National Revolutionary Army

Not to be confused with People's Liberation Army, Chinese Red Army, or Republic of China Armed Forces.

National Revolutionary Army
國民革命軍

War Ensign of the NRA Land Forces (1935–1946)

Active| 16 June 1924 – 1 June 1946
Country|  China
Allegiance|  Chinese Nationalist Party
Branch| Ground Forces
Military Police
Air Force
Air Defense Troops
Naval Component (Limited)
Type| Standing Military
Role| Ground warfare and aerial warfare
Size| ~14,000,000
Part of| Chinese Nationalist military
Engagements|

* Northern Expedition
* Chinese Civil War
* Central Plains War
* Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)
* Sino-Mongolian border conflict
* Second Sino-Japanese War
* World War II
* Pacific War

Commanders
Notable
commanders|

* Chiang Kai-shek
* Zhang Xueliang
* Sun Li-jen
* Zhang Lingfu
* Yan Xishan
* Feng Yuxiang
* Li Zongren
* He Yingqin
* Bai Chongxi

Insignia
Insignia|
Headquarters| Canton (1924-1928)
Nanking (1928–1937, 1946–1947)
Chungking (1937–1946)
Ideology| Three Principles of the People
Chinese nationalism
Conservatism (Chinese)
Anti-communism
Anti-Imperialism
1939–1945:
Anti-fascism (de jure)[a]
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Allies|  Soviet Union (-1927, 1937-1941)
Nazi Germany (-1938)
United States
United Kingdom
Opponents|

* Chinese Red Army
* Empire of Japan
Manchukuo
* Mengjiang
* Wang Jingwei regime

East Turkestan

Military unit

National Revolutionary Army

Traditional Chinese| 國民革命軍
Simplified Chinese| 国民革命军
Hanyu Pinyin| Guómín Gémìng Jūn
| Transcriptions

Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin| Guómín Gémìng Jūn
Bopomofo| ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄇㄧㄣˊ ㄍㄜˊ ㄇㄧㄥˋ ㄐㄩㄣ
Wade–Giles| Kuo2-min2 Ko2-ming4 Chün1
Tongyong Pinyin| Guó-mín Gé-mìng Jyun
IPA| [kwǒ.mǐn kɤ̌.mîŋ tɕýn]
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The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; 國民革命軍) served as the military arm of the Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) from 1924 until 1947.

From 1928, it functioned as the de facto national armed forces of the Republic of China during the period of Nationalist rule. Following the promulgation of the 1947 Constitution — which established civilian control over the military on a de jure basis — it was formally reorganised as the Republic of China Armed Forces.

Initially formed from pro-nationalist faction troops after 1917, with assistance from the Soviet Union, the NRA was created as an instrument for the Nationalist government to unify China during the Warlord Era. It went on to fight major military conflicts, including the Northern Expedition against the Beiyang warlords, the encirclement campaigns against the Chinese Red Army, the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) against Imperial Japan, and the Chinese Civil War against the Chinese Communist Party's People's Liberation Army.

## Etymology

[edit]

The name National Revolutionary Army was formally adopted by the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) following the party's reorganization under Sun Yat-sen's leadership, emphasising its goal of national unification through revolution. Prior to 1928, the force was often referred to simply as the Revolutionary Army (Chinese: 革命軍), reflecting its role in the Northern Expedition and other efforts to overthrow regional warlords.

After the formal unification of China under the Nationalist government in 1928, the term National Army (Chinese: 國軍) became more common in official discourse, signifying its position as the regular armed forces of the Republic of China.

In Western historiography, the force, particularly the ground arm, has been frequently referred to as the Chinese Nationalist Army to distinguish it from communist military forces. Meanwhile, media and historical narratives originating from the People's Republic of China often describe it as the Kuomintang Army (Chinese: 国民党军), underscoring its affiliation with the KMT rather than the state.

It is worth noting that, in traditional Chinese usage, the term "army" (Chinese: 軍) has often been applied more broadly to refer to the entire armed forces, encompassing the army, navy, and air force. This linguistic nuance is also reflected in the naming of the National Revolutionary Army, which, despite its initial composition being primarily ground forces, gradually came to include the early development of the Nationalist government's air force, air defence units, and other military branches. It was not until the establishment of the Republic of China Armed Forces in 1947 that the government formally adopted the Western, particularly American, convention of using the term Armed Forces to refer collectively to the three services.

It should also be noted that within the NRA, the ground forces—excluding specialised branches such as the military police and air defence troops—were indeed referred to in Chinese as the Land Forces (Chinese: 陸軍). However, there was no unified or independent General Command specifically overseeing the land force branch in the modern sense; operational command structures were often decentralised and campaign-based, rather than managed through a distinct army headquarters.

## Composition

[edit]

Before the outbreak of the war against Japan, the term "National Revolutionary Army" (NRA) primarily referred to the core, centrally controlled military units of the Chinese Nationalist Party, usually referred as the "Central government forces" (Chinese: 中央軍), especially those loyal to Chiang Kai-shek. However, as the war escalated and the need for national unity grew, the title "NRA" was symbolically extended to include former warlords' armies and regional forces, colloquially known as "Regional forces" (Chinese: 地方軍), even though many of them remained semi-autonomous and only nominally under the Military Affairs Commission.[2]

In particular, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the Chinese Communist Party were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while retaining separate commands), forming the Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army, but they broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war.

With the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the de jure end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces, with the bulk of its forces forming the Republic of China Army, which retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949.

## History

[edit]

The opening ceremony of the Whampoa Military Academy, with Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek. National Revolutionary Army troops prepare to siege Shanghai against Sun Chuanfang's forces. National Revolutionary Army soldiers march into the British concessions in Hankou during the Northern Expedition.

On 1 September 1917, the Chinese Nationalist Party, under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen, established the Constitutional Protection Junta (Chinese: 護法軍政府) in opposition to the Beiyang government, following the launch of the Constitutional Protection Movement on 17 July 1917.

The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) was officially formed in 1924 by the Kuomintang as its military arm, based on pro-Nationalist regional forces and supported by foreign assistance. Its primary mission was to reunify China, beginning with the Northern Expedition.

With organisational support from the Comintern and ideological guidance from Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People, the NRA developed as an extension of the party-state system, where the separation between political party, military, and government remained blurred. Many of the NRA's officer corps were graduates of the newly established Whampoa Military Academy, including its first commandant, Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang rose to become commander-in-chief in 1925 and subsequently led the NRA during the Northern Expedition.

The successful conclusion of the Northern Expedition in 1928 is widely considered to mark the end of the Warlord Era in China, although localised warlord activity continued in some regions for years afterwards. Prominent generals who later rose to distinction within the NRA included Tu Yü-ming and Chen Cheng.

In 1927, after the collapse of the First United Front between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party, the KMT leadership carried out a purge of its leftist members and significantly reduced Soviet influence within the party. Following this realignment, Chiang Kai-shek turned to Germany—then governed by the Weimar Republic—for assistance in reorganising and modernising the NRA.

Despite restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, which barred German military advisers from officially serving in combat roles abroad, the Weimar Republic did dispatch advisors to China. Chiang initially sought assistance from high-profile generals such as Erich Ludendorff and August von Mackensen, but these requests were declined. German authorities feared that the involvement of such well-known figures would provoke backlash from the Allies and diminish national prestige, especially if they were seen acting in the capacity of mercenaries.

### Northern Expedition (1926–1928)

[edit]

Main articles: Northern Expedition and Northeast Flag Replacement

The Northern Expedition was a military campaign launched by the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) in July 1926, with the goal of defeating the warlords of the Beiyang government and unifying China under Nationalist control. The expedition was led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, who had risen to prominence after heading the Whampoa Military Academy.[3]

Initially supported by a united front with the Chinese Communist Party and Soviet advisers such as Mikhail Borodin and Vasily Blyukher,[4] the NRA advanced northward from Canton, quickly defeating the Zhili and Hunan warlords, including Wu Peifu and Sun Chuanfang.[5]

However, internal divisions within the KMT soon emerged. In April 1927, Chiang ordered a purge of Communists in Shanghai—an event known as the Shanghai Massacre—which marked the collapse of the First United Front and a formal split between left- and right-wing factions of the party.[6] Chiang temporarily stepped down, but resumed leadership in early 1928 and relaunched the campaign's second phase.

By mid-1928, the NRA—reinforced by allied warlords including Yen Hsi-shan and Feng Yü-hsiang—defeated the Beiyang Army and approached Peking. As their forces closed in, the Manchurian warlord Chang Tso-lin was assassinated in the Huanggutun incident by the Japanese Kwantung Army, and his son Chang Hsüeh-liang soon declared allegiance to the Nanking government.[7]

The campaign ended in December 1928, when the Northeast officially accepted Nationalist rule, effectively unifying China under the Nationalist regime and marking the beginning of the Nanking Decade.[8]

Despite the nominal success, true centralisation remained elusive. Many former warlords retained regional power and autonomy, sowing the seeds for future internal conflict.[9]

### Nanjing Decade

[edit]

Immediately following the conclusion of the Northern Expedition, the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) was significantly overextended and required downsizing and demobilisation. Chiang Kai-shek famously remarked that "soldiers are like water—capable of both carrying the state and sinking it." Official troop figures at the time listed 1,502,000 soldiers under arms, though only 224,000 of these were directly under Chiang's control. In reality, Chiang later admitted to controlling over 500,000 troops, while Feng Yü-hsiang, whose official number was 269,000, likely commanded closer to 600,000. Thus, the total NRA strength was probably nearer to two million men.[10]

During the course of the expedition, the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT) also established regional branch political councils. Though these councils were theoretically subordinate to the central political authority in Nanjing, in practice they operated autonomously and maintained their own military forces. Feng Yuxiang controlled the Kaifeng council, Yen Hsi-shan oversaw the Taiyuan council, and the Kwangsi clique controlled two separate councils in Wuhan and Peiping, led by Li Tsung-jen and Pai Ch’ung-hsi, respectively. Li Chi-shen, another Kwangsi-aligned figure, loosely oversaw the council in Canton, while a sixth council was under Chang Hsüeh-liang in Mukden.[11]

Confronted with the dilemma of how to manage these competing power centres, Chiang had two strategic options: to centralise authority gradually or to act swiftly and decisively. True to the spirit of the expedition's aim to eliminate warlordism and regionalism, he chose immediate centralisation. Using the pretext of demobilisation, Chiang began systematically reducing the military power of regional commanders while expanding and consolidating his own authority.[11]

In July 1928, financial conferences were convened to coordinate demobilisation efforts, and both military commanders and political officials echoed support for reducing troop numbers. Chiang formally called for the NRA to be downsized to 65 divisions and worked to build political consensus for abolishing the branch councils. This initiative alarmed regional leaders, and Li Tsung-jen later remarked that Chiang's plan appeared deliberately designed to provoke a reaction—providing Chiang with the justification to neutralise his rivals.[12]

### Central Plains War (1929–1930)

[edit]

#### Phase 1: Regional Clashes and Political Purges

[edit]

In February 1929, tensions escalated when the Kwangsi clique dismissed Lu Ti-p’ing, the governor of Hunan, who subsequently defected to Chiang Kai-shek. The Kwangsi forces invaded Hunan in retaliation. However, Chiang countered by bribing military units in Wuchang to defect, decisively routing the Kwangsi army within two months. By March, the Kuomintang expelled key Kwangsi leaders— Pai Ch’ung-hsi, Li Chi-shen, and Li Tsung-jen—and promoted their subordinates who supported Chiang, thereby sowing internal division within the clique.[13][14][15]

In May, Feng Yü-hsiang also entered the conflict, and he too was expelled from the party. Once again, Chiang used financial incentives to sway Feng's subordinates, including Han Fu-chü and Shih Yu-san, to defect. Feng's armies were defeated, and he retreated to Shansi, announcing his retirement from politics. By July, Chiang's forces had occupied Loyang. Buoyed by his victories, Chiang pushed forward with a nationwide demobilisation plan and announced that the army would be reduced to 65 divisions by March 1930.[16] This move alarmed the regional leaders, as Chiang had already stripped revenue sources from Yen Hsi-shan, leading him to join forces with Feng and the Kwangsi clique.[17]

#### Phase 2: Full-Scale War and Centralisation

[edit]

The anti-Chiang coalition amassed approximately 700,000 troops, while Chiang commanded around 300,000. The coalition planned to seize Shantung (Shandong) and contain Chiang south of the Lung-hai (Longhai) and Peking–Hankow (Beijing–Wuhan) railways. They aimed to advance along the railway lines, capturing Hsüchow and Wuhan, while southern forces moved north to establish a link-up.

The war involved more than one million soldiers, with roughly 300,000 casualties. Despite being outnumbered, Chiang's southern forces performed well, routing the Kwangsi-aligned armies by July. However, his northern units suffered defeats, and Chiang narrowly escaped capture in June. The northern advance halted only after the southern forces were crushed.

Chiang used the ensuing lull to regroup and launch counteroffensives along key railway lines. With fighting in Bengpu subsiding by September, Chiang began closing in again on Loyang. These developments, combined with strategic bribery, convinced Chang Hsüeh-liang to side with Chiang, bringing the war to an end.[18]

### Encirclement Campaigns (1929–1934)

[edit]

Main articles: Encirclement campaigns (Chinese Civil War) and Chinese Soviet Republic

Following the conclusion of the Northern Expedition and the unification of China under the Nationalist government, Chiang Kai-shek turned his attention to eliminating the growing Communist presence in rural China. From 1929 to 1934, the Nationalist government launched a series of large-scale military operations, known as the encirclement campaigns, to crush Communist-controlled revolutionary base areas, most notably the Kiangsi-Hokkien Soviet and Oeyuwan Soviet.[19]

The first wave of campaigns began as regional offensives targeting smaller Soviets, such as those in Hungfu, Hunan–Kiangsi, and Hupeh–Honan–Shensi. Early attempts were poorly coordinated and often relied on local warlord forces, resulting in repeated defeats by the more mobile and experienced Chinese Red Army.[20] In Hung-hu, Communist commanders such as Ho Lung and Tuan Te-ch’ang successfully repelled multiple assaults in 1930 and 1931 despite being heavily outnumbered.[21]

The climax came with five major campaigns against the Kiangsi Soviet from 1930 to 1934. The first four were defeated by the Red Army under Mao Tse-tung and Chu Teh using guerrilla warfare and mobile tactics. However, the fifth campaign, launched in 1933 under the guidance of German military advisors such as Hans von Seeckt and Alexander von Falkenhausen, introduced blockhouse strategies and scorched-earth tactics.[22] With overwhelming numbers and fortified positions, the Nationalists eventually broke through, forcing the Communists to abandon their base in October 1934 and begin the Long March.[23]

The Oeyuwan Soviet also endured five campaigns between 1930 and 1934. Though the Communists held out during the first three, they were eventually pushed out by Nationalist forces employing brutal scorched-earth tactics in the fourth and fifth offensives.[24] Despite these setbacks, small Red Army remnants like the 25th Army under Hsü Hai-tung continued guerrilla resistance and later linked up with main Communist forces during the Long March.[25]

Though the Nationalists ultimately succeeded in dismantling the Soviet base areas by 1934, their victories were temporary. The campaigns demonstrated both the vulnerability and resilience of Communist forces, who would return stronger in the following years.

### Second Sino-Japanese War

[edit]

A Chinese propaganda poster depicting the National Revolutionary Army.

Main articles: Second Sino-Japanese War and Chinese Expeditionary Force

The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) marked the most significant military engagement of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA), which fought the invading forces of the Empire of Japan across vast regions of China. Under the leadership of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, the NRA bore the brunt of China's resistance, particularly during the early years when the Communist forces were still comparatively minor.

The war began in earnest after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident near Peiping in July 1937, which led to a full-scale Japanese invasion of northern China. Despite poor equipment and internal fragmentation, the NRA mounted tenacious resistance in major battles such as the Battle of Shanghai, the Battle of Nanking, and the Battle of Taierzhuang.[26] At Shanghai, elite NRA units, including German-trained divisions, engaged in months-long street fighting, attempting to impress foreign powers and gain diplomatic support.[27] The defence of Nanking (Nanjing) was ultimately overwhelmed, resulting in the Nanjing Massacre, where Japanese troops committed extensive atrocities.[28]

Chinese Nationalist Army Soldiers in Shanghai Vickers 6-ton Light Tank with the Chinese Nationalist Army

After the fall of Nanking, the NRA re-established its headquarters in Chungking, which served as the wartime capital until 1945. While conventional engagements became increasingly difficult due to Japanese air superiority and mechanised mobility, the NRA retained control over much of western and interior China. It secured some critical victories, notably at Taierzhuang in 1938 and in defending Changsha during multiple Japanese offensives.[29]

sFH18 Howtizer with the Chinese Nationalist Army Field Artillery Troops

Women also contributed to the war effort through formal units such as the Kwangsi Women's Battalion, encouraged by Soong Mei-ling, Chiang's wife.[30][31]

Despite internal political challenges, the NRA integrated multiple regional forces and provincial warlord armies into its ranks. As Japanese occupation expanded across coastal China, guerrilla and irregular operations were increasingly important in contested regions. However, logistical weaknesses, inadequate modern arms, and a fragmented command structure hampered sustained offensives. The lack of centralised discipline also led to issues such as corruption, press-ganging of rural populations, and logistical failure.[32]

From 1938 onward, foreign aid helped improve NRA capability. Initially, the Soviet Union supported the NRA with matériel, training, and volunteer aviators under the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact.[33] From 1941, the United States became the chief backer of the NRA via Lend-Lease, although this support was complicated by strained relationships between General Chiang and American commanders, particularly General Joseph Stilwell.[34] While Stilwell was appointed as Chief of Staff to Chiang and oversaw training efforts for modernised NRA units (known as the "X Force"), he clashed frequently with Chinese leadership over strategy and control. The US government threatened to cut off aid to China unless they handed over command of all Chinese forces to the US. Chiang stalled on fulfilling the American demand as he claimed that that would be make him no different from the Japanese puppet authorities.[35] By the end of the war, US influence over the military affairs of China were greater than any foreign power in the last century, with American personnel appointed in every field, such as the Chief of Staff of the Chinese military, management of the Chinese War Production Board and Board of Transport. Sir George Sansom, British envoy to the US, reported that many US military officers saw US monopoly on Far Eastern trade as a rightful reward for fighting the Pacific war,[36] a sentiment echoed by US elected officials.[37]

During the Burma Campaign, NRA troops formed the core of the Chinese Expeditionary Force (Chinese: 中國遠征軍) in India and northern Burma. Under the command of General Sun Li-jen, these forces succeeded in recapturing key territory and securing the Ledo Road, a vital supply line into China.[32] The reoccupation of northern Burma and eventual linking up with Yunnan (Yunnan)–based forces under General Wei Lihuang restored overland logistics to Chungking by late 1944.

Chinese Nationalist Army Sherman Tank in Burma

One of the most ambitious and controversial NRA campaigns was the counteroffensive to Operation Ichi-Go in 1944–1945. Though the Japanese initially made gains, the NRA halted further advances by mid-1945 and began to reclaim territory in Hunan and Kwangsi.[38] Plans were underway for an American-assisted push to retake Canton and advance on Shanghai before the Japanese surrender rendered these operations moot.

Throughout the conflict, the NRA suffered enormous losses, including an estimated 750,000 combat casualties.[38] Its sacrifices contributed significantly to tying down large portions of the Japanese Army, which in turn relieved pressure on Allied forces in the Pacific theatre. Nonetheless, internal dissent, fragmented authority, and post-war disillusionment set the stage for the resumed civil conflict with the Communists.

### Transformation into the R.O.C Armed Forces

[edit]

By the end of the war, under the 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China, the National Revolutionary Army was formally disbanded and reorganised into specialised branches under the newly established Republic of China Armed Forces.

The majority of NRA ground units were reconstituted as the Republic of China Army (ROCA), while the former military police component became the Republic of China Military Police. The Air Force and Air Defense Troops were combined to form the Republic of China Air Force. Together with the Republic of China Navy, these services constituted the unified armed forces of the post-war Republic of China.[39]

## Structure

[edit]

Main article: Army groups of the National Revolutionary Army

Elite German-trained divisions of the National Revolutionary Army before the Battle of Wuhan. A platoon of the National Revolutionary Army marching in Brodie helmets during a parade in Burma in 1943.

Over the course of its existence, the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) recruited approximately 4,300,000 regular soldiers. Its forces were organised into a total of 515 divisions, which included:

* 370 Standard Divisions (正式師)
* 46 New Divisions (新編師)
* 12 Cavalry Divisions (騎兵師)
* 8 New Cavalry Divisions (新編騎兵師)
* 66 Temporary Divisions (暫編師)
* 13 Reserve Divisions (預備師)

However, many of these divisions were reconstituted from pre-existing units or renamed divisions that had previously been lost in combat. As a result, not all 515 divisions existed simultaneously, and the actual number of active divisions at any given time was significantly lower.

To compensate for battlefield losses, "New Divisions" were often created and assigned the same numerical designation as the destroyed unit they replaced. The average NRA division typically comprised 5,000–6,000 troops. In contrast, an NRA field army division—their larger operational formation—might field between 10,000 and 15,000 men, making it roughly equivalent in size to a Japanese division. Even the elite German-trained divisions—considered the most disciplined and best equipped of NRA formations—rarely exceeded 10,000 personnel, and thus remained smaller than their German or Japanese counterparts.

At the apex of the NRA command hierarchy stood the National Military Council, also known as the Military Affairs Commission. Chaired by Chiang Kai-shek, the Council directed all military operations and strategic planning. From 1937 onward, the Council included high-ranking positions such as the Chief of the General Staff (held by General He Yingqin), the War Ministry, military regional commands, as well as the commands of the air and naval forces, air defence, garrison units, and logistical and support services.

Between 1937 and 1945, approximately 14 million men were conscripted into NRA service.[40]

The United States Army's campaign brochure on the China Defensive campaign of 1942–45 said:[41][failed verification]

> The NRA only had small number of armoured vehicles and mechanised troops. At the beginning of the war in 1937 the armour were organized in three Armoured Battalions, equipped with tanks and armoured cars from various countries. After these battalions were mostly destroyed in the Battle of Shanghai and Battle of Nanjing. The newly provided tanks, armoured cars, and trucks from the Soviet Union and Italy made it possible to create the only mechanized division in the army, the 200th Division. This Division eventually ceased to be a mechanized unit after the June 1938 reorganization of Divisions. The armoured and artillery Regiments were placed under direct command of 5th Corps and the 200th Division became a motorized Infantry Division within the same Corps. This Corps fought battles in Guangxi in 1939–1940 and in the Battle of Yunnan-Burma Road in 1942 reducing the armoured units due to losses and mechanical breakdown of the vehicles. On paper China had 3.8 million men under arms in 1941. They were organized into 246 "front-line" divisions, with another 70 divisions assigned to rear areas. Perhaps as many as forty Chinese divisions had been equipped with European-manufactured weapons and trained by foreign, particularly German and Soviet, advisers. The rest of the units were under strength and generally untrained. Overall, the Nationalist Army impressed most Western military observers as more reminiscent of a 19th- than a 20th-century army.

The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) also fielded armoured battalions during the war, equipped with vehicles such as Sherman tanks, which supported ground operations against Japanese forces, particularly late in the Burma Campaign.

Among the most renowned forces within the NRA were the Muslim divisions commanded by the Ma Clique—a group of Chinese Muslim warlords and military officers who had aligned with the Kuomintang (KMT). Unlike the German-trained units that received mixed reviews from European observers, the Ma Clique's Muslim divisions, trained domestically in China without Western assistance, garnered astonishment and respect for their battlefield discipline and fierce combat capabilities. European travellers and observers such as Sven Hedin and Georg Vasel were reportedly awed by both the imposing appearance and martial effectiveness of these units. They were noted for enduring rigorous and brutal training regimes.[42][43][44][45]

### Muslim Units in the National Revolutionary Army

[edit]

The 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), composed entirely of Chinese Muslim soldiers and trained independently within China, famously inflicted heavy casualties on a Soviet invasion force during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. Despite lacking in modern equipment and numerical strength, the division fought ferociously and badly damaged the Soviet forces in battle.

One of the most prominent Ma Clique leaders, General Ma Hung-kuei, was noted by Western observers for leading highly disciplined Muslim divisions. Despite suffering from diabetes, Ma personally participated in training exercises with his troops and was known to engage in sword fencing drills.[46]

As the KMT consolidated power, numerous provincial warlords and regional military leaders—including the Ma Clique—formally joined the central command structure. Upon their integration, their respective troops were reorganised into standard NRA divisions. For instance, when General Ma Qi joined the Kuomintang, his Ninghai Army was re-designated as the National Revolutionary Army's 26th Division.

### Unit Organisation

[edit]

A Chinese Nationalist child soldier, age 10, serving with a division of the X Force, boarding a plane in Burma bound for China, May 1944.

The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) maintained a complex hierarchical structure throughout its existence. The following order of battle outlines the general unit organisation of the NRA. It is important to note that units were not always directly subordinate to the one immediately above; for instance, an Army Regiment might report directly to an Army Group without an intervening Corps-level command.

The commander-in-chief of the NRA from 1925 to 1947 was Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek.

* Military Affairs Commission (最高軍事機關)
* Military Region ×12 (戰區)
* Army Corps ×4 (兵團) – Among the largest operational formations during the Second Sino-Japanese War, each Army Corps was composed of a number of Group Armies, Armies, Corps, Divisions, Brigades, Regiments and supporting units. In terms of numbers, these formations exceeded the size of Western Army groups. Only four such corps were ever formed, primarily to coordinate the massive force concentration defending the Chinese capital in the Battle of Wuhan (1938).[47] (See Order of battle of Battle of Wuhan.)
* Army Group ×40 (集團軍)
* Route Army (路軍)
* Field Army ×30 (軍)
* Corps ×133 (軍團) – Typically, a Corps commanded two to three NRA Divisions and occasionally independent Brigades or Regiments, as well as supporting artillery and service elements. After heavy early-war losses, a 1938 reorganisation centralised scarce assets such as artillery, transferring them from the divisional level to Corps or Army-level control. The Corps thus became the fundamental tactical unit of the NRA, roughly equivalent in manpower and firepower to an Allied Division.[47]
* Division (師)
* Brigade (旅)
* Regiment (團)
* Battalion (營)
* Company (連)
* Platoon (排)
* Squad (班)

### Divisional Organisation

[edit]

The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) adopted multiple divisional structures throughout its history in response to evolving threats and operational needs. The templates used varied by year and theatre of operation. The years referred to below use the Minguo calendar, which begins in 1911; therefore, the 22nd year corresponds to 1933 in the Gregorian calendar.

#### Year 1933 (22nd Year) Anti-Communist Division

[edit]

The following structure was implemented for divisions deployed in Guangxi during the Fifth Encirclement Campaign against Communist strongholds.[48]

* Divisional HQ 79 officers 147 enlisted
* Signal company 6 officers 168 enlisted (subdivided into 3 platoons with 3 squads per platoon)
* Reconnaissance Company 5 officers 144 enlisted
* 3 infantry regiments each containing:
* Regimental HQ 22 officers 68 enlisted
* Signal Platoon 1 officer 48 enlisted
* 3 infantry battalions each containing:
* Battalion HQ 4 officers 13 enlisted
* 3 rifle companies 6 officers 145 enlisted (divided into 3 platoons with each platoon having 3 14 man squads)
* Machine gun company 5 officers 121 enlisted (divided into 3 platoons each with 2 16 man squads with Maxim MGs)
* Mortar Company 6 officers 138 enlisted (divided into 3 platoons each with 2 19 man squads with 82mm mortars)
* Special Service Company 6 officers 145 enlisted (identical to rifle company)
* Transport platoon 1 officer 42 enlisted (3 14 man squads)
* Stretcher-bearer Platoon 1 officer 43 enlisted (3 13 man squads)
* Artillery Battalion
* Battalion HQ 12 officers 98 enlisted
* Three batteries each containing 5 officers 203 enlisted (2 platoons each with 2 75mm guns)
* Engineers Battalion
* Battalion HQ 11 officers 41 enlisted
* Three engineer companies each 6 officers 179 enlisted (3 platoons each with 3 17 man squads)
* Special Service Battalion 27 officers 569 enlisted (identical to infantry battalion)
* Transport Battalion
* Battalion HQ 13 officers 31 enlisted
* Two Transport Companies each 6 officers 148 enlisted (3 platoons each with 3 14 man squads)

This organisation model was only implemented within divisions stationed in Guangxi during the Fifth Encirclement Campaign.[49]

### 60 Division Plan

[edit]

In 1935, the Military Affairs Commission devised a new initiative to raise 60 modern divisions in phased six-month batches. Each division was to be raised from a corresponding divisional district, aiming to improve cohesion, streamline recruitment, and facilitate communication. However, to reduce regionalism and factionalism, officers were to be recruited on a national basis and assigned across divisions, breaking existing provincial affiliations.

The 24th Year (Year 1935) "New Type" division, introduced under this plan, was nearly equivalent to a Western-style infantry division—its primary shortcoming being the absence of radio equipment. Planning began in December 1934, and in January 1935, a classified conference was convened with over 80 of the NRA's senior officers. A timetable was set out for implementation:

* 6–10 divisions to be organised in 1935
* 16–20 divisions in 1936
* 20–30 divisions in 1937
* The remaining divisions to be raised by 1938

This new force was intended to be far better equipped and trained than the existing warlord armies and would be directly accountable to the Generalissimo, thereby strengthening his authority both politically and militarily.

However, the plan soon ran into major logistical challenges. China's domestic industry lacked the capacity to produce the volume of artillery and infantry support guns required for such a force. German military imports also failed to meet expectations. As a result, mortars were adopted as substitutes for both infantry guns and artillery. Compounding these difficulties was a shortage of horses, which were essential for artillery and transport roles. Many divisions resorted to using mules, oxen, or even water buffalo as makeshift alternatives.

By the end of 1935, 10 divisions had been organised according to the new model, though they remained under-equipped. A further 20 divisions had been reorganised by the time of the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in July 1937. However, due to continuing shortages in weaponry and logistical support, these divisions still fell short of achieving true modernisation comparable to their Western or Japanese counterparts.[50]

#### Year 1935 (24th Year) New Type Division

[edit]

* Division HQ 138 men 33 horses
* Cavalry Squadron 237 men 239 horses
* Signal Battalion (372 men and 129 horses)
* Battalion HQ 36 horses 129 horses
* Two Signal companies each with 131 men
* Trains 74 men
* Two Infantry Brigades Each (6,114 men and 1,216 horses)
* Brigade HQ 29 men 10 horses
* Two Infantry Regiments each with
* Regiment HQ 51 men 10 horses
* Signal company 91 men 17 horses
* Three Infantry Battalions each with
* Battalion HQ 47 men 3 horses
* Three rifle companies each with 177 men
* Machine Gun company 126 men 43 horses
* Gun platoon 71 men 26 horses
* Infantry Gun/Mortar Company 118 men 56 horses
* Special Duty Platoon 53 men
* Special Duty Platoon 53 men
* Field Artillery Regiment (2,045 men and 1,181 horses)
* Regiment HQ 72 men 31 horses
* Signal Battery 237 men 106 horses
* Three Field Artillery Battalions each with
* Battalion HQ 66 men 348 horses
* Three Batteries each with 165 men
* Special Duty Platoon 53 men
* OR Mountain Artillery Regiment (in substitute of a Field Artillery Regiment) (2,565 men and 1,163)
* Regiment HQ 72 men 31 horses
* Singal Battery 237 men 106 horses
* Three Mountain Artillery Battalions each with
* Battalion HQ 66 men 342 horses
* Three Batteries each with 211 men
* Special Duty Platoon 53 men
* Engineer Battalion (622 men and 89 horses)
* Battalion HQ 33 men 89 horses
* Signal Platoon 37 men
* Three Engineer Companies each with 184 men
* Transport Battalion (332 men and 332 horses)
* Battalion HQ 37 men 6 horses
* 1st Transport Company 188 men 221 horses
* 2nd Transport Company 107 men 105 horses
* Special Duty Company 234 men
* Other 155 men

The total strength of a division equipped with a standard field artillery regiment was 10,012 men and 3,219 horses. When organised with a mountain artillery regiment instead, the total increased to 10,632 men and 3,237 horses.[51]

#### Wartime Adjustments

[edit]

As the war progressed and the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) suffered massive losses in men and materiel, the original "60 Division Plan" was abandoned. Larger divisional formations became increasingly impractical, prompting the Military Affairs Commission to shift towards smaller, more mobile divisions that better reflected the operational reality of protracted conflict and resource shortages.

An initial reorganisation in 1937 introduced the Type 89 grenade launcher, which greatly impressed the Chinese and was incorporated into the divisional structure. Despite maintaining a nominal strength of slightly under 11,000 men, the 1937 model division was critically under-armed—fewer than 4,000 frontline personnel were issued small arms such as rifles.[52]

A further reform took place in 1938, initiated by General He Yingqin at the direction of Chiang Kai-shek. He Yingqin's report proposed an integrated system of numbering and designation for units beginning at the regimental level, alongside a standardised financial and logistical framework and the appointment of politically loyal commanders. A new divisional structure—referred to as the "27th Year (1938) Division"—was introduced. This reorganisation abolished divisional artillery, which had largely existed only on paper due to chronic shortages, and centralised artillery support at the army level. Although the division's paper strength remained at around 11,000 personnel, in practice very few units adopted the template. Constant campaigning by the Central Army and resistance from regional warlords hindered implementation.[53]

Eventually, the traditional square division structure (consisting of two brigades each containing two infantry regiments) was replaced by the more flexible triangular division—consisting of a divisional headquarters and three infantry regiments. This triangular model became the most common NRA divisional structure until the end of the war, although further modifications were made. Sixteen divisions received dedicated anti-tank companies, while twenty were equipped with anti-aircraft companies. Nonetheless, artillery continued to be in critically short supply. Though the domestic production of 82mm mortars offered some relief, distribution remained inconsistent even by the end of the conflict.

A final major reorganisation occurred in 1942. Under this model, all non-combat units were removed from the division and reassigned to field army command. With the universal adoption of the triangular structure, the standard 1942 division had a significantly reduced strength of 6,794 officers and enlisted men—approximately 60% of the manpower of its 1938 predecessor.[54]

#### Year 1942 division

[edit]

* Divisional HQ 71 men
* Signal Company 223 men
* Reconnaissance Company 189 men
* Engineer Company 172 men
* Special Service Company 235 men
* 3 Infantry Regiments (Each 2,532 men):
* Regimental HQ 44 men
* Signal Platoon 76 men
* 3 Infantry Battalions (Each 804 men)
* Battalion HQ 20 men
* 3 Rifle Companies Total of 465 men
* Machine Gun Company 87 men
* Mortar Company 132 men

This reorganisation resulted in a total strength of 8,251 men per division. Notably, these formations entirely lacked divisional-level anti-aircraft, anti-tank, or artillery support—highlighting the severe shortage of equipment faced by the Chinese forces at the time.[54]

### Armoured Forces

[edit]

Main articles: Development of Chinese armoured forces (1927–1945), Tanks of China § History, and 200th Division (National Revolutionary Army)

T-26 tanks of Chinese Nationalist Army during WW2.

The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) developed its armoured capabilities in the interwar years, beginning with the acquisition of French Renault FT tanks by warlord Zhang Zuolin in the late 1920s. However, the true foundation of China's armoured corps was laid in the early 1930s and expanded rapidly after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937.

By that time, the NRA had organized three armoured battalions, equipped with a mix of imported tanks and armoured cars from France, Britain, Germany, and Italy. Early NRA armoured forces, including Sd.Kfz. 222 and 221 armour cars, Krupp Panzer I light tanks, Vickers 6-ton light tanks and Vickers amphibious tanks, suffered devastating losses during the battles of Shanghai and Nanking.

In 1938, with German advisors withdrawn under Japanese pressure, China turned to the Soviet Union for aid. The Soviets supplied 82 T-26 tanks and other vehicles, enabling the formation of China's first mechanized formation—the 200th Division. This division played a critical role in the battles of Lanfeng, Kunlun Pass, and later in the Burma Campaign under General Joseph Stilwell.

Despite losses, further American aid during the war provided M2A4, M3A3 Stuart, M5A1 Stuart, and M4 Sherman tanks via Lend-Lease. These vehicles reinforced elite Nationalist units, helping to repel Japanese offensives in the later stages of the war.

### Dare to Die Corps

[edit]

A female Chinese cadet demonstrating how to wear a vest loaded with Model 24 hand grenades during the Battle of Taierzhuang. The vest was used in suicide attacks against Japanese armoured vehicles, although this cadet was only participating in a training or publicity exercise and not in actual combat.

During the Xinhai Revolution and throughout the Warlord Era of the Republic of China, Chinese armies frequently employed specialised shock troops known as Dare to Die Corps (simplified Chinese: 敢死队; traditional Chinese: 敢死隊; pinyin: gǎnsǐduì). These units were composed of volunteers willing to undertake extremely high-risk or suicidal missions, often intended to break enemy lines or resist overwhelming assaults. The concept remained in use during the Second Sino-Japanese War, when such units were deployed against Japanese forces.

Warlords and regional military leaders commonly used "Dare to Die" troops in suicide assaults.[55] The Kuomintang (KMT) also continued this practice. One such corps was deployed to suppress an insurrection in Canton under orders from Chiang Kai-shek.[56]

Both men and women served in these units, often motivated by ideals of martyrdom or national salvation.[57][58]

One notable deployment of such a unit occurred during the Battle of Taierzhuang, where a Dare to Die Corps was used with devastating effect against Japanese forces.[59][60][61][62][63][64] These troops frequently wielded traditional weapons such as swords.[65][66]

Forms of suicide bombing were also employed. At the Defense of Sihang Warehouse, a Chinese soldier reportedly detonated a grenade vest, killing 20 Japanese troops.[67]

Chinese troops also strapped explosives such as grenade bundles or dynamite to their bodies and launched themselves under Japanese tanks in suicide attacks. This tactic was notably used during the Battle of Shanghai, where a suicide bomber halted a tank column by detonating himself beneath the lead vehicle.[68]

At Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide troops again employed this method, charging at tanks with explosives strapped to their bodies.[69][70][71]

In one such incident, Chinese soldiers destroyed four Japanese tanks using hand grenade bundles, sacrificing their own lives in the process.[72][73]

## Conscription

[edit]

### Core NRA Units and Formal Recruitment

[edit]

Within the centralised, core branches of the National Revolutionary Army — particularly the Central Army (中央軍), the Military Police, the Air Defense troops, and the Air Force — conscription and recruitment were far more structured and professional than often portrayed in popular accounts.

Personnel for these units were often selected based on physical fitness, educational background, or technical aptitude, with many drawn from military academies, provincial high schools, and specialised training institutions. Entry into these elite branches was considered prestigious, and recruitment often attracted volunteers. These units, directly under the control of Military Affairs Commission, maintained more regularised induction, training, and discipline procedures.

For example:

* The Military Police typically required a minimum educational level (e.g., junior high school or higher), and many came from politically vetted backgrounds.
* The Air Force required literacy, mathematics ability, and English proficiency for flight and technical personnel.

These units represented the most professionalised portion of the NRA and had far more controlled and less abusive conscription practices, especially in central regions under Nationalist administrative control and wartime rear areas.

### Expanded Forces and Coercive Conscription

[edit]

In contrast, the broader expansion of the NRA during the Second Sino-Japanese War — especially through the incorporation of the other former warlords' regional forces (地方軍) and local levies[2] — led to widespread reliance on violent and inhumane conscription methods, particularly in areas far from government control.

In many rural places, military forces employed press-gangs, kidnappings, and mass roundups to meet numerical quotas. Young men and even elderly villagers were seized indiscriminately, often beaten or shackled, and marched long distances to conscription centers with minimal food, water, or rest. Mortality during transit was often high, and training camps were poorly equipped, with disease and malnutrition rampant. In some extreme cases, less than half of conscripts survived to complete basic training.

These harsh practices were especially prevalent among units not directly controlled by the central government, and among rapidly raised local militias and civil defense groups. The Nationalist Government was often powerless or politically constrained from intervening in how these regional forces filled their ranks.

These are described by Rudolph Rummel as:

> This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together. Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp. They often died or were killed along the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive. Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps like Buchenwald.[74]

### Penal Battalions

[edit]

During the Chinese Civil War the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) was known to have used penal battalions from 1945 to 1949. A unit made up of deserters and those accused of cowardice, the penal battalion was giving such tasks as scouting ahead of the main forces to check for ambushes, crossing rivers and torrents to see whether they were fordable, and walking across unmapped minefields.[75]

## Air Defense Troops

[edit]

Main articles: List of Chinese military equipment in World War II § Anti-aircraft weapons, and Bombing of Chongqing

Bofors 75 mm Model 1929 with the Chinese Nationalist Air Defence Troops. The type of artillery in Service with the Air Defence Troops shot down 210 Japanese aerial targets throughout the 2nd Sino Japanese War

Established in 1934, the Central Air Defense College (Chinese: 中央防空學校) was the first dedicated military air defense institution in the history of China. Its responsibilities encompassed both the training of foundational air defense officers and the command and instruction of air defense forces.

Before the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Central Air Defense College organised nine anti-aircraft artillery regiments, which are independent entities in the National Revolutionary Army:[76]

* 41st Regiment – Commander: Li Heng-hua
* 42nd Regiment – Commander: Miao Fan
* 43rd Regiment – Commander: Tang Chen
* 44th Regiment – Commander: Lin Chung-yü
* 45th Regiment – Commander: Hsin Wen-jui
* 46th Regiment – Commander: Yang Yü-min
* 47th Regiment – Commander: Li Shen-chih
* 48th Regiment – Commander: Wen Shan
* 49th Regiment – Pending formation

In 1943, the Air Defense Troops were reorganised under an Area Command structure:

* Area Command 1: Headquarters located in Chungking.
* Area of responsibility: Szechwan Province
* Area Command 2: Headquarters located in Patung.
* Area of responsibility: Hupeh and Hunan Provinces
* Area Command 3: Headquarters located in Kweilin.
* Area of responsibility: The Canton–Hankow and Hunan–Kwangsi railways, as well as Hokkien and Kiangsi Provinces
* Area Command 4: Headquarters located in Kunming.
* Area of responsibility: Yunnan and Kweichow regions
* Area Command 5: Headquarters located in Sian.
* Area of responsibility: Shensi, Kansu, Ninghsia, and western Honan regions

After the drafting and implementation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947, the Air Defense Troops were transformed into the air defence branch of the Republic of China Air Force, and later merged as the ROCAF Anti-Aircraft Artillery Command (Chinese: 空軍高射砲兵司令部) in 1949.

## Aviation Branch

[edit]

Main articles: Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945) and List of aircraft used in China before 1937

Chinese Hawk III, the primary fighter-attack of the Chinese Nationalist Air Force, opposing the Japanese invasion in 1937

As a subordinate body of the Military Affairs Commission, the Aviation Affairs Commission (Chinese: 航空委員會) assumed control of the Air Force (Chinese: 空軍).

Although the Air Force was technically part of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA), it was, in practice, largely independent from its ground forces counterpart within the military command structure of the Nationalist regime.

Throughout its existence, the Air Force maintained a distinctive institutional identity, with uniforms clearly different from those of the NRA's ground forces and a separate administrative system. In terms of pay and provisions, Air Force personnel—including not only aviation professionals but also infantry units assigned to air base defense—enjoyed treatment on par with the NRA's most trusted ground units, and far superior to that received by the majority of other NRA formations at the time.

As a result, historians typically do not associate the Air Force directly with the National Revolutionary Army, but rather regard it as an independent air service of Nationalist China, commonly referring to it as the Chinese Nationalist Air Force. Following the drafting and implementation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947, the Air Force was formally established as a fully independent branch of the military and given the official title of the Republic of China Air Force (ROCAF).

## Naval Component

[edit]

For the commonly understood Naval Forces of the Republic of China Nationalist Government, see Republic of China Navy.

A British built CMB Motor Torpedo boat of the S.M.C. Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron

The Submarine and Motor Torpedo Boat College (Chinese: 電雷學校), abbreviated as the S.M.C., was established in 1932 by the Military Affairs Commission of the Nationalist government. Uniquely, the institution was not under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Navy, but was instead directly subordinate to the General Staff Headquarters of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA). The majority of its personnel were transferred from the Whampoa Military Academy, and the school came to refer to itself—as did others—as the "Whampoa of the Navy". Graduates of the S.M.C. were commonly known as members of the "SMC System" (Chinese: 電雷系). The college would later become the forerunner of the Republic of China Naval Academy.

According to prewar planning prior to the outbreak of the Second Sino–Japanese War, the S.M.C. was intended to operate not only motor torpedo boats, but also submarines. Although the Republic of China Navy did not field an operational submarine force until the 1960s, the Chinese Nationalist government had purchased five submarines from the Third Reich—one Type VII U-boat and four Type IIB U-boats—under the Sino-German military cooperation program. However, none of these submarines were ever delivered, and the agreement was cancelled following the end of Sino-German cooperation. The funds were later refunded by the Third Reich. Uniquely, this arrangement meant that had the Nationalist China acquired a submarine force before World War II, it would have been operated by the Army rather than the Navy—an organizational anomaly almost without precedent in modern military history.

In the early phase of the war, the S.M.C. operated a small fleet of motor torpedo boats, effectively functioning as an Army-operated torpedo boat flotilla, which existed in parallel with the Navy's own torpedo boat squadrons.

In 1938, the S.M.C. and the remaining torpedo boat forces were incorporated into the Navy Command Headquarters under the Military Affairs Commission, effectively ending the chapter of Army-managed naval operations.

## Military Police Force

[edit]

Main article: Republic of China Military Police

The National Revolutionary Army had its own military police force. The Military Police during the NRA era were not just military law enforcers — they became a crucial political tool and loyal enforcers of KMT authority.

## Ranks

[edit]

Main article: Military ranks of the Republic of China (1912–1949)

### Commissioned officer ranks

[edit]

The rank insignia of commissioned officers.

Rank group  | General officers  | Senior commissioned officers  | Junior commissioned officers

|
|
|

Early 1929[77] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
1929-1936[77] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
1936-1946[78][79] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Title  | 特級上將
Tèjí shàngjiàng | 一級上將
Yījí shàngjiàng | 二級上將
Èrjí shàngjiàng | 中將
Zhōngjiàng | 少將
Shàojiàng | 上校
Shàngxiào | 中校
Zhōngxiào | 少校
Shàoxiào | 上尉
Shàngwèi | 中尉
Zhōngwèi | 少尉
Shàowèi | 准尉
Zhǔnwèi

### Other ranks

[edit]

The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.

Rank group  | Non-commissioned officers  | Soldiers

|
|

Early 1929[77] |  |  |  |  |  |
1929-1936[77] |  |  |  |  |  |
1936-1946[79] |  |  |  |  |  |
Title  | 上士
Shàngshì | 中士
Zhōngshì | 下士
Xiàshì | 上等兵
Shàngděngbīng | 一等兵
Yīděngbīng | 二等兵
Èrděngbīng

## American-sponsored Divisions

[edit]

### Y-Force

[edit]

At the behest of Chiang Kai-shek, T. V. Soong negotiated American sponsorship for the creation of 30 modern Chinese divisions, which were to be designated as assault divisions following the fall of Burma. This initiative was implemented concurrently with the formation of Y Force, the Chinese expeditionary force in Burma.[80]

The structure of Y-Force divisions was largely based on the 1942 NRA division template but included several enhancements. These included expanded staff—particularly in communications—as well as an anti-tank rifle squad equipped with two rifles, standard issue radios, and Bren light machine guns. The number of mortars per division was increased from 36 to 54 to compensate for the limited availability of heavy artillery. Requests by the Chinese Military Affairs Commission for additional support personnel and divisional artillery were denied by American authorities, and the concept of grouping the 30 divisions into a unified Y-Force command was never realised.

Command of the Y-Force was divided among three leaders: General Chen Cheng led the largest contingent of 15 divisions, Long Yun commanded 5, and 9 divisions remained under Chiang Kai-shek's direct control.[80] Prior to the Salween offensive, each division was allocated 36 bazookas, although actual distribution fell short due to shortages in rocket supply.[81]

Long Yun, warlord and Governor of Yunnan, inspecting members of the Chinese Expeditionary Force. Y-Force Strength – March 1943[80] Army  | Old Strength  | New Strength  | Actual Strength  | Reinforcements en route

|
|
|
|

Chinese Expeditionary Force (Chen Cheng)  |  |  |  |
XI Group Army  | 107,200  | 124,300  | 55,550  | 49,000
XX Group Army  | 56,400  | 61,100  | 30,600  | 15,000
Subtotal | 163,600  | 185,400  | 86,100  | 64,000
Yunnan–Indochina Force (Long Yun)  |  |  |  |
I Group Army  | 20,400  | 20,400  | 15,650  | 4,650
IX Group Army  | 56,400  | 71,400  | 18,400  | 9,290
Subtotal | 66,800  | 91,800  | 34,050  | 13,940
Reserve Army (Chiang Kai-shek)  |  |  |  |
V Group Army  | 125,200  | 131,220  | 86,785  | 37,269
Grand Total | 355,600  | 408,420  | 206,935  | 115,209

Due to the ongoing intensity of combat operations, Chinese divisions were severely under-strength. Although Chiang pledged to dispatch over 110,000 reinforcements, additional troops were not delivered in sufficient numbers. Nonetheless, Y-Force eventually expanded to over 300,000 troops, with sufficient stocks of rifles, mortars, and machine guns.[81]

A typical Y-Force division had an authorised strength of 10,790 personnel, equipped with:

* 4,174 rifles
* 270 submachine guns
* 270 light machine guns
* 54 medium machine guns
* 27 anti-tank rifles
* 36 bazookas
* 81 x 60mm mortars
* 30 x 82mm mortars

This represented a major improvement over the earlier 1942 division model, especially in terms of equipment. Some divisions were also equipped with dedicated anti-tank companies armed with guns ranging from 20mm to 47mm calibre.

Army-level support elements included over 3,000 horses and mules, 16 trucks, 8,404 additional personnel, 21 extra machine guns, one artillery battalion (12 guns), and one anti-tank battalion (4 guns). However, due to logistical difficulties in airlifting heavy equipment over The Hump, many artillery and anti-tank weapons did not arrive until late 1943 or early 1944.[82]

Chinese troops operating Stuart tanks in Burma—made possible by Allied logistical support in the theatre.

### 30 Division Force

[edit]

General Joseph Stilwell envisioned the creation of a 90-division Chinese regular army. The initial 30 divisions were those of Y-Force, tasked with re-opening the Burma Road. This would in turn enable the training and supply of another 30 divisions via direct logistics delivery. The remaining 30 divisions were to be lighter garrison units. The remainder of the Chinese Army would be gradually demobilised or used to fill gaps and serve as reinforcements, reducing the overall demand for resources and equipment.

In July 1943, the United States War Department agreed to equip the initial 30 divisions and an additional 10% of the next batch, designated as "Z-Force". Stilwell proposed reallocating existing forces in eastern China into this 90-division structure but faced resistance from Chinese authorities, who preferred that American Lend-Lease aid be used to bolster existing units. He reiterated the plan, adding a proposal for one or two armoured divisions, all to be activated by January 1945, contingent on the opening of the Burma Road.

However, following the Cairo Conference, American and British forces failed to agree on an amphibious landing in Burma. As a result, with the Japanese still controlling the region, the Burma Road remained closed, and Stilwell's plan was ultimately shelved.[83]

U.S.-Sponsored Armies and Their Condition – Late 1945[83] Army (3 Divisions Each)  | Strength  | % Equipped  | Combat Efficiency  | Location

|
|
|
|

New 1st Army  | 43,231  | 100%  | Excellent  | Gaoling, Guangxi
2nd Army  | 23,545  | 100%  | Satisfactory  | Baoshan, Yunnan
5th Army  | 35,528  | 88%  | Satisfactory  | Kunming, Yunnan
New 6th Army  | 43,519  | 100%  | Excellent  | Zhijiang, Hubei
8th Army  | 34,942  | 93%  | Satisfactory  | Bose, Guangxi
13th Army  | 30,677  | 88%  | Satisfactory  | Lipu, Guangxi
18th Army  | 30,106  | 99%  | Very Satisfactory  | Yuanling, Hunan
53rd Army  | 34,465  | 30%  | Unknown  | Midu, Yunnan
54th Army  | 31,285  | 100%  | Satisfactory  | Wunming, Guangxi
71st Army  | 30,547  | 96%  | Very Satisfactory  | Liuzhou, Guangxi
73rd Army  | 28,963  | 100%  | Satisfactory  | Xinhua, Hunan
74th Army  | 32,166  | 100%  | Very Satisfactory  | Shanshuwan, Sichuan
94th Army  | 37,531  | 79%  | Very Satisfactory  | Guilin, Guangxi
Total | 436,505  | —  | —  | —

## Strength and Distribution in Early 1937

[edit]

Distribution of NRA Soldiers Within China[84] Province  | Central Government Troops  | Warlord Troops  | Provincial Troops  | Total

|
|
|
|

Hopei (excluding the East Hopei Autonomous Government)  | 51,000  | 39,800  | 12,000  | 102,800
Chahar | —  | 17,000  | —  | 17,000
Shansi | 17,000  | 43,800  | 9,000  | 69,800
Shantung | —  | 55,500  | 8,000  | 63,500
Suiyuan | 20,500  | 30,700  | —  | 61,200
Shensi | 100,000  | 39,000  | 8,000  | 147,000
Kansu | 63,000  | —  | —  | 63,000
Ninghsia | 27,000  | —  | —  | 27,000
Tsinghai | 12,000  | —  | 11,000  | 23,000
Sinkiang | —  | —  | 24,800  | 24,800
Chekiang | 52,000  | —  | 8,800  | 60,800
Kiangsi | 49,000  | —  | —  | 49,000
Honan | 113,300  | 16,000  | —  | 129,300
Anhwei | 54,000  | 16,000  | 3,000  | 73,000
Hupeh | 72,000  | —  | 10,000  | 82,000
Kiangsu | 109,400  | 9,000  | —  | 118,400
Hunan | 68,000  | —  | —  | 68,000
Szechwan | 26,000  | 126,600  | —  | 152,600
Sikang | —  | 16,000  | —  | 16,000
Kweichow | 36,000  | —  | —  | 36,000
Hokkien | 60,000  | 12,000  | —  | 72,000
Kwangtung | 42,000  | 51,000  | —  | 93,000
Kwangsi | —  | 54,000  | —  | 54,000
Yunnan | —  | 21,900  | —  | 21,900
Total: China | 972,200  | 519,700  | 94,600  | 1,586,500
Chiang Kai-shek and Soong Mei-ling reviewing troops during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

(Former Northeastern Army troops are included under the "Central Government" column, following the arrest of Chang Hsueh-liang after the Xi'an Incident.)

The categorisation above reflects administrative alignment as recorded at the time and does not necessarily indicate actual loyalty or operational control.

An alternative breakdown, provided by Field—a U.S. military analyst—in July 1937 (figures in brackets were given by Bin Shih):[85]

Formations and Allegiances of NRA Forces[85][86] Formations*  | Chiang's Army  | Loyal to Chiang  | Semi-autonomous Provincial Troops under Chiang  | Conditionally Loyal (Anti-Japanese Only)  | Useless or Disloyal Troops  | CCP Forces and Manchurian Partisans

|
|
|
|
|
|

Armies / Route Armies  | 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th, 13th, 16th, 25th  | 4th, 7th, 11th, 15th, 17th, 26th  | 3rd, 19th, 33rd, 34th, 35th  | 29th, 32nd, 33rd, 53rd, 63rd  | 10th Route Army (21,900)  | —
Divisions  | 1st–4th, 9th, Nanjing divisions  | —  | —  | 16 divisions of the Northeastern Army | —  | —
Unassigned Troops  | —  | —  | 100,000 Guangdong troops  | —  | 60,000–90,000 Guangxi regulars and irregulars; 250,000 Sichuan troops  | 150,000 CCP troops; 150,000 Manchurian partisans (likely overstated)
Total Strengths | 380,000  | 520,000  | 300,000  | 278,100  | 421,900  | 300,000

*Note: Not all formations had clearly defined loyalties; therefore, this list does not represent a comprehensive enumeration of NRA units.

## Arsenals of the NRA

[edit]

The following arsenals were established prior to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War.[87]

### Kunghsien Arsenal

[edit]

Established in 1915 in Honan, the arsenal was taken over by the Central Government in 1930, with full-scale production resuming in 1931. By that time, it employed 2,400 workers and was producing 1,800 rifles, 12 Maxim guns, and 20,000 grenades per month. By 1934, rifle production had increased to 3,200 per month.

### Kiangnan Arsenal

[edit]

Originally established in 1865 in Shanghai, the arsenal came under Central Government control in 1927. In 1931, monthly output included eight 75mm mountain guns, 31 Type Triple-Ten machine guns, three million cartridges, and 600 pounds of smokeless powder. However, following the demilitarisation of Shanghai after the January 28 Incident in 1932, the arsenal ceased full operation. Light machinery was relocated, while heavier equipment remained until 1937.

### Hanyang Arsenal

[edit]

Founded in 1895 in Hupeh, this arsenal was brought under Central Government authority in 1926. Between 1895 and 1938, it produced a total of 876,316 Type 88 rifles. In 1934 alone, it also manufactured 240 Type Triple-Ten machine guns and four 75mm field guns.

### T’aiyuan Arsenal

[edit]

Established in 1898 in Shansi, this arsenal was later expanded by Yen Hsi-shan. By 1930, monthly production included 500 pistols, 1,500 rifles, 50 machine guns, and 300 mortars. Although theoretically capable of producing 30 mountain guns per month, none were actually in production. Due to a decline in quality, the Central Government seized the machinery in 1937 for redistribution to other arsenals.

### Chinling Arsenal

[edit]

Located in Nanking and founded in 1865, this facility came under Central Government control in 1927. By 1936, after renewed investment, it was producing 610 machine guns, 3.6 million cartridges, 480 mortars, 204,000 mortar shells, and 34,000 gas masks annually.

### Kwangtung Arsenal

[edit]

Established in 1874, its output in 1917 included 600 rifles, 500,000 cartridges, and six machine guns. However, by 1935, quality control had deteriorated, and an inspection revealed that only 10% of cartridges met inspection standards. The arsenal was taken over by the Central Government following the defection of Yu Han-mou to Nanking during the Liang-Kwang incident.

### Szechwan Arsenal / Chungking Arms Depot

[edit]

First established in 1878 in Szechwan, this arsenal produced 15,000 rifles, 7.5 million cartridges, and 45,000 pounds of smokeless powder annually by 1913. Owing to ongoing regional conflict, it was relocated to Chungking in 1932. In 1933, it produced 6,000 KE7 light machine guns.

### Tsinan Arsenal

[edit]

Situated in Shantung, this arsenal was, by the mid-1930s, producing 3 million cartridges and 60,000 grenades each month.

## Equipment

[edit]

For a more comprehensive list, see List of Chinese military equipment in World War II.

See also: Development of Chinese armoured forces (1927–45) and Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)

A Chinese Nationalist Army soldier equipped with a German M35 helmet and a ZB vz. 26. German-equipped Chinese troops practising marching drills at the Chinese Military Academy in Chengtu in 1944.

In the regular provincial divisions, the standard-issue rifle was the Hanyang 88—a Chinese-produced variant of the German Gewehr 88. Divisions under the Central Government were typically equipped with the Chiang Kai-shek rifle and other Mauser-pattern rifles imported from Germany, Belgium, and the Czechoslovak Republic. The primary light machine gun in service was either imported or domestically produced and modelled on the Czech Brno ZB vz. 26, chambered in the standard 7.92 mm cartridge.

Other types of machine guns were sourced from Belgium, France, and through the Soviet Aid Programme. Typically, each infantry company fielded between six and nine light machine guns, with a monthly ammunition allocation of roughly 5,000 rounds—sufficient for around five days of combat operations.

Heavy machine guns were mainly of the locally produced Type 24 Maxim gun—a water-cooled variant of the German MG08—and the Type Triple-Ten, a version of the M1917 Browning machine gun chambered for the 8 mm Mauser round. On average, each Central Army battalion had a machine gun company equipped with five or six heavy machine guns and received a monthly supply of 20,000 rounds.

The standard sidearm for officers and non-commissioned officers was the 7.63 mm Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistol. Submachine guns were not officially included in the tables of organisation and equipment, but were nonetheless present—either locally produced or acquired from disbanded warlord armies. These were often carried by bodyguards assigned to divisional or corps commanders and in special service platoons or companies. Elite formations such as the X Force in the Burma theatre were equipped with modern Lend-Lease arms from the United States.

US-equipped Chinese Army in India on the march.

Most provincial divisions lacked artillery entirely. However, some Central Army divisions were furnished with 37 mm PaK 35/36 anti-tank guns, as well as anti-aircraft weapons from Oerlikon, Madsen, and Solothurn. Ideally, each division was equipped with six French Brandt 81 mm mortars and six Solothurn 20 mm autocannons.

Independent brigades and artillery regiments were sometimes armed with Krupp 75 mm L/29 field guns, Krupp 75 mm L/14, or Bofors 75 mm L/20 mountain guns. Additionally, 24 Rheinmetall 150 mm L/32 sFH 18 howitzers (purchased in 1934) and 24 Krupp 150 mm L/30 sFH 18 howitzers (acquired in 1936) were in service.

At the outset of hostilities, the National Revolutionary Army and the Tax Police Regiment maintained three tank battalions equipped with German Panzer I light tanks and Italian CV-35 tankettes. After their defeat in the Battle of Shanghai, the remaining tanks—along with several hundred Soviet-supplied T-26 and BT-5 tanks—were consolidated into the newly formed 200th Division.

Infantry uniforms were modified versions of the Zhongshan suit. Puttees were worn by both soldiers and officers, reflecting the infantry's primarily foot-mobile nature. Each soldier was issued a field cap, while helmets were the most distinctive piece of kit. Between 1935 and 1936, the NRA imported 315,000 German M35 Stahlhelms, often adorned with the Blue Sky with a White Sun emblem of the Republic of China. These helmets were used by both German-trained and regular Central Army divisions.

Other helmets in use included the French Adrian helmet, the British Brodie helmet, and later, the American M1 helmet. Footwear included straw shoes for provincial troops, cloth shoes for Central Army soldiers, and leather boots for officers. Standard kit for every soldier included ammunition pouches or harnesses, a water flask, bayonet, ration bag, and a gas mask.

## See also

[edit]

* China portal
* Taiwan portal

* Whampoa Military Academy
* List of German-trained divisions of the National Revolutionary Army
* Sino-German cooperation until 1941
* Military history of the Republic of China
* Douglas MacArthur

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Close Sino-German ties also promoted cooperation between the Nationalist Government and Nazi Germany in the early-to-mid 1930s. However, despite the early diplomatic honeymoon between Nationalist China and Nazi Germany, the Sino-German relationship rapidly deteriorated as Germany failed to pursue a detente between China and Japan, which led to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. China later declared war on fascist countries, including Germany, Italy, and Japan, as part of the Declarations of war during World War II and became the most powerful "anti-fascist" nation in Asia.[1]

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84. ^ Ness, Leland S. (2016). Kangzhan: Guide to Chinese Ground Forces 1937–45. Bin Shih. Solihull, West Midlands, England. ISBN 978-1-910294-42-0. OCLC 898163587.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
85. ^ a b Jowett, Philip S. (2013). China's Wars: Rousing the Dragon, 1894–1949. Oxford. pp. 331–334\. ISBN 978-1-78200-407-3. OCLC 828893085.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
86. ^ Ness, Leland S. (2016). Kangzhan: Guide to Chinese Ground Forces 1937–45. Bin Shih. Solihull, West Midlands, England. pp. 742–755\. ISBN 978-1-910294-42-0. OCLC 898163587.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
87. ^ Ness, Leland S. (2016). Kangzhan: Guide to Chinese Ground Forces 1937–45. Bin Shih. Solihull, West Midlands, England. ISBN 978-1-910294-42-0. OCLC 898163587.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

### Sources

[edit]

* Mollo, Andrew (2001). The Armed Forces of World War II: Uniforms, Insignia & Organisation. Leicester: Silverdale books. ISBN 1-85605-603-1.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Dreyer, Edward L. (1995) China at War 1901–1949 (reprint Routledge, 2014)
* Jowett, Philip. (2013) China's Wars: Rousing the Dragon 1894–1949 (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013).
* Li, Xiaobing. (2012) China at War: An Encyclopedia excerpt
* Lynch, Dr Michael, The Chinese Civil War 1945–49: Modern Warfare (Guide To... Book 61) Osprey Publishing (2010), ISBN 978 1 4728 1025 0
* Jowett, Philip (2005). The Chinese Army 1937-49 World War II and Civil War (PDF). Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-904-5.

## External links

[edit]

* ROC Ministry of National Defense Official Website (archived 6 July 2008)
* The Armed Forces Museum of ROC
* Information and pictures of Nationalist Revolutionary Army weapons and equipment
* rare pictures of NRA heavy armoury
* more pictures of NRA (archived 28 September 2007)

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National Revolutionary Army

* Army groups
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Kuomintang

History|

* History of the Kuomintang
* History of the Kuomintang cultural policy
* National Revolutionary Army
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Founders|

* Song Jiaoren
* Sun Yat-sen
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Ideology|

* Chinese unification
* Chiangism
* Dang Guo
* Democratic centralism
* Five Races Under One Union
* Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang
* Three Principles of the People
* Zhonghua minzu

Leaders|

* Sun Yat-sen
* Song Jiaoren
* Zhang Renjie
* Chiang Kai-shek
* Hu Hanmin
* Wang Jingwei
* Chiang Ching-kuo
* Lee Teng-hui
* Lien Chan
* Ma Ying-jeou
* Wu Po-hsiung
* Chiang Pin-kung
* Wu Den-yih
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* Hung Hsiu-chu
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* Wu Den-yih
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* Johnny Chiang

Party congress|

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* 12th (1981)
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* 14th (1993)
* 15th (1997)
* 16th (2001)
* 17th (2005)
* 18th (2009)
* 19th (2013)
* 20th (2017)
* 21st (2021)

Leadership elections|

* 2001
* 2005
* 2007 (b)
* 2009
* 2013
* 2015 (b)
* 2016 (b)
* 2017
* 2020 (b)
* 2021
* 2025

Significant venues|

* Huguang Guild Hall
* Presidential Palace (Nanjing)

See also|

* List of assets owned by the Kuomintang
* 2019 Kuomintang presidential primary

Notes: Acting leaders italicised ; By-elections denoted with (b)

* v
* t
* e

Chinese Civil War

Principal belligerents and campaigns
Nationalist Party /  National Government ( National Revolutionary Army) → Constitutional ROC Government (ROC Armed Forces) → Republic of China on Taiwan

* * *

Communist Party /  Soviet Republic ( Red Army) → Liberated Area ( 8th Route Army, New Fourth Army, etc. → People's Liberation Army) → People's Republic of China

| Pre-1945| Post-1945

|

|  1923|  Sun–Joffe Manifesto

|

1924|  First United Front
1926|  Canton Coup
1927–1949|  Chinese Communist Revolution
1927|  Nanking incident
Shanghai Commune
Shanghai massacre
Nanjing–Wuhan split
715 Incident
Little Long March
Nanchang uprising
Autumn Harvest Uprising
Guangzhou Uprising
1930–1934|  Li Lisan line
Encirclement campaigns
1931–1934|  Chinese Soviet Republic
1933–1934|  Fujian People's Government
1934–1936|  Long March
1936|  Xi'an Incident
1937–1946|  Second United Front (Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists)
1941|  New Fourth Army incident
1944|  Dixie Mission

|  1945|  Chongqing Negotiations
Double Tenth Agreement
Retrocession of Taiwan

|

1946|  Jiaochangkou Incident
Peiping rape case
1945–1947|  Marshall Mission
1945–1949|  Operation Beleaguer
1947|  Yu Zisan Incident
1948|  SS Kiangya incident
Liaoshen campaign
1948–1949|  Huaihai campaign
Pingjin campaign
1949|  Taiping Steamer Incident
Yangtze River Crossing campaign
Amethyst Incident
ROC Government retreat to Taiwan
PRC incorporation of Xinjiang
1949–1953|  Bombing of Shanghai
1950|  Hainan Island campaign
Wanshan Archipelago Campaign

1950–1958|  Kuomintang Islamic insurgency
1961–1972|  Project National Glory

* v
* t
* e

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

Background

* Nanjing decade
* Chinese Civil War
* Mukden Incident
* Japanese invasion of Manchuria
* Pacification of Manchukuo
* January 28 incident
* Defense of the Great Wall
* Battle of Rehe
* Tanggu Truce
* Inner Mongolia Campaign
* 1935 currency reform
* North Chahar incident
* He–Umezu Agreement
* Chin–Doihara Agreement
* August 1 Declaration
* December 9th Movement
* Hebei–Chahar Political Council
* Wayaobu Manifesto
* Suiyuan campaign
* Xi'an Incident
* Second United Front
* Marco Polo Bridge Incident

Participants

| Governments|

| Chinese|

* Republic of China
* Kuomintang
* Communist China
* Chinese Communist Party

|

Japanese and collaborators|

* Empire of Japan
* Manchukuo
* Mengjiang
* East Hebei Autonomous Government
* Great Way Government
* Provisional Chinese Government
* Reformed Chinese Government
* Wang Jingwei regime

Armed forces|

| Chinese|

* Nationalist Armed Forces
* Army
* Air Force
* Navy
* Marine Corps
* Communist Armed Forces
* Eighth Route Army
* New Fourth Army
* Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army

|

Japanese and collaborators|

* Imperial Japanese Armed Forces
* Army
* Army Air Service
* Navy
* Navy Air Service
* Naval Infantry
* Manchukuo Armed Forces
* Army
* Air Force
* Navy
* Guards
* Inner Mongolian Army
* East Hebei Army
* Collaborationist Chinese Army

Political leaders|

| Chinese|

* Chiang Kai-shek
* Mao Zedong
* Lin Sen
* Kung Hsiang-hsi
* Soong Tse-ven
* He Yingqin
* Chen Cheng
* Zhang Wentian
* Wang Ruofei
* Ren Bishi

|

Japanese and collaborators|

* Hirohito
* Fumimaro Konoe
* Kiichirō Hiranuma
* Nobuyuki Abe
* Mitsumasa Yonai
* Hideki Tojo
* Kuniaki Koiso
* Kantarō Suzuki
* Naruhiko Higashikuni
* Seishirō Itagaki
* Shunroku Hata
* Korechika Anami
* Mitsumasa Yonai
* Zengo Yoshida
* Shigetarō Shimada
* Puyi
* Zhang Jinghui
* Yu Zhishan
* Demchugdongrub
* Wang Jingwei
* Chen Gongbo
* Chi Zongmo
* Wang Kemin
* Liang Hongzhi
* Ren Yuandao
* Bao Wenyue

Military leaders|

| Chinese|

* Bai Chongxi
* Yan Xishan
* Sun Li-jen
* Ma Zhanshan

|

Japanese and collaborators|

* Prince Kan'in Kotohito
* Hajime Sugiyama
* Yoshijirō Umezu
* Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu
* Osami Nagano
* Soemu Toyoda
* Koshirō Oikawa
* Li Shouxin
* Ye Peng
* Yang Kuiyi

Course of War

| Campaigns|

* Battle of Shanghai
* Battle of Jianqiao
* Bloody Saturday
* Battle of Taiyuan
* Battle of Nanjing
* Bombing of Chongqing
* Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan
* Battle of Wuhan
* Battle of Xuzhou
* Battle of Nanchang
* Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang
* 1939 Changsha campaign
* First Guangxi campaign
* 1939–1940 Winter Offensive
* Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang
* Hundred Regiments Offensive
* Battle of South Henan
* Battle of Shanggao
* Battle of South Shanxi
* 1941 Changsha campaign
* 1941-1942 Changsha campaign
* Japanese invasion of Burma
* Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign
* Linnan campaign
* Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan
* Battle of West Hubei
* Changde campaign
* 1944 Burma campaign
* Operation Ichi-Go
* 1944-1945 Burma campaign
* West Henan–North Hubei campaign
* Zhijiang campaign
* Second Guangxi campaign
* Battle of Lanfeng
* Battle of Central Henan
* 1944 Battle of Changsha
* Siege of Myitkyina
* Battle of Mount Song
* Battle of Hengyang
* Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou

|

Incidents|

* Tientsin Incident (1931)
* January 28 incident
* Pingdingshan massacre
* North Chahar incident
* Xi'an Incident
* Murder of Pamela Werner
* Marco Polo Bridge Incident
* Langfang Incident
* Guanganmen incident
* Tongzhou mutiny
* Zhengding Missionary Murder
* Nanking Massacre
* USS Panay incident
* Kweilin incident
* 1938 Dalfram dispute
* Tientsin Incident (1939)
* Kaimingjie germ weapon attack
* Execution of Huang Yiguang
* New Fourth Army incident
* Panjiayu massacre
* Rape of Nancheng
* Zhejiang-Jiangxi massacres
* Changjiao massacre
* Gegenmiao massacre

Political events|

* Nine Power Treaty Conference
* Konoe Declarations
* Yan'an Rectification Movement
* Cairo Conference
* United Nations Conference on International Organization
* Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance
* Hirohito surrender broadcast
* Chongqing Negotiations
* Surrender of Japan

Aftermath

* Occupation of Japan
* Double Tenth Agreement
* Retrocession of Taiwan

*     * Retrocession Day
* Chinese Communist Revolution
* Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance
* Treaty of San Francisco
* Treaty of Taipei
* Murayama Statement
* Chinese hyperinflation

* Related topics

| Lists|

* Aerial engagements
* Army groups of the National Revolutionary Army
* Japanese Aircraft
* Japanese armoured fighting vehicles
* Japanese campaigns
* Japanese infantry weapons
* Military engagements

|

Military|

* Anti-Japanese resistance volunteers in China
* American Volunteer Group
* Flying Tigers
* Soviet Volunteer Group
* Soviet invasion of Manchuria

Political|

* Sino-German cooperation
* Free China
* Lend-Lease
* Declaration by United Nations

Others|

* Japanese propaganda
* Kumul Rebellion
* On Practice
* People's war
* On Protracted War
* Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War
* Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan
* Ip Man
* 1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet
* Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
* Dixie Mission
* Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists
* Stubborn Army

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