | JoAnn K. Chase
2000 | St. Paul, MN | Susan Masten, Yurok | JoAnn K. Chase
2001 | Spokane, WA | Susan Masten | Jacqueline Johnson, Tlingit
2002 | San Diego, CA | Tex G. Hall, Mandan/Hidatsa/Arikara | Jacqueline Johnson
2003 | Albuquerque, NM | Tex Hall | Jacqueline Johnson
2004 | Fort Lauderdale, FL | Tex Hall | Jacqueline Johnson
2005 | Tulsa, OK | Tex Hall | Jacqueline Johnson
2006 | Sacramento, CA | Joe A. Garcia, Ohkay Owingeh | Jacqueline Johnson
2007 | Denver, CO | Joe A. Garcia | Jacqueline Johnson
2008 | Phoenix, AZ | Joe A. Garcia | Jacqueline Johnson Pata
2009 | Palm Springs, CA | Joe A. Garcia | Jacqueline Johnson Pata
2010 | Albuquerque, NM | Jefferson Keel, Chickasaw | Jacqueline Johnson Pata
2011 | Portland, OR | Jefferson Keel | Jacqueline Johnson Pata
2012 | Sacramento, CA | Jefferson Keel | Jacqueline Johnson Pata
2013 | Tulsa, OK | Jefferson Keel | Jacqueline Johnson Pata
2014 | Atlanta, Georgia | Brian Cladoosby, Swinomish | Jacqueline Johnson Pata
2015 | San Diego, CA | Brian Cladoosby | Jacqueline Johnson Pata
2016 | Phoenix, AZ | Brian Cladoosby | Jacqueline Pata
2017 | Milwaukee, WI | Brian Cladoosby | Jacqueline Pata
2018 | Denver, CO | Jefferson Keel | Jacqueline Pata
2019 | Albuquerque, NM | Jefferson Keel | Kevin Allis
2020 |  | Fawn Sharp, Quinault
2021 |  | Fawn Sharp |
2022 |  | Fawn Sharp | Jefferson Keel
2023 | New Orleans, LA | Mark Macarro, Pechanga

## Notable members

[edit]

* Ruth Muskrat Bronson, executive director (1944–48) and a specialist in American Indian affairs
* Vine Deloria, Jr., executive director (1964–1967). He ended major legislative battles
* Susan Shown Harjo, executive director (1984–1989)
* J. B. Milam: founding member
* Ira Hayes: American hero during the battle of Iwo Jima, and also made a speech in the congress.
* Nipo T. Strongheart performer-lecturer and technical advisor on several Hollywood films involving Native Americans and a cofounder.[38]

## See also

[edit]

* American Indian Movement
* Assembly of First Nations
* Congress of Aboriginal Peoples
* National Indian Youth Council
* Society of American Indians

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e "National Congress of American Indians". GuideStar. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
2. ^ a b c d e f g Rickert, Levi (November 18, 2023). "National Congress of American Indians Swears in Newly Elected 2023–2025 Executive Committee". Native News Online. Yahoo News. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
3. ^ Cowger, Thomas W. The National Congress of American Indians: The Founding Years. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. [ISBN missing]
4. ^ "CN's Byrd re-elected to NCAI district post". Tahlequah Daily Press. October 26, 2017. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
5. ^ "Native American journalist, activist Chuck Trimble dies". Star Tribune.
6. ^ Rosier, Paul C. (Winter 2006). "The Association on American Indian Affairs and the Struffle for Native American Rights, 1948–1965". The Princeton University Library Chronicle. 67 (2): 368. doi:10.25290/prinunivlibrchro.67.2.0366. JSTOR 10.25290/prinunivlibrchro.67.2.0366. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
7. ^ Parker, Dorothy R. (1992). Singing an Indian Song: A Biography of D'Arcy McNickle. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 106\. ISBN 978-0803236875.
8. ^ Alison R. Bernstein. American Indian and World War II: Toward a New Era in Indian Affairs (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991) p. 116–119 [ISBN missing]
9. ^ Harvey, Gretchen G. (2004). "Bronson, Ruth Muskrat". In Ware, Susan; Braukman, Stacy (eds.). Notable American Women: A Biographical Dictionary Completing the Twentieth Century. Vol. 5\. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 80–82\. ISBN 978-0-674-01488-6.80-82&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01488-6&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Gretchen+G.&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=WSaMu4F06AQC&pg;=PA80&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:National+Congress+of+American+Indians" class="Z3988">
10. ^ a b Cowger 1999, p. 74.
11. ^ Cowger 1999, p. 53.
12. ^ Cowger 1999, p. 69.
13. ^ Cowger 1999, pp. 110–111.
14. ^ Cowger 1999, pp. 111–112.
15. ^ Champagne, Duane (2001). The Native North American Almanac. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Group. ISBN 978-0787616557.
16. ^ a b Liberty, Brandi (November 13, 2023). "National Congress of American Indians convention opens". Verite News. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
17. ^ KickingWoman, Kolby (March 2, 2023). "National Congress of American Indians looks to year ahead". ICT News. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
18. ^ "National Congress of American Indians Annual Convention Address". Archives of Women's Political Communication. October 12, 2021. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
19. ^ CityNewsOKC, Patrick B. McGuigan (June 7, 2024). "The National Congress of American Indians (NACI) Meeting in North Carolina – An Overview". Oklahoma City Sentinel. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
20. ^ a b "Obama Administration Meets With Tribal Leaders To Discuss Public Safety Needs in Indian Country". PsycEXTRA Dataset. 2009. doi:10.1037/e502062010-003. Retrieved March 9, 2023.
21. ^ a b Peter D'Errico (January 10, 2017). "Native American Genocide or Holocaust?". Ict News. Archived from the original on March 24, 2022.
22. ^ "Oneida Nation to Donate Indian Country Today Media Network Assets to NCAI". Indian Country Media Network. October 4, 2017. Retrieved January 20, 2018.
23. ^ Rickert, Levi. "National Congress of American Indians Establishes Foundation to Increase Philanthropic Funding in Indian Country". Native News Online. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
24. ^ "National Congress of American Indians Fund - GuideStar Profile". www.guidestar.org. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
25. ^ Rickert, Levi (November 14, 2023). "NCAI Faces Controversial Constitutional Amendments to Remove State Recognized Tribes". Native News Online. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
26. ^ Shreve, Bradley G. "From Time Immemorial: The Fish-in Movement and the Rise of the Intertribal Activism." Pacific Historical Review. 78.3 (2009): 403–434
27. ^ "2024 National Congress of American Indians Mid-Year Convention & Marketplace | NC DOA". www.doa.nc.gov. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
28. ^ "FEMA Administrator's Remarks at the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) 80th Annual Convention | FEMA.gov". www.fema.gov. February 2, 2024. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
29. ^ "California Becomes First State to Ban 'Redskins' Nickname". NBC News. October 12, 2015.
30. ^ Henry, Carmel. "A Brief History of Civil Rights in the United States". library.law.howard.edu. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
31. ^ Bartoo-Smith, Nika (November 16, 2023). "NCAI vote to exclude state recognized nations fails". ICT News. Retrieved January 5, 2025.
32. ^ Rickert, Levi (November 14, 2023). "NCAI Faces Controversial Constitutional Amendments to Remove State Recognized Tribes". Native News Online. Retrieved November 15, 2023.
33. ^ VoteRiders Partner Organizations
34. ^ Silversmith, Shondiin (August 30, 2024). "SCOTUS ruling on citizenship proof for new voters has an outsized impact for Native voters". Arizona Mirror. Retrieved September 3, 2024.
35. ^ Roller, Emma (October 10, 2013). "Old Poster Goes Viral, Teaches Multiple Lessons". Slate. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
36. ^ "NCAI Releases Report on History and Legacy of Washington's Harmful 'Indian' Sports Mascot". Latino Rebels. October 10, 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2024.
37. ^ "Previous NCAI Leadership". www.ncai.org.
38. ^ Fisher, Andrew H. (Winter 2013). "Speaking for the First Americans: Nipo Strongheart and the campaign for American Indian citizenship". Oregon Historical Quarterly. 114 (4): 441–452\. doi:10.5403/oregonhistq.114.4.0441. ISSN 0030-4727. S2CID 159734621. Retrieved August 22, 2014.441-452&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159734621#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=0030-4727&rft_id=info:doi/10.5403/oregonhistq.114.4.0441&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Andrew+H.&rft_id=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA372095378&v;=2.1⁢=r&p;=AONE&sw;=w&asid;=8abda9bdb69a9cc63404de596de171d4&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:National+Congress+of+American+Indians" class="Z3988">

## Bibliography

[edit]

* National Congress of American Indians: Constitution, By-Laws and Standing Rules of Order. Found on the official NCAI website, this article was last amended in 2007. It states the purpose of the NCAI, the different types of memberships, and the rules and regulations.
* Cowger, Thomas W. (1999). The National Congress of American Indians : the founding years. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1502-3.
* Deloria, Vine Jr. Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. New York: Avon Books, 1970. This book explores the reality and myths surrounding Indians, the problems of leadership, and modern Indian affairs.
* Johnson, N B. The National Congress of American Indians. Written by the Justice of Supreme Court of Oklahoma and published in the Chronicles of Oklahoma, this article discusses the formation of the NCAI, and Congress'reaction.
* Report of Activities, American Association on Indian Affairs, June 1945–May 1946. This article discusses the reasons why a nationwide organization of Indians is so crucial.
* Shreve, Bradley G. “From Time Immemorial: The Fish-in Movement and the Rise of the Intertribal Activism”, Pacific Historical Review 78.3 (2009): 403–434, JSTOR 10.1525/phr.2009.78.3.403?
* Cowger, Thomas W. The National Congress of American Indians: The Founding Years. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Congress of American Indians.

* Official website
* title=Ending the Era of Harmful "Indian" Mascots Archived February 2, 2021, at the Wayback Machine

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* Mohave War (1858–1859)
* Navajo Wars (1849–1866)
* Paiute War (1860)
* Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)
* Snake War (1864–1869)
* Hualapai War (1865–1870)
* Modoc War (1872–1873)
* Nez Perce War (1877)
* Bannock War (1878)
* Crow War (1887)
* Bannock Uprising (1895)
* Yaqui Uprising (1896)
* Battle of Sugar Point (1898)
* Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)
* Last Massacre (1911)
* Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)
* Battle of Bear Valley (1918)

Education, science
and technology|

* Native American studies

Religion|

* American Indian Religious Freedom Act
* Eagle feather law
* Native American religions
* Native American people and Mormonism
* Native American church
* Smudging
* Sun Dance
* Sweat lodge
* Longhouse Religion

Political movements|

* Native American civil rights
* National Congress of American Indians
* American Indian Movement (AIM)
* Red Power Movement
* Occupation of Alcatraz
* Trail of Broken Treaties
* Occupation of Wounded Knee
* Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States
* Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women (Red handprint)
* Native American recognition in the United States
* Native American women in politics
* Tribal sovereignty
* Land Back

Civic and economic
groups

* National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
* Native American Rights Fund (NARF)
* National Congress of American Indians
* National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)
* Women of All Red Nations (WARN)
* The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)

Ethnic subdivisions|

* Black Indians in the United States
* Indigenous peoples of the Americas
* Louisiana Creole people
* Pretendian

Demographics|

* List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations
* Modern social statistics of Native Americans
* Reservations
* Reservation poverty
* Urban Indian

Languages|

* English
* American English
* American Indian English
* Native American Pidgin English
* Native American languages

By state/city|

* List
* Alaska
* Arizona
* California
* Colorado
* Florida
* Hawaii
* Iowa
* Maryland
* Baltimore
* Michigan
* Nebraska
* North Carolina
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Virginia
* Wisconsin

Federal and
State recognition|

* Domestic dependent nations
* Indian Country
* Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians
* Legal status of Hawaii
* Federally recognized tribes
* State recognized tribes

Lists|

* Native Americans
* artists
* actors
* Native American War Leaders
* musicians
* Native American politicians
* writers
* Native American Medal of Honor recipients
* List of federally recognized tribes
* by state
* State-recognized tribes in the United States
* List of Indian reservations in the United States
* Massacres

* Category
* Portal

* v
* t
* e

Rights of Native Americans in the United States

Case law|

* Johnson v. McIntosh (1823)
* Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)
* Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
* Fellows v. Blacksmith (1857)
* New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble (1858)
* Standing Bear v. Crook (D. Neb. 1879)
* Ex parte Crow Dog (1883)
* Elk v. Wilkins (1884)
* Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy (1896)
* Talton v. Mayes (1896)
* Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock (1903)
* United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co. (1941)
* Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States (1955)
* Williams v. Lee (1959)
* Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation (1960)
* Menominee Tribe v. United States (1968)
* McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission (1973)
* Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida (1974)
* Bryan v. Itasca County (1976)
* United States v. Antelope (1977)
* Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez (1978)
* Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe (1982)
* Solem v. Bartlett (1984)
* County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State (1985)
* South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc. (1986)
* Hodel v. Irving (1987)
* Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield (1989)
* Duro v. Reina (1990)
* South Dakota v. Bourland (1993)
* Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho (1997)
* Idaho v. United States (2001)
* United States v. Lara (2004)
* City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York (2005)
* Cobell v. Salazar (D.C. Cir. 2009)
* Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl (2013)
* Sharp v. Murphy and McGirt v. Oklahoma (2020)
* Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta (2022)

* List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes

Legislation|

* Blood quantum laws (1705 onwards)
* Nonintercourse Act (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)
* Civilization Act (1819)
* Indian Removal Act (1830)
* Dawes Act (1887)
* Curtis Act (1898)
* Burke Act (1906)
* Indian Citizenship Act (1924)
* Indian Reorganization Act (1934)
* Indian arts and crafts laws (1935–2019)
* Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act (1936)
* Nationality Act (1940)
* Public Law 280 (1953)
* Indian Relocation Act (1956)
* Indian Civil Rights Act (1968)
* Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971)
* Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975)
* American Indian Religious Freedom Act (1978)
* Indian Child Welfare Act (1978)
* Diminishment (1984)
* Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (1988)
* Native American Languages Act (1990)
* Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990)
* Indian Arts and Crafts Act (1990)
* Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art (2008)

Federal and
State recognition|

* Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians
* Legal status of Hawaii
* Federally recognized tribes
* State recognized tribes

Tribal sovereignty|

* Aboriginal title
* Bureau of Indian Affairs
* Civil rights
* Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
* Domestic dependent nations
* Gaming
* Hunting license
* Indian Country
* Indian reservations
* In the Courts of the Conqueror
* Self-determination
* Treaty rights

Related|

* Cherokee Commission
* Dawes Rolls
* Eagle feather law
* Eagle-bone whistle
* Long Walk of the Navajo
* National Indian Gaming Commission
* Native American Rights Fund
* Recognition of sacred sites
* Seminole Wars
* Survivance
* Trail of Tears
* United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* FAST

National|

* United States
* Israel

Other|

* SNAC

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