Natural disasters in India

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Disaster-prone regions in India. | Map showing winds zones, shaded by distribution of average speeds of prevailing winds.

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Natural calamities in India, many of them related to the climate of India, causes of the massive losses of life and property. Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes, flooding, volcanic eruption, landslides, hurricanes etc. In order to be classified as a disaster, it will need to have a profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs a financial loss.[1] Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India[2] and deposit large amounts of dust and dirt from arid regions. Hail is also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat and many more crops and effects many people.

## Landslides and avalanches

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Landslides are very common in the Lower Himalayas. The young age of the region's hills results in rock formations, which are susceptible to slippages. Rising population and development pressures, particularly from logging and tourism, cause deforestation. The result is denuded hillsides which exacerbate the severity of landslides; since tree, cover impedes the downhill flow of water.[3] Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low-intensity landslides. Avalanches occurrences are common in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Sikkim etc. Landslides in India are also highly dangerous as many Indian families and farmers reside in the hills or mountains.

## Floods in India

[edit]

Main article: Floods in India

Floods are the most common natural disaster in India. The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, the floods can kill thousands and displace millions. Excess, erratic, or untimely monsoon rainfall may also wash away or otherwise ruin crops.[4][5] mostly that of all of India is flood-prone, and extremely precipitation events, such as flash floods and torrential rains, have become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades, coinciding with rising temperatures. Meanwhile, the annual precipitation totals have shown a gradual decline, due to a weakening monsoon circulation[6] as a result of the rapid warming in the Indian Ocean[7] and a reduced land-sea temperature difference. This means that there are more extreme rainfall events intermittent with longer dry spells over central India in the recent decades.

## Cyclones in India

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The Intertropical Convergence Zone may affect thousands of Indians living in the coastal regions. Tropical cyclogenesis is particularly common in the northern reaches of the Indian Ocean in and around the Bay of Bengal. Cyclones bring with them heavy rains, storm surges, and winds that often cut affected areas off from relief and supplies. In the North Indian Ocean Basin, the cyclone season runs from April to December, with peak activity between May and November.[8] Each year, an average of eight storms with sustained wind speeds greater than 63 kilometres per hour (39 mph) form; of these, two strengthen into true tropical cyclones, which have sustained gusts greater than 117 kilometres per hour (73 mph). On average, a major (Category 3 or higher) cyclone develops every other year.[9][10]

During summer, the Bay of Bengal is subject to intense heating, giving rise to humid and unstable air masses that produce cyclones. Many powerful cyclones, including the 1737 Calcutta cyclone, the 1970 Bhola cyclone, the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone, the 1999 Odisha cyclone, and 2019s Cyclone Fani in Odisha and Cyclone Vayu in Gujarat, have led to widespread devastation along parts of the eastern coast of India and neighboring Bangladesh. Widespread death and property destruction are reported every year in exposed Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. India's western coast, bordering the more placid Arabian Sea, experiences cyclones only rarely; these mainly strike Gujarat and, less frequently, Kerala and sometimes Odisha.

In terms of damage and loss of life, the 1999 Odisha cyclone, a super cyclone that struck Odisha on 29 October 1999, was the worst in more than a quarter-century. With peak winds of 160 miles per hour (257 km/h), it was the equivalent of a Category 5 hurricane.[11] Almost two million people were left homeless;[12] another 20 million people's lives were disrupted by the cyclone.[12] Officially, 9,803 people died from the storm;[11] unofficial estimates place the death toll at over 10,100.[12]

In terms of damage and asset destruction, Cyclone Amphan,[13] a super cyclone that struck West Bengal, Odisha and Bangladesh on 20 May 2020 is, as of that date, the worst in India in the 21st century. With peak winds of 260 kilometres per hour (162 mph) to 280 kilometres per hour (174 mph), it was the equivalent of a Category 5 hurricane.[11] Almost 5 million (50 lakh) people are left homeless in West Bengal, Odisha and Bangladesh;[13] another 10 million (1 crore) people's lives were disrupted by the cyclone. Officially, 128 people died from the storm. Official damage and asset destruction estimate is 13.40 to 13.69 billion US Dollars;[14] it is the costliest and most damaging cyclone ever to occur in the Bay of Bengal.

2021 Cyclone Tauktae killed at least 104 people, the highest in a decade.[15]

## Climate change impacts on environment

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Main article: Effects of climate change in India

### Monsoon

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The Indian meteorological department has declared that water cycle will be more intense, with higher annual average rainfall as well increased drought in future years.[16] A 20% rise in monsoon over most states is also predicted.[17] A 2 °C rise in global average temperature will make Indian monsoon highly unpredictable.[18] At 4 °C an extremely wet monsoon which currently has a 1 in 100 year's chance will occur in every 10 years by 2100. Extremes in maximum and minimum temperatures and precipitation will increase particularly over western coast and central and north-east India.[19] The dry years are expected to be drier and wet years wetter due to Climate Change.

### Rivers and glaciers

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The per capital availability of freshwater in India is expected to drop below 1000 cubic meters by 2025 because of population growth and climate change. River basins of Kaveri, Penna, Mahi, Sabarmati, Tapi, Luni and few others are already water scarce. Krishna and Subarnarekha may become so by 2025. High population density, coastal flooding and saltwater intrusion and exposure to storm surges makes Ganga, Godavari, Krishna and Mahanadi coastal river deltas "hotspots" of climate change vulnerability.[16]
Glaciers are the main source of water for the Himalayan Rivers such as Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus. 67% of Himalayan glaciers have receded in the past decade and continue to diminish with increasing rates. The Ganga and the Indus are likely to become water scarce by 2025.[20] Since 1962, the overall glacier area has reduced by 21% from 2077 km2 to 1628 km2. This will lead to water shortages becoming acuter with time and may endanger food security and energy generation.[21]

### Sea level rise

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Rise in sea temperature and sea level leads to loss of marine ecosystems and biodiversity, salination, erosion and flooding and also increases occurrence and intensity of storms along entire shoreline. Climate Change impacts are already observed in submergence of coastal lands in the Sundarbans,[22] loss of wetlands[23] and of coral reefs by bleaching,[24] and an estimated sea level rise of 1.06 - 1.75 mm/year.[citation needed] Low-end scenarios estimate sea levels in Asia will be at least 40  cm higher by 2100. The IPCC calculates that it would expose 13–94 million people to flooding, with about 60% of this total in South Asia. A sea-level rise of 100 cm would inundate 5,763 cubic km of India's landmass.[25] It will severely affect populations in megacities like Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai due to land submergence and extreme weather events.[26] Increase in sea surface temperature increases frequency, intensity, scale and destructive power of tropical cyclones.[27]

### Droughts, heatwaves and storms

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500Mha land in the Asia Pacific region is already experiencing land degradation.[28] The summers have already become more intense in India with some regions regularly reporting temperatures around 47 °C.[29] In the last four years, India has seen as many as over 4,620 deaths caused by heat waves, according to data published by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India.[30] Indian Meteorological Department declared that the storm that hit northern India in May 2018 was severe and their frequency could increase due to global warming. This is due to an increase in the intensity of the wind and dryness of the soil which increases the intensity of dust storms. The rise in land surface temperature will be more pronounced in the northern part of India. A recent study reports that summers could last up to 8 months in the Gangetic plain by 2070 if the global temperature increases beyond 2 °C.[31] Increasingly severe and frequent Heat waves may substantially increase mortality and death incidences.[32] Such warming conditions along with the water scarcities aggravates the impacts of droughts.[33]

## Disaster response agencies

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* National Disaster Management Authority (India)
* National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), a union force under NDMA
* Odisha Disaster Rapid Action Force (ODRAF)
* State Disaster Response Force (Assam)
* Tamil Nadu State Disaster Management Authority (TNSDMA)

## See also

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* Ecology portal
* India portal

* Climate change in South Asia
* Floods in India

## Citations

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1. ^ Goswami BN, Venugopal V, Sengupta D, Madhusoodanan MS, Xavier PK (2006). "Increasing trend of extreme rain events over India in a warming environment". Science. 314 (5804): 1442–1445\. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1442G. doi:10.1126/science.1132027. PMID 17138899. S2CID 43711999.
2. ^ Balfour 1976, p. 995 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBalfour1976 (help).
3. ^ Allaby 1998, p. 26 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAllaby1998 (help).
4. ^ Allaby 1998, p. 42 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAllaby1998 (help).
5. ^ Allaby 1998, p. 15 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAllaby1998 (help).
6. ^ Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Murtugudde, Raghu; Ashok, Karumuri; Goswami, B. N. (2015-06-16). "Drying of Indian subcontinent by rapid Indian Ocean warming and a weakening land-sea thermal gradient". Nature Communications. 6: 7423. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.7423R. doi:10.1038/ncomms8423. PMID 26077934. Archived from the original on 2019-09-01. Retrieved 2019-09-01.
7. ^ Roxy, Mathew Koll; Ritika, Kapoor; Terray, Pascal; Masson, Sébastien (2014-09-11). "The Curious Case of Indian Ocean Warming" (PDF). Journal of Climate. 27 (22): 8501–8509\. Bibcode:2014JCli...27.8501R. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00471.1. ISSN 0894-8755. S2CID 42480067. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-09-03. Retrieved 2019-06-29.
8. ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. "Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season?". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
9. ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. "Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on July 18, 2006. Retrieved July 25, 2006.
10. ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. "Frequently Asked Questions: What are the average, most, and least tropical cyclones occurring in each basin?". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2012-07-31. Retrieved 2006-07-25.
11. ^ a b c "Tropical Cyclone 05B" (PDF). Naval Maritime Forecast Center (Joint Typhoon Warning Center). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-07. Retrieved 2007-04-08.
12. ^ a b c "1999 Supercyclone of Orissa". BAPS Care International. 2005. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-04-08.
13. ^ a b "2020 Supercyclone Amphhan". The Times of India. 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-06-04. Retrieved 2020-06-05.
14. ^ "US Dollar". Archived from the original on 2020-05-22. Retrieved 2020-06-05.
15. ^ "Explained: How does Tauktae compare with other cyclones in severity and damage?". The Indian Express. 2021-05-27. Archived from the original on 2021-06-07. Retrieved 2021-09-19.
16. ^ a b "Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in India" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-03.
17. ^ Sathaye, Jayant; Shukla, Priyadarshi; H. Ravindranath, N (30 November 2005). "Climate change, sustainable development and India: Global and national concerns". Curr Sci. 90 – via ResearchGate.
18. ^ "High-resolution climate change scenarios for India for the 21st century" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-03.
19. ^ "India: Climate Change Impacts". Archived from the original on 2018-07-03. Retrieved 2018-07-03.
20. ^ "India will be the hotspot of water crisis by 2025: UN". www.indiawaterportal.org. Archived from the original on 2018-07-03. Retrieved 2018-07-03.
21. ^ "Impact of Global Warming on the Himalayan Cryosphere" (PDF). August 7, 2023. Archived from the original on November 23, 2018.
22. ^ "Sinking Sundarbans islands underline climate crisis". 17 January 2018. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
23. ^ Sarkar, uttam; Borah, Bibha (28 June 2017). "Flood plain wetland fisheries of India: with special reference to impact of climate change". Wetlands Ecology and Management. 26: 1–15\. doi:10.1007/s11273-017-9559-6. S2CID 3807851 – via ResearchGate.
24. ^ Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove; Poloczanska, Elvira S.; Skirving, William; Dove, Sophie (8 June 2018). "Coral Reef Ecosystems under Climate Change and Ocean Acidification". Frontiers in Marine Science. 4. doi:10.3389/fmars.2017.00158.
25. ^ "10.4.3 Coastal and low lying areas – AR4 WGII Chapter 10: Asia". www.ipcc.ch. Archived from the original on 2018-07-03. Retrieved 2018-07-03.
26. ^ "Vulnerability and Climate Change: An Analysis of the Eastern Coastal Districts of India" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-13.
27. ^ Sun, Yuan; Zhong, Zhong; Li, Tim; Yi, Lan; Hu, Yijia; Wan, Hongchao; Chen, Haishan; Liao, Qianfeng; Ma, Chen; Li, Qihua (15 August 2017). "Impact of Ocean Warming on Tropical Cyclone Size and Its Destructiveness". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 8154. Bibcode:2017NatSR...7.8154S. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-08533-6. PMC 5557849. PMID 28811627.
28. ^ Ravindranath, Nijavalli H.; Sathaye, Jayant A. (11 April 2006). Climate Change and Developing Countries. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9780306479809. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2020 – via Google Books.
29. ^ "India records its hottest day ever as temperature hits 51C (that's 123.8F)". the Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 20 May 2016. Archived from the original on 23 May 2016. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
30. ^ "India's killer heatwaves claim 4620 deaths in last four years". 23 April 2017. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
31. ^ "Effects of climate change: If global warming continues, summers in India could last for 8 months by 2070, say researchers – Firstpost". www.firstpost.com. 11 January 2018. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
32. ^ "Dust storms may increase in India due to climate change". india.mongabay.com. 2018-05-08. Archived from the original on 2018-07-03. Retrieved 2018-07-03.
33. ^ Swain, S; et al. (2017). "Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India". 2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS). Vol. 2017\. pp. 5505–5507\. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250. ISBN 978-1-5090-4951-6. S2CID 26920225.

## Further reading

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* Toman, MA; Chakravorty, U; Gupta, S (2003). India and Global Climate Change: Perspectives on Economics and Policy from a Developing Country. Resources for the Future Press. ISBN 978-1-891853-61-6.

## External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Atlas of India.

General overview

* "Country Guide: India". BBC Weather. Archived from the original on 2005-05-25. Retrieved 2007-11-16.
* "India—Weather and Climate". High Commission of India, London. Archived from the original on 2008-12-01. Retrieved 2007-11-16.

Reports

* Disaster management in India Archived 2011-10-06 at the Wayback Machine

Resources on Natural Disasters

* Resources on floods Archived 2011-10-06 at the Wayback Machine
* Resources on Drought Archived 2011-08-27 at the Wayback Machine

Maps, imagery, and statistics

* "India Meteorological Department". Government of India. Archived from the original on 2014-11-04. Retrieved 2007-11-16.
* "Weather Resource System for India". National Informatics Centre. Archived from the original on 2007-04-29. Retrieved 2007-11-16.

Forecasts

* "India: Current Weather Conditions". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Archived from the original on 2007-04-25. Retrieved 2007-04-24.

* v
* t
* e

Natural disasters in India

Cyclone/flood|

| Before 1900|

* Calcutta (1737)
* Coringa (1839)
* Bengal (1876)
* Odisha (1885)
* Gohna (1894)

|

1901–2000|

* Rameswaram (1964)
* Andhra Pradesh (1977)
* Bihar (1987)
* Punjab (1988)
* Andhra Pradesh (1990)
* North India (1993)
* Odisha (1999)

2000–present|

* East India (2000)
* Maharashtra (2005)
* India (2007)
* Ladakh (2010)
* East India (2010)
* North India (2013)
* North India (2014)
* Gujarat (2015)
* South India (2015)
* Assam (2016)
* Bihar (2017)
* Gujarat (2017)
* West Bengal (2017)
* Kerala (2018)
* India (2019)
* Assam (2020)
* Hyderabad (2020)
* East India (2020)
* Uttarakhand (2021)
* Maharashtra (2021)
* South India (2021)
* Balrampur (2022)
* North India (2023)
* Himalayas (2023)
* South India (2023)
* India (2024)
* Bihar

Landslide|

* Amarnath (1996)
* Mumbai (2000)
* Malin (2014)
* Malpa (1998)
* Pettimudi (2020)
* Idukki (2020)
* Mumbai (2021)
* Manipur (2022)
* Raigad (2023)
* Uttarakhand (2023)
* Wayanad (2024)

Avalanche|

* Siachen (2016)
* Gurez (2017)
* Uttarakhand (2021)
* Uttarakhand (2022)

Earthquake|

| Before 1900|

* Lo Mustang (1505)
* Kashmir (1555)
* Garhwal (1803)
* Rann of Kutch (1819)
* Bihar (1833)
* Cachar (1869)
* Nicobar (1881)
* Kashmir (1885)
* Assam (1897)

|

1900–2000|

* Kangra (1905)
* Dhubri (1930)
* Nepal–India (1934)
* Quetta (1935)
* Andaman Islands (1941)
* Assam (1947)
* Assam (1950)
* Anjar (1956)
* Koynanagar (1967)
* Kinnaur (1975)
* Pithoragarh (1980)
* Cachar (1984)
* India (1988)
* Bihar (1988)
* Uttarkashi (1991)
* Latur (1993)
* Jabalpur (1997)
* North East (1997)
* Chamoli (1999)

2000–present|

* Gujarat (2001)
* Indian Ocean (2004)
* Kashmir (2005)
* Andaman (2009)
* Sikkim (2011)
* Nepal (April 2015)
* Nepal (May 2015)
* October Hindu Kush (2015)
* Imphal (2016)
* Sagaing (2016)
* Magway (2016)
* Tripura (2017)
* Uttarakhand (2017)
* Assam (2021)
* Nepal (2022)
* Badakhshan (2023)
* Nepal (2023)

Heat wave|

* 2002
* 2007
* 2015
* 2016
* 2019
* 2022
* 2023

Others|

* Cold wave (2017)
* Dust storm (2018)

Agencies|

* National Disaster Management Authority
* National Disaster Response Force
* Odisha Disaster Rapid Action Force
* State Disaster Response Force (Assam)
* Tamil Nadu State Disaster Management Authority

* v
* t
* e

Disasters

Overview|

* Lists
* by death toll
* by cost
* Australia
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* Canada
* China
* Croatia
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* Great Britain and Ireland
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* Taiwan
* Thailand
* United States
* Vietnam

Disasters|

* v
* t
* e

Natural disasters – list by death toll

Geological|

| Mass wasting|

* Landslide
* Avalanche
* Mudflow
* Debris flow

|

Earthquake
(List)|

* Seismic hazard
* Seismic risk
* Soil liquefaction

Volcano eruption|

* Pyroclastic flow
* Lahar
* Volcanic ash

Natural erosion|

* Sinkhole

Hydrological|

| Flood
(List)|

* Coastal flood
* Flash flood
* Storm surge

|

Other|

* Tsunami
* Megatsunami
* Limnic eruption

Meteorological|

| Temperature|

* Blizzard
* Cold wave
* Ice storm
* Heat wave

|

Drought|

* Megadrought

Cyclonic storms|

* Bomb cyclone
* Thunderstorm (Hail)
* Tornado (Tornado outbreak)
* Tropical cyclone

Other|

* Derecho
* Wildfire
* Firestorm
* ARkStorm

Astronomical|

* Potentially hazardous object
* Impact event
* Meteor shower
* Geomagnetic storm
* Solar flare
* Supernova
* Hypernova

Accidents|

| Health|

* Biosecurity
* Diseases of affluence
* Disease of despair
* Diseases of poverty
* Epidemic
* list
* Famine
* List
* Famine scales
* Opioid epidemic
* Pandemic

|

Industrial|

* Bridge
* Dam
* Infrastructure
* Levee breach
* Mast and tower
* Mining
* Oil spills
* Structural failures and collapses

Nuclear
(by death toll)|

* Civilian nuclear
* Civilian radiation
* Military nuclear

Transport|

* Air
* Maritime
* Rail
* Shipwreck
* Spaceflight

Man-made|

* Crowd collapses and crushes
* Economic crises
* Environmental disasters
* Sacrifice zone
* Military
* Nightclub fires
* Riots
* Societal collapse
* Terrorist incidents
* Wars

Preparation|

* Disaster risk reduction
* Earthquake preparedness
* Hurricane preparedness
* Safety
* Survival kit
* Anticipatory action

Countermeasures|

* Crisis management
* Disaster area
* Earthquake warning system
* Emergency Alert System
* Emergency management
* Emergency population warning
* Evacuations
* Humanitarian aid
* Hurricane response

Media|

* Disaster film (List of disaster films)

Organizations|

* Civil defense (List of civil defense organisations)
* Disaster Accountability Project
* International Association of Emergency Managers
* International Disaster and Risk Conference
* International Disaster Emergency Service

* WikiProject

* v
* t
* e

Climate change

Overview

* Causes of climate change
* Effects of climate change
* Climate change mitigation
* Climate change adaptation
* By country and region

Causes

| Overview|

* Climate system
* Greenhouse effect (Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere)
* Scientific consensus on climate change

|

Sources|

* Deforestation
* Fossil fuel
* Greenhouse gases
* Greenhouse gas emissions
* Carbon accounting
* Carbon footprint
* Carbon leakage
* from agriculture
* from wetlands
* World energy supply and consumption

History

* History of climate change policy and politics
* History of climate change science
* Svante Arrhenius
* James Hansen
* Charles David Keeling
* United Nations Climate Change conferences
* Years in climate change
* 2019
* 2020
* 2021
* 2022
* 2023
* 2024

Effects and issues

| Physical|

* Abrupt climate change
* Anoxic event
* Arctic methane emissions
* Arctic sea ice decline
* Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
* Drought
* Extreme weather
* Flood
* Coastal flooding
* Heat wave
* Marine
* Urban heat island
* Oceans
* acidification
* deoxygenation
* heat content
* sea surface temperature
* stratification
* temperature
* Ozone depletion
* Permafrost thaw
* Retreat of glaciers since 1850
* Sea level rise
* Season creep
* Climate sensitivity
* Tipping points in the climate system
* Tropical cyclones
* Water cycle
* Wildfires

|

Flora and fauna|

* Biomes
* Mass mortality event
* Birds
* Extinction risk
* Forest dieback
* Invasive species
* Marine life
* Plant biodiversity

Social and economic|

* Agriculture
* Livestock
* Multi-breadbasket failure
* In the United States
* Children
* Cities
* Civilizational collapse
* Crime
* Depopulation of settlements
* Destruction of cultural heritage
* Disability
* Economic impacts
* U.S. insurance industry
* Fisheries
* Gender
* Health
* Mental health
* In the United Kingdom
* In the Philippines
* Human rights
* Indigenous peoples
* Infectious diseases
* Migration
* Poverty
* Psychological impacts
* Security and conflict
* Urban flooding
* Water scarcity
* Water security

By country and region|

* Africa
* Americas
* Antarctica
* Arctic
* Asia
* Australia
* Caribbean
* Europe
* Middle East and North Africa
* Small island countries
* by individual country

Mitigation

| Economics and finance|

* Carbon budget
* Carbon emission trading
* Carbon offsets and credits
* Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
* Carbon price
* Carbon tax
* Climate debt
* Climate finance
* Climate risk insurance
* Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
* Economics of climate change mitigation
* Fossil fuel divestment
* Green Climate Fund
* Low-carbon economy
* Net zero emissions

|

Energy|

* Carbon capture and storage
* Energy transition
* Fossil fuel phase-out
* Nuclear power
* Renewable energy
* Sustainable energy

Preserving and enhancing
carbon sinks|

* Blue carbon
* Carbon dioxide removal
* Carbon sequestration
* Direct air capture
* Carbon farming
* Climate-smart agriculture
* Forest management
* afforestation
* forestry for carbon sequestration
* REDD and REDD+
* reforestation
* Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF and AFOLU)
* Nature-based solutions

Other|

* Individual action on climate change
* Geoengineering

Society and adaptation

| Society|

* Business action
* Climate action
* Climate emergency declaration
* Climate movement
* School Strike for Climate
* Denial
* Ecological grief
* Governance
* Justice
* Litigation
* Politics
* Public opinion
* Women

|

Adaptation|

* Adaptation strategies on the German coast
* Adaptive capacity
* Disaster risk reduction
* Ecosystem-based adaptation
* Flood control
* Loss and damage
* Managed retreat
* Nature-based solutions
* Resilience
* Risk
* Vulnerability
* The Adaptation Fund
* National Adaptation Programme of Action

Communication|

* Climate Change Performance Index
* Climate crisis (term)
* Climate spiral
* Education
* Media coverage
* Popular culture depictions
* art
* fiction
* video games
* Warming stripes

International agreements|

* Glasgow Climate Pact
* Kyoto Protocol
* Paris Agreement
* Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
* Nationally determined contributions
* Sustainable Development Goal 13
* United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Background and theory

| Measurements|

* Global surface temperature
* Instrumental temperature record
* Proxy
* Satellite temperature measurement

|

Theory|

* Albedo
* Carbon cycle
* atmospheric
* biologic
* oceanic
* permafrost
* Carbon sink
* Climate sensitivity
* Climate variability and change
* Cloud feedback
* Cloud forcing
* Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
* Cryosphere
* Earth's energy budget
* Extreme event attribution
* Feedbacks
* Global warming potential
* Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
* Orbital forcing
* Radiative forcing

Research and modelling|

* Climate change scenario
* Climate model
* Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
* Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
* IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
* Paleoclimatology
* Representative Concentration Pathway
* Shared Socioeconomic Pathways

* Climate change portal
* Category
* Glossary
* Index

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Social issues in India

Economy|

* Communications
* Famine
* Farmers' suicides
* Labour
* Land reforms
* Debt bondage
* National Pension System
* Poverty
* BPL
* Public distribution system
* Remittances
* Slums
* Clearance
* Standard of living
* Street vendors
* Transport
* Universal basic income
* Urbanisation
* Unemployment
* Widening income gap

Education|

* Literacy
* Ragging

Environment|

* Conservation
* Climate change
* Manual scavenging
* Natural disasters
* Water supply and sanitation
* Water disputes

Family|

* Cohabitation
* Domestic violence
* Dowry system
* Family planning
* Joint family
* Infertility
* Nuclear family
* Polyandry
* Polygyny

Children|

* Abortion
* Child labour
* Child marriage
* Child prostitution
* Child trafficking
* Female foeticide
* Female infanticide
* Street children

Women|

* Acid attack
* Bride burning
* Devadasi
* Dowry death
* Eve teasing
* Women's health
* Feminism
* Menstrual taboo
* Prostitution
* Rape
* Sati
* Sexism

Caste system|

* Caste politics
* Caste-related violence
* Dalit
* Reservation

Communalism|

* Proposed states and territories
* Ethnic relations
* Religious violence
* Secularism
* Separatist movements

Crime|

* Corruption
* Groom kidnapping
* Human trafficking
* Illegal housing
* Illegal immigration
* Illegal mining
* Organised crime
* Terrorism
* Vigilantism
* Cybercrime

Health|

* Diabetes
* Epidemics
* HIV/AIDS
* Leprosy
* Malnutrition
* Obesity
* Suicide
* Tuberculosis

Media|

* Censorship
* Internet
* Films about social issues
* Freedom of expression
* Social impact of Indian television drama
* Fake news

Other issues|

* Colourism
* Feudalism
* Gambling
* Sexuality
* LGBT
* Homosexuality
* Hijra
* Human rights
* Prohibition
* Superstitions
* Disability
* Police brutality

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