Nero

Roman emperor from AD 54 to 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero

Head of Nero from an oversized statue. Glyptothek, Munich

Roman emperor
Reign| 13 October 54 – 9 June 68
Predecessor| Claudius
Successor| Galba

Born| Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus
15 December AD 37
Antium, Italy, Roman Empire
Died| 9 June AD 68 (aged 30)
outside Rome, Italy
Burial|

Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, Pincian Hill, Rome

Spouses|

* Claudia Octavia
* Poppaea Sabina
* Statilia Messalina
* Sporus
* Pythagoras

Issue| Claudia Augusta
| Names

Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus
Regnal name
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Dynasty| Julio-Claudian
Father|

* Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
* Claudius (adoptive)

Mother| Agrippina the Younger
Roman imperial dynasties

Julio-Claudian dynasty
Chronology

Augustus

27 BC - AD 14

Tiberius

AD 14–37

Caligula

AD 37–41

Claudius

AD 41–54

Nero

AD 54–68

| Preceded by
Roman Republic | Followed by
Year of the Four Emperors

|

* v
* t
* e

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (/ˈnɪəroʊ/ NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in AD 68.

Nero was born at Antium in AD 37, the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter of the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died.[1] By the time Nero turned eleven, his mother married Emperor Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir.[2] Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne with the backing of the Praetorian Guard and the Senate. In the early years of his reign, Nero was advised and guided by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca the Younger, and his praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to rule independently and rid himself of restraining influences. The power struggle between Nero and his mother reached its climax when he orchestrated her murder. Roman sources also implicate Nero in the deaths of both his wife Claudia Octavia – supposedly so he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, trade, and culture. He ordered the construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests. He made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic contemporaries as these occupations were usually the domain of slaves, public entertainers, and infamous persons. However, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among lower-class citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, and were much resented by the Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's reign, the general Corbulo fought the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, and made peace with the hostile Parthian Empire. The Roman general Suetonius Paulinus quashed a major revolt in Britain led by queen Boudica. The Bosporan Kingdom was briefly annexed to the empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Roman senator Vindex rebelled, with support from the eventual Roman emperor Galba, Nero was declared a public enemy and condemned to death in absentia. He fled Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide. His death sparked a brief period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. Most contemporary sources describe him as tyrannical, self-indulgent, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed the Great Fire of Rome was instigated by Nero to clear land for his planned "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice, but personal cruelty. Some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts, considering his popularity among the Roman commoners. In the eastern provinces of the Empire, a popular legend arose that Nero had not died and would return. After his death, at least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular support.

## Early life

[edit]

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December AD 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months after the death of Tiberius.[1][3] He was an only-child, the son of the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. His mother Agrippina was the sister of the third Roman emperor Caligula.[4] Nero was also the great-great-grandson of former emperor Augustus (descended from Augustus' only daughter, Julia).[5]

Statue of Nero in his birthplace of Anzio, Italy

The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's ancestors, wrote that emperor Augustus had reproached Nero's grandfather for his unseemly enjoyment of violent gladiator games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's father was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and theater performances to a degree not befitting their position".[5] Suetonius also mentions that when Nero's father Domitius was congratulated by his friends for the birth of his son, he replied that any child born to him and Agrippina would have a detestable nature and become a public danger.[1]

Domitius died in AD 41. A few years before his father's death, his father was involved in a serious political scandal.[5] His mother and his two surviving sisters, Agrippina and Julia Livilla, were exiled to a remote island in the Mediterranean Sea.[6] His mother was said to have been exiled for plotting to overthrow the emperor Caligula.[3] Nero's inheritance was taken from him, and he was sent to live with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of later emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina.[7]

After Caligula's death, Claudius became the new emperor. Nero's mother married Claudius in AD 49, becoming his fourth wife.[a][3] On 25 February AD 50,[b] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero as his son, giving him the new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".[c][11] Claudius had gold coins issued to mark the adoption.[12] Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution and imagery alike, showed that a new Leader was in the making."[13] However, David Shotter noted that, despite events in Rome, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was more prominent in provincial coinages during the early 50s.[14]

Relief from the Sebasteion depicting Nero and his mother, Agrippina

Nero formally entered public life as an adult in AD 51 while 13 years old.[11] When he turned 16, Nero married Claudius' daughter (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Between the years AD 51 and AD 53, he gave several speeches on behalf of various communities, including the Ilians; the Apameans (requesting a five-year tax reprieve after an earthquake); and the northern colony of Bologna, after their settlement had suffered a devastating fire.[13]

Claudius died in AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina. Shotter has written that "Claudius' death...has usually been regarded as an event hastened by Agrippina, due to signs that Claudius was showing a renewed affection for his natural son." He notes that among ancient sources, the Roman historian Josephus was uniquely reserved in describing the poisoning as a rumor.[15] Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor by his servant Halotus. Tacitus also writes that Agrippina arranged for Claudius' doctor Xenophon to administer poison, in the event that the Emperor survived.[15] Suetonius differs in some details, but also implicates Halotus and Agrippina.[d] Like Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes that the poison was prepared by Locusta, but in Dio's account it is administered by Agrippina instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does not mention mushrooms at all.[17] Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death is not accepted by all modern scholars.[18]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina had maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to replace them with tutors that she had selected. She was also able to convince Claudius to replace two prefects of the Praetorian Guard (who were suspected of supporting Claudius' son) with Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide).[19] Since Agrippina had replaced the guard officers with men loyal to her, Nero was subsequently able to assume power without incident.[3]

## Reign (AD 54–68)

[edit]

The main ancient Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio.[20] They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant and claim that their cost left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined".[21][22] Modern historians note that the period was riddled with deflation and that Nero intended his spending on public-work and charities to ease economic troubles.[23]

### Early reign

[edit]

Bust of Nero as pharaoh

Nero became emperor in AD 54, aged 16. His tutor, Seneca, prepared Nero's first speech before the Senate. During this speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the previous regime".[24] H. H. Scullard writes that "he promised to follow the Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have done with the corruption of court favorites and freedmen, and above all to respect the privileges of the Senate and individual Senators."[25] His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him from Caligula and Claudius, was generally well received by the Roman Senate.[26]

Scullard writes that Nero's mother, Agrippina, "meant to rule through her son". Agrippina murdered her political rivals: Domitia Lepida the Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, a great-grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus.[25] One of the earliest coins that Nero issued during his reign shows Agrippina on the coin's obverse side; usually, this would be reserved for a portrait of the emperor. The Senate also allowed Agrippina two lictors during public appearances, an honor that was customarily bestowed upon only magistrates and the Vestalis Maxima.[24] In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his position in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's deteriorating relationship with Nero: "What Seneca and Burrus probably saw as relatively harmless in Nero—his cultural pursuits and his affair with the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of her son's dangerous emancipation of himself from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened to side with him.[27] Nero, who was having an affair with Acte,[e] exiled Agrippina from the palace when she began to cultivate a relationship with his wife Octavia.[25]

Emperor Nero being instructed by Seneca, work by Spanish sculptor Eduardo Barrón

Jürgen Malitz writes that ancient sources do not provide any clear evidence to evaluate the extent of Nero's personal involvement in politics during the first years of his reign. He describes the policies that are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative to abolish all taxes in AD 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca with the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that in later years, Nero panicked when he had to make decisions on his own during times of crisis.[28]

Nevertheless, his early administration ruled to great acclaim. A generation later those years were seen in retrospect as an exemplar of good and moderate government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.[29][30] Especially well received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control by establishing local offices to supervise their activities.[31] After the affair of Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by a desperate slave, Nero allowed slaves to file complaints about their treatment to the authorities.[32]

### Residences

[edit]

Outside of Rome, Nero had several villas or palaces built, the ruins of which can still be seen today. These included the Villa of Nero at Antium, his place of birth, where he razed the villa on the site to rebuild it on a more massive and imperial scale and including a theatre. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Rome he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges and walkways for the luxurious villa.[33] He stayed at the Villa of Nero at Olympia, Greece, during his participation at the Olympic Games of AD 67.

### Matricide

[edit]

Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina Billon tetradrachm of Alexandria, Egypt, 25 mm, 12.51 gr. Obverse: radiate head right; ΝΕΡΩ. ΚΛΑΥ. ΚΑΙΣ. ΣΕΒ. ΓΕΡ. ΑΥ. Reverse: draped bust of Poppaea right; ΠΟΠΠΑΙΑ ΣΕΒΑΣΤΗ. Year LI = 10 = 63–64.

According to Suetonius, Nero had his former freedman Anicetus arrange a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed by Anicetus, who reported her death as a suicide.[3][34] The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's reasons for killing his mother in AD 59 are "not fully understood".[3] According to Tacitus, the source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. In Histories Tacitus writes that the affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later work Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when the affair began.[35] In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because of her affection for his wife Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge drove [Nero] over the brink".[36] A number of modern historians have noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much advantage for Poppaea, as Nero did not marry Poppaea until AD 62.[37][36] Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see no plausible explanation for Nero's conduct and also incidentally [served] to show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malign influence of a woman."[36]

### Decline

[edit]

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign had been going well in the years before Agrippina's death. For example, Nero promoted the exploration of the Nile river sources with a successful expedition.[38] After Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Seneca were responsible for the administration of the Empire.[39] However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's death.[3] Miriam T. Griffin suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of his stepbrother Britannicus, but also notes that "Nero lost all sense of right and wrong and listened to flattery with total credulity" after Agrippina's death. Griffin points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".[40][41]

He began to build a new palace, the Domus Transitoria, from about AD 60.[42] It was intended to connect all of the imperial estates that had been acquired in various ways, linking the Palatine with the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.[43][44]

In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus died.[3] That same year, Nero called for the first treason trial of his reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.[45][46] He also executed his rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus.[47] Jürgen Malitz considers this to be a turning point in Nero's relationship with the Roman Senate. Malitz writes that "Nero abandoned the restraint he had previously shown because he believed a course supporting the Senate promised to be less and less profitable."[48]

After Burrus' death, Nero appointed two new Praetorian prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.[49] According to Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia on grounds of infertility, and banished her.[50] After public protests over Octavia's exile, Nero accused her of adultery with Anicetus, and she was executed.[51][52]

In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero is said to have married Pythagoras, a freedman.[53][54][55][56]

### Great Fire of Rome

[edit]

Main article: Great Fire of Rome

The Fire of Rome by Hubert Robert (1785)

The Great Fire of Rome began on the night of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one of the merchant shops on the slope of the Aventine overlooking the Circus Maximus, or in the wooden outer seating of the Circus itself. Rome had always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was fanned to catastrophic proportions by the winds.[57][58] Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and modern archaeology describe the destruction of mansions, ordinary residences, public buildings, and temples on the Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.[57][59] The fire burned for over seven days before subsiding; it then started again and burned for three more. It destroyed three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.[60][61]

Some Romans thought the fire an accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold flammable goods, and the outer seating stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's behalf. The accounts by Pliny the Elder, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio suggest several possible reasons for Nero's alleged arson, including his creation of a real-life backdrop to a theatrical performance about the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started the fire to clear the site for his planned palatial Golden House.[62] This would include lush artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Colossus of Nero, sited more or less where the Colosseum would eventually be built.[63][64][65] Suetonius and Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned.[66][67][68] The popular legend that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is at least partly a literary construct of Flavian propaganda ... which looked askance on the abortive Neronian attempt to rewrite Augustan models of rule".[69]

Tacitus suspends judgment on Nero's responsibility for the fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when the fire started, and returned to Rome to organize a relief effort, providing for the removal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from his own funds.[70][71] After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.[70]

Tacitus writes that to remove suspicion from himself, Nero accused Christians of starting the fire.[72] According to this account, many Christians were arrested and brutally executed by "being thrown to the beasts, crucified, and being burned alive".[73] Tacitus asserts that in his imposition of such ferocious punishments, Nero was not motivated by a sense of justice, but by a penchant for personal cruelty.[74]

Houses built after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads.[75] Nero also built himself a new palace complex known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. The cost to rebuild Rome was immense, requiring funds the state treasury did not have. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, Nero's government increased taxation.[76] Particularly heavy tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire.[77] To meet at least a portion of the costs, Nero devalued the Roman currency, increasing inflationary pressure for the first time in the Empire's history.[f]

### Later years

[edit]

In AD 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[78] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the Republic.[79] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus.[80] As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed, including Lucan, the poet.[81] Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was still ordered to commit suicide, as by this point he had fallen out of favor with Nero.[82]

Nero was said to have kicked Poppaea to death in AD 65, before she could give birth to his second child. Modern historians, noting the probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and the likely absence of eyewitnesses to such an event, propose that Poppaea may have died after miscarriage or in childbirth.[83] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous state funeral and divine honors, and was promised a temple for her cult. A year's importation of incense was burned at the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would have been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner and entombed; it is not known where.[84]

In AD 67, Nero married Sporus, a young boy who is said to have greatly resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil. It is believed that he did this out of regret for his killing of Poppaea.[85][86]

### Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death

[edit]

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled against Nero's tax policies.[87][88] Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.[89] In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.[90]

A marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the Palatine.

At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex, and the latter committed suicide.[89] However, after defeating the rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition of Galba in Hispania did not bode well for him.[91]

While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a "public enemy".[90] The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support of Galba.[92]

In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia and, from there, to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. According to Suetonius, Nero abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the people and begging them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.[93]

Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he received no answers. Upon going to their chambers personally, he found them all abandoned. When he called for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the Tiber.[93]

Returning, Nero sought a place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, and Sporus, reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him.[94] At this time, Nero learned that the Senate had declared him a public enemy.[95] Nero prepared himself for suicide, pacing up and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist the world is losing!"). Losing his nerve, he begged one of his companions to set an example by killing himself first. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. However, he still could not bring himself to take his own life, but instead forced his private secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform the task.[96]

An 1815 illustration of the alleged tomb of Nero; actually tomb of proconsul Gaius Vibius Marianus.

When one of the horsemen entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted to stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!".[96] He died on 9 June 68,[g] the anniversary of the death of his first wife, Claudia Octavia, and was buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome.[97] According to Sulpicius Severus, it is unclear whether Nero took his own life.[98]

With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.[99]: 19 Chaos would ensue in the Year of the Four Emperors.[100]

### After Nero

[edit]

See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero

Apotheosis of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.

According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.[101][102] Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by senators, nobility, and the upper class.[103] The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news.[103] Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero but had been bribed to overthrow him.[104]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character", and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them".[105] Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia".[106]

Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst of private zeal".[107] Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 such images survive.[108] This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously,[109] a practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.[110] Damaged portraits of Nero, often with hammer blows directed to the face, have been found in many provinces of the Roman Empire, three recently having been identified from the United Kingdom.[108][111]

The civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period.[100] According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.[103] Galba began his short reign with the execution of many of Nero's allies.[112] One such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of Emperor Caligula.[113]

Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero and resembled him somewhat in temperament.[114] It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.[115] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.[115] Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.[116]

After Nero's death in AD 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.[117] This belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus legend. The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in AD 422.[118]

At least three Nero impostors emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre, and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign of Vitellius.[119] After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.[119] Sometime during the reign of Titus (79–81), another impostor appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero, but he, too, was killed.[120][121] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. He was supported by the Parthians, who only reluctantly gave him up,[102] and the matter almost came to war.[100]

## Military conflicts

[edit]

Aureus of Nero, c. AD 64

Aureus of Nero, c. AD 68

### Boudica's uprising

[edit]

Further information: Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client king of Rome during Claudius' reign, had died. The client state arrangement was unlikely to survive following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving control of the Iceni to his daughters, was denied. When the Roman procurator Catus Decianus scourged Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped her daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the Celtic Trinovantes tribe and their uprising became the most significant provincial rebellion of the 1st century AD.[122] Under Queen Boudica, the towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a substantial body of Roman legion infantry were eliminated. The governor of the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces and defeated the Britons. Although order was restored for some time, Nero considered abandoning the province.[123] Julius Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who continued to punish the population even after the rebellion was over.[124] Nero decided to adopt a more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.[125]

### Peace with Parthia

[edit]

Further information: Roman–Parthian War of 58–63

Nero began preparing for war in the early years of his reign, after the Parthian king Vologeses set his brother Tiridates on the Armenian throne. Around AD 57 and AD 58 Domitius Corbulo and his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian capital Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen to replace Tiridates on the Armenian throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send further legions to defend Armenia and Syria from Parthia.

The Roman victory came at a time when the Parthians were troubled by revolts; when this was dealt with they were able to devote resources to the Armenian situation. A Roman army under Paetus surrendered under humiliating circumstances and though both Roman and Parthian forces withdrew from Armenia, it was under Parthian control. The triumphal arch for Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived in AD 63 to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the eastern regions, Corbulo organised his forces for an invasion but was met by this Parthian delegation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king of Armenia, only if he agreed to receive his diadem from Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates said "I have come to you, my God, worshiping you as Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero in the East including "The New Apollo" and "The New Sun". After the coronation, friendly relations were established between Rome and the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was temporarily renamed Neroneia.[126][127]

### First Jewish War

[edit]

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.[128] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order.[129] This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.[130] This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.[131]

## Pursuits

[edit]

Bust of Nero, c. AD 60. Corinth, Archaeological Museum

Nero studied poetry, music, painting, and sculpture. He both sang and played the cithara (a type of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education for the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for a Roman of his class.[132] Ancient sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that he was "carried away by a craze for popularity...since he was acclaimed as the equal of Apollo in music and of the Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to emulate the exploits of Hercules as well."[59]: 53

In AD 67 Nero participated in the Olympics. He had bribed organizers to postpone the games for a year so he could participate,[133] and artistic competitions were added to the athletic events. Nero won every contest in which he was a competitor. During the games Nero sang and played his lyre on stage, acted in tragedies and raced chariots. He won a 10-horse chariot race, despite being thrown from the chariot and leaving the race. He was crowned on the basis that he would have won if he had completed the race. After he died a year later, his name was removed from the list of winners.[134] Champlin writes that though Nero's participation "effectively stifled true competition, [Nero] seems to have been oblivious of reality."[59]: 54–55

Nero established the Neronian games in AD 60. Modeled on Greek style games, these games included musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the gymnastic contests were held in the Saepta area of the Campus Martius.[59]: 288

## Historiography

[edit]

Further information: Nero in the arts and popular culture

The history of Nero's reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories, while they still existed, were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero.[135] The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events.[136] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.[137] A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.[138] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.[139]

The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper classes. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict one another on a number of events in Nero's life, including the death of Claudius, the death of Agrippina, and the Roman fire of AD 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, and also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.[140]

Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.[citation needed]

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:

> Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive.[141]

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.[142][better source needed] He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.[143]

Josephus

The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

A circa 18th-century woodcut of the historian Josephus (c. 37–100), who accused other historians of slandering Nero.

> But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favour, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bore him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them.[144]

Lucan

Although more of a poet than a historian, Lucan (c. 39–65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero, in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.

Philostratus

Philostratus II, "the Athenian" (c. 172–250), spoke of Nero in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.[citation needed]

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind".[145]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho, as well as in the Vision of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where a voice orders that Nero's soul be transferred to a more offensive species.[146] Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better.

Seneca the Younger
Bust of Nero c. AD 54/55-59

Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very positively of Nero.[147]

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects. By this account, Nero raped the vestal virgin Rubria.[148]

Tacitus

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year AD 66. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:

> The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred.[149]

Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.[150]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562, Girolamo Cardano published in Basel his Encomium Neronis, which was one of the first historical references of the modern era to portray Nero in a positive light.[151]

## In Jewish and Christian tradition

[edit]

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### Jewish tradition

[edit]

An aggadah in the Talmud relates that at the end of year 66, a conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea Maritima. During the Great Jewish Revolt, as related in tractate Gittin 56a:7,[152] Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions; all the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the Tanakh verse he had learned that day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).[153] Upon hearing this, Nero became terrified: he believed that God wanted the Second Temple to be destroyed, but that he would punish the one to carry out its destruction. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," so he fled, converted to Judaism to escape retribution, and sent Vespasian to quell the revolt.[154]

The Talmud adds that the sage Rabbi Meir, who lived during Mishnah's collation and was a prominent supporter of Bar Kokhba's revolt against Roman rule, was a descendant of Nero.[155] Rabbi Meir was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the third generation (139–163).[156]

The Talmudic stories about Nero's conversion and Rabbi Meir being of his descendant met various reactions by later Jewish scholars. Azariah de Rossi and Rabbi David Gans suggest that Nero may have converted secretly, explaining the absence of historical records.[citation needed] The Maharal takes the Talmudic narrative at face value, interpreting it as a reflection of Nero's moral character rather than a literal historical account.[citation needed] Modern scholars[example needed] view the story as a rabbinic motif linking a non-Jewish figure to a Jewish sage; others, including Rabbi Zvi Ron, allegorize it as a lesson about the consequences of refusing to mediate conflict.[157]

Contemporary Roman and Greek sources do not support the Talmudic legend about Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or conversion to Judaism.[158] There is also no record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months.

### Christian tradition

[edit]

Nero's Torches, Henryk Siemiradzki

Tacitus details Nero's extensive torture and execution of Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in 64,[74] while Suetonius mentions Nero punishing Christians for their "new and mischievous superstition," without linking it to the fire.[159] Christian theologian Tertullian (c. 155–230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians, writing "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine."[160] Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants of God" (i.e., Christians, in this case),[161] as did Sulpicius Severus.[162] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").[163] These expelled "Jews" may have, in fact, been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit in either direction. In his mention of Priscilla and Aquila, the author of the Christian book of Acts includes the couple among the "Jews" affected by Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome (Acts 18:2).[164]

#### Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul

[edit]

The earliest evidence suggesting that Nero ordered the execution of an apostle is found in the First Epistle of Clement, which was sent to the Christian community in Corinth and is traditionally dated c. AD 96.[165] The apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian text from the 2nd century, relates, "the slayer of his mother, who himself (even) this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands"—this is interpreted as referring to Nero.[166][better source needed]

Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275–339) was the first to report that Paul the Apostle was beheaded and Peter was crucified in Rome during the reign of Nero.[167] He claims Nero's persecution resulted in the deaths of Peter and Paul, but without specific orders. However, first-century accounts suggest Paul survived his two years in Rome, traveled to Hispania, and was tried again in Rome before his death.[168]

Peter is said to have been crucified upside-down in Rome during Nero's reign in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200).[169] The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute Christians any longer. By the fourth century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.[161][170]

#### Antichrist

[edit]

The Sibylline Oracles (books 5 and 8), written in the second century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction.[171][172] Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others, fueled the belief[when?] that Nero would be resurrected as the Antichrist.[173] In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the burial place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains that it is not right to believe this.[161][174]

In 422, Augustine of Hippo, referring to 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, that he believed that Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Although he rejects the view, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed Nero was or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,'[175] he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist."[118]

Some modern Christian biblical scholars, such as Delbert Hillers (Johns Hopkins University) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford Study Bible and HarperCollins Study Bible, contend that the number of the beast in the Book of Revelation is a code for Nero,[176][177][178] a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic biblical commentaries.[179][180] The claim is in regard to the "Babylon" mentioned in Revelation 17:1–18,[181] which, according to Scott G. Sinclair, in the period of the book's authorship, referred to Rome (e.g., 1 Peter 5:13).[182]

## See also

[edit]

* List of Roman emperors
* Roman pharaoh

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Tacitus wrote the following about Agrippina's marriage to Claudius: "From this moment the country was transformed. Complete obedience was accorded to a woman—and not a woman like Messalina who toyed with national affairs. This was a rigorous, almost masculine, despotism. In public, Agrippina was austere and often arrogant. Her private life was chaste—unless power was to be gained. Her passion to acquire money was unbounded; she wanted it as a stepping stone to supremacy."[7]
2. ^ The date is recorded in the Acta Arvalia[8] and the year was "in the consulate of Gaius Antistius and Marcus Suillius".[9] Suetonius states that Nero was "in the eleventh year of his age", which is most likely a mistake.[10]
3. ^ For further information see adoption in Rome.
4. ^ Suetonius wrote "That Claudius was poisoned is the general belief, but when it was done and by whom is disputed. Some say that it was his taster, the eunuch Halotus, as he was banqueting on the Citadel with the priests; others that at a family dinner Agrippina served the drug to him with her own hand in mushrooms, a dish of which he was extravagantly fond.. His death was kept quiet until all the arrangements were made about the succession."[16]
5. ^ Sources describe Acte as a slave girl (Shotter) and a freedwoman (Champlin and Scullard).
6. ^ Nero or his moneyers reduced the weight of the denarius from 84 per Roman pound to 96 (3.80 grams to 3.30 grams). He also reduced the silver purity from 99.5% to 93.5%—the silver weight dropping from 3.80 grams to 2.97 grams. He also reduced the weight of the aureus from 40 per Roman pound to 45 (7.9 grams to 7.2 grams). Tulane University hand-out, archived. [better source needed]
7. ^ Cassius Dio 66.4: "from the death of Nero to the beginning of Vespasian's rule a year and twenty-two days elapsed". Vespasian's reign officially began on 1 July (Suetonius, Vespasian 6), which places the death on 9 June. Furthermore, Epiphanius' On Weights and Measures (III) gives a reign length of "thirteen years and seven months and twenty-seven days". Jerome (2070) gives "13 years, 7 months and 28 days" (using inclusive counting).

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c Suetonius, Nero, 6.
2. ^ "Julia Agrippina | Empress, Mother, Empress Nero | Britannica". January 2024.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h Barrett 2010.
4. ^ Barrett, Fantham & Yardley 2016, p. 5.
5. ^ a b c Malitz 2005, p. 3.
6. ^ Malitz 2005, p. 4.
7. ^ a b Shotter 2012, p. 11.
8. ^ ILS 229.58
9. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 12.25.
10. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 7 (n. 16).
11. ^ a b Shotter 2016, p. 51.
12. ^ Buckley & Dinter 2013, p. 119.
13. ^ a b Osgood 2011, p. 231.
14. ^ Shotter 2016, p. 52.
15. ^ a b Shotter 2016, p. 53.
16. ^ Suetonius, Life of Claudius 44–45
17. ^ Shotter 2016, p. 54.
18. ^ Garzetti, Albino (2014). From Tiberius to the Antonines. Routledge. p. 589\. ISBN 978-1-317-69844-9.
19. ^ Shotter 2012, p. 13.
20. ^ Griffin 2002, p. 37.
21. ^ Suetonius, "Life of Nero", § 31.
22. ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.45.
23. ^ Thornton, Mary Elizabeth Kelly (1971). "Nero's New Deal". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 102: 629. doi:10.2307/2935958. ISSN 0065-9711. JSTOR 2935958.
24. ^ a b Malitz 2005, p. 16.
25. ^ a b c Scullard 2011, p. 257.
26. ^ Malitz 2005, p. 18.
27. ^ Shotter 2012, p. 12.
28. ^ Malitz 2005, p. 19.
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35. ^ Barrett, Fantham & Yardley 2016, p. 214.
36. ^ a b c Barrett, Fantham & Yardley 2016, p. 215.
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41. ^ Tacitus, Annals, XIV.13
42. ^ Buckley & Dinter 2013, Chapter 19: Buildings of an emperor - How Nero transformed Rome.
43. ^ "LacusCurtius • Domus Transitoria (Platner & Ashby, 1929)".
44. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 31.1.
45. ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.48.
46. ^ Griffin 2002, p. 53.
47. ^ Malitz 2005, p. x.
48. ^ Malitz 2005, p. 22.
49. ^ Scullard 2011, p. 26.
50. ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.60.
51. ^ Tacitus, Annals XIV.64.
52. ^ Griffin 2002, p. 99.
53. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 15.37.
54. ^ Cassius Dio, 13, 28.
55. ^ Frier, Bruce W. (2004). "Roman Same-Sex Weddings from the Legal Perspective". Classical Studies Newsletter, Volume X. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
56. ^ Champlin, p. 146
57. ^ a b Champlin, p. 122
58. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 15.38.
59. ^ a b c d Champlin, p. 125
60. ^ Scullard 2011, p. 260.
61. ^ Tacitus, Tacitus, XV.40
62. ^ Champlin, p. 182
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65. ^ Warden reduces its size to under 100 acres (0.40 km2). Warden, P.G. (1981). "The Domus Aurea Reconsidered". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 40 (4): 271–78\. doi:10.2307/989644. JSTOR 989644.
66. ^ Champlin, p. 77
67. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 38.
68. ^ Cassius Dio, 62.16.
69. ^ Buckley & Dinter 2013, p. 2.
70. ^ a b Tacitus, Annals, XV.39
71. ^ Walsh, Joseph J. (2019). The Great Fire of Rome: Life and Death in the Ancient City. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-3372-1.
72. ^ Champlin, p. 121
73. ^ Champlin, pp. 121–122
74. ^ a b Tacitus, Annals. XV.44.
75. ^ Tacitus, Annals, XV.43
76. ^ "Emperor Nero: the tyrant of Rome". BBC History Magazine and BBC History Revealed. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
77. ^ Tacitus, Annals XV.45.
78. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 15.49.
79. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 15.50.
80. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 15.55.
81. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 15.70.
82. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 15.60–62.
83. ^ Rudich, Vasily (1993) Political Dissidence Under Nero. Psychology Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 9780415069519
84. ^ Counts, Derek B (1996). "Regum Externorum Consuetudine: The Nature and Function of Embalming in Rome". Classical Antiquity. 15 (2): 189–202\. doi:10.2307/25011039. ISSN 0278-6656. JSTOR 25011039. See p. 193 n. 18 ("we should not consider it an insult that Poppaea was not buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, as were other members of the imperial family until the time of Nerva") and p. 196 n. 37 (citing Pliny, Natural History, 12.83 for the funeral's lavishness).
85. ^ Cassius Dio, 62.28.
86. ^ Suetonius (2016). "Nero". In Kaster, Robert A (ed.). Studies on the Text of Suetonius' 'De Vita Caesarum'. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oseo/instance.00233087. ISBN 978-0-19-875847-1.
87. ^ Cassius Dio, 63.22.
88. ^ Donahue, John, "Galba (68–69 A.D.)" Archived 11 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine at De Imperatoribus Romanis.
89. ^ a b Cassius Dio, 63.24.
90. ^ a b Plutarch, Galba, Galba 5.
91. ^ Cassius Dio, 63.25.
92. ^ Plutarch, Galba, Galba 8.
93. ^ a b Suetonius, Nero, 47.
94. ^ Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus 5
95. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 48–49.
96. ^ a b Suetonius, Nero, 49.
97. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 50.
98. ^ "Philip Schaff: NPNF-211. Sulpitius Severus, Vincent of Lerins, John Cassian – Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
99. ^ Barrett, A. A (1996). Agrippina: sister of Caligula, wife of Claudius, mother of Nero. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0713468540.
100. ^ a b c Tacitus, Histories, 1.2.
101. ^ Cassius Dio, 63.
102. ^ a b Suetonius, Nero, 57.
103. ^ a b c Tacitus, Histories, 1.4.
104. ^ Tacitus, Histories, 1.5.
105. ^ Philostratus, Vita Apollonii, 5.41.
106. ^ Griffin 2002, p. 186.
107. ^ Champlin, p. 29.
108. ^ a b Pollini, John (2006). "Review of Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture". The Art Bulletin. 88 (3): 590–597\. ISSN 0004-3079. JSTOR 25067270.
109. ^ Russell, Miles; Manley, Harry (2016). "Sanctioning Memory: Changing Identity – Using 3D laser scanning to identify two 'new' portraits of the Emperor Nero in English antiquarian collections". Internet Archaeology (42). doi:10.11141/ia.42.2.
110. ^ Champlin, pp. 29–31.
111. ^ Russell, Miles; Manley, Harry (2013). "Finding Nero: shining a new light on Romano-British sculpture". Internet Archaeology (32). doi:10.11141/ia.32.5.
112. ^ Tacitus, Histories I.6.
113. ^ Plutarch, Galba, 9.
114. ^ Tacitus, Histories I.13.
115. ^ a b Suetonius, Life of Otho 7.
116. ^ Suetonius, Life of Vitellius 11.
117. ^ Suetonius, Life of Nero 57; Tacitus, Histories II.8; Cassius Dio, Roman History 66.19 Archived 22 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine
118. ^ a b Augustine of Hippo, City of God. XX.19.3 Archived 2 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
119. ^ a b Tacitus, Histories II.8.
120. ^ Cassius Dio, 66.19.
121. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2022.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
122. ^ Shotter 2012, p. 32; Scullard 2011, p. 254.
123. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 18, 39–40.
124. ^ Scullard 2011, p. 265.
125. ^ Shotter 2012, p. 33.
126. ^ Scullard 2011, pp. 265–266.
127. ^ Shotter 2012, p. 35.
128. ^ Josephus, War of the Jews II.13.7.
129. ^ Josephus, War of the Jews III.1.3.
130. ^ Josephus, War of the Jews VI.10.1.
131. ^ Josephus, War of the Jews VII.1.1.
132. ^ Griffin 2002, pp. 41–42.
133. ^ Judith., Swaddling (1984) [1980]. The ancient Olympic games (1st University of Texas Press ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0292703735. OCLC 10759486.
134. ^ "Going for Gold: A History of Olympic Controversies". www.randomhistory.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2018. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
135. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 1.1, 13.20; Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae, 20.8.3; Tacitus, Agricola, 10.
136. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 13.20, 14.2.
137. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 13.20; Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae, 19.1.13.
138. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 13.20.
139. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 1.1; Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae, 20.8.3.
140. ^ Spawforth, Anthony (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 288\. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8.
141. ^ Dio Chrysostom, Discourse XXI, On Beauty.
142. ^ "Epictetus – The Core Curriculum". www.college.columbia.edu. Archived from the original on 22 June 2017. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
143. ^ "Epictetus, Discourses, book 3, About Cynism". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
144. ^ Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae, 20.8.3.
145. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories VII.8.46.
146. ^ Plutarch, Moralia, ed. by G. P. Goold, trans. by Phillip H. De Lacy and Benedict Einarson, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), 7: 269–299.
147. ^ Seneca the Younger, Apocolocyntosis 4 Archived 3 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine
148. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 28.
149. ^ Tacitus, Annals, 1.1.
150. ^ Tacitus, Histories, 1.1.
151. ^ Manuwald, Gesine (2013). Nero in Opera: Librettos as Transformations of Ancient Sources. De Gruyter. p. 21\. ISBN 978-3-11-031751-0.
152. ^ Talmud, b. Gittin 56a
153. ^ Ezekiel 25:14
154. ^ Talmud, b. Gittin 56a
155. ^ "Rabbi Meir". Oxford Reference. 27 June 2025. Retrieved 27 June 2025.
156. ^ Marvin, Tamar Ron (15 May 2024). "Iyar 5784: Rabbi Meir Baal ha-Nes". Stories from Jewish History. Retrieved 27 June 2025.
157. ^ Klein, Reuven Chaim (2023). "Are historical sections of the Talmud actually historical? Critical tools for understanding historical claims in rabbinic literature". Journal of Philological Pedagogy. 12. Chandler School of Education: 42–75\. doi:10.17613/rjp5a-md343.
158. ^ Isaac, Benjamin. 2004. The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. pp. 440–491. ISBN 978-0-691-12598-5.
159. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 16.
160. ^ Tertullian. Apologeticum (lost text), quoted in Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, II.25.4, translated by A. C. McGiffert. Archived 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
161. ^ a b c Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum Chapter II.
162. ^ "Sulpicius Severus: Chronicles II". www.thelatinlibrary.com.
163. ^ Suetonius, Life of Claudius 25 Archived 30 June 2012 at archive.today
164. ^ Acts of the Apostles 18:2
165. ^ Champlin, p. 123
166. ^ "The Ascension of Isaiah". www.earlychristianwritings.com.
167. ^ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History II.25.5 Archived 13 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
168. ^ In the apocryphal Acts of Paul (archive); in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (archive); in the First Epistle of Clement 5:6) (archive; and in The Muratorian Fragment (archive)
169. ^ "The Acts of Peter". www.earlychristianwritings.com.
170. ^ John Chrysostom wrote Nero knew Paul personally and had him killed, John Chrysostom, Concerning Lowliness of Mind 4 Archived 3 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine; Sulpicius Severus says Nero killed Peter and Paul, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29
171. ^ "The Sibylline Oracles 5.361–76, 8.68–72, 8.531–157". www.sacred-texts.com.
172. ^ Griffin 2002, p. 15.
173. ^ Sulpicius Severus and Victorinus of Pettau also say that Nero is the Antichrist, Sulpicius Severus, Chronica II.28–29; Victorinus of Pettau, Commentary on the Apocalypse 17 Archived 6 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
174. ^ Champlin, p. 20
175. ^ "2 Thessalonians 2:7 – Passage Lookup – King James Version". BibleGateway.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2008. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
176. ^ Cory, Catherine A. (2006). The Book of Revelation. Liturgical Press. pp. 61–. ISBN 978-0-8146-2885-0. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
177. ^ Garrow, A.J.P. (2002). Revelation. Taylor & Francis. pp. 86–. ISBN 978-0-203-13308-8. Archived from the original on 11 May 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
178. ^ Hillers, Delbert (1963). "Rev. 13, 18 and a scroll from Murabba'at". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 170 (170): 65. doi:10.2307/1355990. JSTOR 1355990. S2CID 163790686.
179. ^ Brown, Raymond E.; Fitzmyer, Joseph A. and Murphy, Roland E. eds. (1990). The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. p. 1009. ISBN 978-0136149347
180. ^ Just, S.J. "The Book of Revelation, Apocalyptic Literature, and Millennial Movements, University of San Francisco, USF Jesuit Community". Archived from the original on 1 June 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2007.
181. ^ Revelation 17:1–18
182. ^ Sinclair, Scott Gambrill (2016). "The Book of Revelation (Course Lecture Notes)" (PDF). The Scott Sinclair Lecture Notes Collection (2). Dominican University of California: 36–37\. doi:10.33015/dominican.edu/2016.sinclair.02. "Nero persecuted the church at Rome, and the Beast whose number is 666 probably represents him. [...] Revelation also draws many parallels between "Babylon" (Rome) and the New Jerusalem. [...] In John's social situation the emperor did appear to be the Almighty, and Rome did appear to be the Heavenly City" (attributed to the public domain)

## Bibliography

[edit]

### Ancient sources

[edit]

* Josephus (1737a) [c. 75 AD]. "Books II–VI". The Jewish War. Translated by William Whiston.
* Josephus (1737b) [c. 94 AD]. "Chapters XIX–XX". Antiquities of the Jews. Translated by William Whiston.
* Plutarch (1923) [c. 100 AD]. "Life of Galba". Parallel Lives. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin.
* P. Cornelius Tacitus (1925) [c. 105 AD]. "Books 1–4". Histories. Translated by Frederick W. Shipley. Loeb Classical Library.
* P. Cornelius Tacitus (1924) [c. 116 AD]. "Books 13–16". Annals. Translated by Frederick W. Shipley. Loeb Classical Library.
* C. Suetonius Tranquillus (1914) [c. AD 121]. "Life of Nero". The Twelve Caesars. Translated by John Carew Rolfe. Loeb Classical Library.
* Philostratus (1912) [c. 220]. "Books 4–5". Life of Apollonius of Tyana. Translated by F. C. Conybeare. Loeb Classical Library.
* L. Cassius Dio (1927) [c. 230]. "Books 61–63". Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. Loeb Classical Library.

### Modern sources

[edit]

* Barrett, Anthony A. (2010), "Nero", in Gagarin, Michael (ed.), Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6
* Champlin, Edward (2005). Nero. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01822-8.
* Malitz, Jürgen (2005). Nero. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-4475-9.
* Shotter, David (2016). Nero Caesar Augustus: Emperor of Rome. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-14015-8.
* Shotter, David (2012). Nero. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-36432-9.
* ¨Osgood, Josiah (2011). Claudius Caesar: Image and Power in the Early Roman Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88181-4.
* Barrett, Anthony A.; Fantham, Elaine; Yardley, John C. (2016). The Emperor Nero: A Guide to the Ancient Sources. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8110-9.
* Drinkwater, John F. (2019). Nero. Emperor and Court. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-47264-7.
* Buckley, Emma; Dinter, Martin (2013). A Companion to the Neronian Age. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1118316535.
* Griffin, Miriam T. (2002). Nero: The End of a Dynasty. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-61044-0.
* Scullard, H.H. (2011). From the Gracchi to Nero: a history of Rome 133 B.C. to A.D. 68. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-58488-3.
* Rogers, Robert Samuel (1955). "Heirs and Rivals to Nero". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 86: 190–212\. doi:10.2307/283618. ISSN 0065-9711. JSTOR 283618.
* Pelham, Henry Francis (1911). "Nero" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 390–393.

## External links

[edit]

Nero at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Media from Commons
* Quotations from Wikiquote

* International Society for Neronian Studies
* Nero, Roman Emperor, Encyclopædia Britannica online
* The Roman Empire in the First Century: Nero, PBS.org
* Nero (37 AD – 68 AD), BBC.co.uk
* Emperor Nero: Facts & Biography, Live Science online
* Roman Emperor Nero: Rethinking Nero, National Geographic online

Nero

Julio-Claudian dynasty

Born: 15 December 37 Died: 9 June 68

Political offices
Preceded by

Claudius

|  Roman emperor
54–68  | Succeeded by

Galba

Preceded by

M. Aefulanus,
and ignotus

as suffect consuls  |  Roman consul

with L. Antistius Vetus | Succeeded by

Numerius Cestius

as suffect consul
Preceded by

L. Duvius Avitus, and
P. Clodius Thrasea Paetus

as suffect consuls  |  Roman consul
57–58
with L. Calpurnius Piso (57)
M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus (58) | Succeeded by

C. Fonteius Agrippa

as suffect consul
Preceded by

T. Sextius Africanus,
and M. Ostorius Scapula

as suffect consuls  |  Roman consul

with Cossus Cornelius Lentulus | Succeeded by

C. Velleius Paterculus,
and M. Manilius Vopiscus

as suffect consuls
Preceded by

Ti. Catius Asconius Silius Italicus,
and P. Galerius Trachalus

as ordinary consuls  |  Roman consul
68 (suffect)
sine collega | Succeeded by

C. Bellicius Natalis,
and P. Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus

as suffect consuls

* v
* t
* e

Roman and Byzantine emperors and empresses regnant

Principate
27 BC – AD 235|

* Augustus
* Tiberius
* Caligula
* Claudius
* Nero
* Galba
* Otho
* Vitellius
* Vespasian
* Titus
* Domitian
* Nerva
* Trajan
* Hadrian
* Antoninus Pius
* Marcus Aurelius
* Lucius Verus
* Commodus
* Pertinax
* Didius Julianus
* Septimius Severus
* Caracalla
* Geta
* Macrinus (w. Diadumenian)
* Elagabalus
* Severus Alexander

Crisis
235–284|

* Maximinus I
* Gordian I
* Gordian II
* Pupienus
* Balbinus
* Gordian III
* Philip I (w. Philip II)
* Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus)
* Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus)
* Aemilianus
* Silbannacus (?)
* Valerian
* Gallienus (w. Saloninus)
* Claudius II
* Quintillus
* Aurelian
* Tacitus
* Florianus
* Probus
* Carus
* Carinus
* Numerian

Later Roman Empire
284–641|

* Diocletian
* Maximian
* Galerius
* Constantius I
* Severus II
* Constantine I
* Maxentius
* Licinius
* Maximinus II
* Valerius Valens
* Martinian
* Constantine II
* Constantius II
* Constans I
* Magnentius
* Nepotianus
* Vetranio
* Julian
* Jovian
* Valentinian I
* Valens
* Procopius
* Gratian
* Theodosius I
* Valentinian II
* Magnus Maximus (w. Victor)
* Eugenius

| Western Empire
395–476|

* Honorius
* Constantine III (w. Constans II)
* Priscus Attalus
* Constantius III
* Joannes
* Valentinian III
* Petronius Maximus
* Avitus
* Majorian
* Severus III
* Anthemius
* Olybrius
* Glycerius
* Julius Nepos
* Romulus Augustulus

|

Eastern Empire
395–641|

* Arcadius
* Theodosius II
* Marcian
* Leo I
* Leo II
* Zeno
* Basiliscus (w. Marcus)
* Anastasius I
* Justin I
* Justinian I
* Justin II
* Tiberius II Constantine
* Maurice (w. Theodosius)
* Phocas
* Heraclius

Eastern/
Byzantine Empire
641–1453|

* Constantine III
* Heraclonas (w. Tiberius)
* Constans II
* Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius)
* Justinian II
* Leontius
* Tiberius III
* Justinian II (w. Tiberius)
* Philippicus
* Anastasius II
* Theodosius III
* Leo III
* Constantine V
* Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros)
* Leo IV
* Constantine VI
* Irene
* Nikephoros I
* Staurakios
* Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios)
* Leo V (w. Constantine)
* Michael II
* Theophilos (w. Constantine)
* Michael III (w. Thekla)
* Basil I (w. Constantine)
* Leo VI
* Alexander
* Constantine VII
* Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher, Romanos (?), Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos)
* Romanos II
* Nikephoros II Phokas
* John I Tzimiskes
* Basil II
* Constantine VIII
* Zoe
* Romanos III Argyros
* Michael IV
* Michael V
* Constantine IX Monomachos
* Theodora
* Michael VI Bringas
* Isaac I Komnenos
* Constantine X Doukas
* Eudokia Makrembolitissa
* Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros)
* Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos, Konstantios & Constantine Doukas)
* Nikephoros III Botaneiates
* Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas)
* John II Komnenos (w. Alexios)
* Manuel I Komnenos
* Alexios II Komnenos
* Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John)
* Isaac II Angelos
* Alexios III Angelos
* Alexios IV Angelos
* Alexios V Doukas
* Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas)
* John III Vatatzes
* Theodore II Laskaris
* John IV Laskaris
* Michael VIII Palaiologos
* Andronikos II Palaiologos (w. Irene)
* Michael IX Palaiologos
* Andronikos III Palaiologos
* John V Palaiologos (w. Anna)
* John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew)
* Andronikos IV Palaiologos
* John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V)
* Manuel II Palaiologos
* John VIII Palaiologos
* Constantine XI Palaiologos

See also|

* Gallic emperors (260–274)
* Palmyrene emperors (271–273)
* Britannic emperors (286–296)
* Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461)
* Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242)
* Empresses
* Augustae
* Usurpers
* Classical
* Eastern

Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper

* v
* t
* e

Ancient Olympic Games

General|

* Archaeological Museum of Olympia
* Ancient Greek Olympic festivals
* Hellanodikai
* Stadium at Olympia

Sports|

| Foot races|

* Diaulos
* Dolichos
* Hoplitodromos
* Stadion

|

Horse races|

* Apene
* Chariot of polos
* Decapolon
* Kalpe
* Keles
* Perfect chariot
* Polos
* Synoris
* Synoris of polos
* Tethrippon
* Tethrippon of polos

Combat|

* Boxing
* Pankration
* Wrestling

Special|

* Herald and Trumpet contest
* Pentathlon

Winners|

* Acanthus of Sparta
* Agasias of Arcadia
* Agesarchus of Tritaea
* Alcibiades of Athens
* Alexander I of Macedon
* Anaxilas of Messenia
* Aratus of Sicyon
* Archelaus of Macedon
* Arrhichion of Phigalia
* Arsinoe II
* Astylos of Croton
* Berenice II of Egypt
* Bilistiche
* Chaeron of Pellene
* Chilon of Patras
* Chionis of Sparta
* Cimon Coalemos
* Coroebus of Elis
* Cylon of Athens
* Cynisca of Sparta
* Damarchus
* Demaratus of Sparta
* Desmon of Corinth
* Diagoras of Rhodes
* Diocles of Corinth
* Ergoteles of Himera
* Euryleonis
* Herodorus of Megara
* Hiero I of Syracuse
* Hypenus of Elis
* Hysmon of Elis
* Iccus of Taranto
* Leonidas of Rhodes
* Leophron
* Milo of Croton
* Myron of Sicyon
* Nero Caesar Augustus
* Oebotas of Dyme
* Onomastus of Smyrna
* Orsippus of Megara
* Peisistratos of Athens
* Phanas of Pellene
* Philinus of Cos
* Philip II of Macedon
* Philippus of Croton
* Phrynon of Athens
* Polydamas of Skotoussa
* Pythagoras of Laconia
* Pythagoras of Samos
* Sostratus of Pellene
* Theagenes of Thasos
* Theron of Acragas
* Tiberius Caesar Augustus
* Timasitheus of Delphi
* Troilus of Elis
* Varazdat of Armenia
* Xenophon of Aegium
* Xenophon of Corinth

Lists of winners|

* Ancient Olympic victors
* Stadion race
* Archaic period
* Classical period
* Hellenistic period
* Roman period

* Olympic Games portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Pharaohs

Protodynastic to First Intermediate Period (<3150–2040 BC)

Period

Dynasty

* Pharaohs
* male
* female♀
* uncertain

|

Protodynastic
(pre-3150 BC)|

| Lower|

* Hedju Hor
* Ny-Hor
* Ni-Neith
* Hat-Hor
* Pu
* Hsekiu
* Khayu
* Tiu
* Thesh
* Neheb
* Wazner
* Mekh
* Double Falcon
* Wash

|

Upper|

* A
* Finger Snail
* Fish
* Elephant
* Stork
* Bull
* Scorpion I
* Crocodile
* Iry-Hor
* Ka
* Scorpion II
* Narmer / Menes

Early Dynastic
(3150–2686 BC)|

| I|

* Narmer / Menes
* Hor-Aha
* Djer
* Djet
* Den
* Anedjib
* Semerkhet
* Qa'a
* Sneferka
* Horus Bird

|

II|

* Hotepsekhemwy
* Nebra
* Nynetjer
* Ba
* Nubnefer
* Horus Sa
* Weneg-Nebty
* Wadjenes
* Senedj
* Seth-Peribsen
* Sekhemib-Perenmaat
* Neferkara I
* Neferkasokar
* Hudjefa I
* Khasekhemwy

Old Kingdom
(2686–2181 BC)|

| III|

* Djoser
* Sekhemkhet
* Sanakht
* Nebka
* Khaba
* Sedjes
* Qahedjet
* Huni

|

IV|

* Snefru
* Khufu
* Djedefre
* Khafre
* Bikheris
* Menkaure
* Shepseskaf
* Thamphthis

* Userkaf
* Sahure
* Neferirkare Kakai
* Neferefre
* Shepseskare
* Nyuserre Ini
* Menkauhor Kaiu
* Djedkare Isesi
* Unas

VI|

* Teti
* Userkare
* Pepi I
* Merenre Nemtyemsaf I
* Pepi II
* Merenre Nemtyemsaf II
* Netjerkare Siptah
* Neferka
* Nefer

1st Intermediate
(2181–2040 BC)|

| VII/VIII|

* Menkare
* Neferkare II
* Neferkare III Neby
* Djedkare Shemai
* Neferkare IV Khendu
* Merenhor
* Neferkamin
* Nikare
* Neferkare V Tereru
* Neferkahor
* Neferkare VI Pepiseneb
* Neferkamin Anu
* Qakare Iby
* Neferkaure
* Neferkauhor
* Neferirkare
* Wadjkare
* Khuiqer
* Khui
* Iytjenu

|

IX|

* Meryibre Khety
* Neferkare VII
* Nebkaure Khety
* Setut
* Imhotep

* Meryhathor
* Neferkare VIII
* Wahkare Khety
* Merykare

Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period (2040–1550 BC)

Period

Dynasty

* Pharaohs
* male
* female♀
* uncertain

|

Middle Kingdom
(2040–1802 BC)|

| XI|

* Mentuhotep I
* Intef I
* Intef II
* Intef III
* Mentuhotep II
* Mentuhotep III
* Mentuhotep IV

|

Nubia|

* Segerseni
* Qakare Ini
* Iyibkhentre

XII|

* Amenemhat I
* Senusret I
* Amenemhat II
* Senusret II
* Senusret III
* Amenemhat III
* Amenemhat IV
* Sobekneferu♀
* Seankhibtawy Seankhibra

2nd Intermediate
(1802–1550 BC)|

| XIII|

* Sekhemrekhutawy Sobekhotep
* Sonbef
* Nerikare
* Sekhemkare Amenemhat V
* Ameny Qemau
* Hotepibre
* Iufni
* Ameny Antef Amenemhet VI
* Semenkare Nebnuni
* Sehetepibre
* Sewadjkare
* Nedjemibre
* Khaankhre Sobekhotep
* Renseneb
* Hor
* Sekhemrekhutawy Khabaw
* Djedkheperew
* Sebkay
* Sedjefakare
* Wegaf
* Khendjer
* Imyremeshaw
* Sehetepkare Intef
* Seth Meribre
* Sobekhotep III
* Neferhotep I
* Sihathor
* Sobekhotep IV
* Merhotepre Sobekhotep
* Khahotepre Sobekhotep
* Wahibre Ibiau
* Merneferre Ay
* Merhotepre Ini
* Sankhenre Sewadjtu
* Mersekhemre Ined
* Sewadjkare Hori
* Merkawre Sobekhotep
* Mershepsesre Ini II
* Sewahenre Senebmiu
* Merkheperre
* Merkare
* Sewadjare Mentuhotep
* Seheqenre Sankhptahi

|

XIV|

* Yakbim Sekhaenre
* Ya'ammu Nubwoserre
* Qareh Khawoserre
* 'Ammu Ahotepre
* Maaibre Sheshi
* Nehesy
* Khakherewre
* Nebefawre
* Sehebre
* Merdjefare
* Sewadjkare III
* Nebdjefare
* Nebsenre
* Sekheperenre
* Bebnum
* 'Apepi
* Nuya
* Wazad
* Sheneh
* Shenshek
* Khamure
* Yakareb
* Yaqub-Har

XV|

* Sharek
* Semqen
* 'Aper-'Anati
* Salitis
* Sakir-Har
* Khyan
* Yanassi
* Apepi
* Khamudi

XVI|

* Djehuti
* Sobekhotep VIII
* Neferhotep III
* Mentuhotepi
* Nebiryraw I
* Nebiriau II
* Semenre
* Bebiankh
* Sekhemre Shedwast
* Dedumose I
* Dedumose II
* Montuemsaf
* Merankhre Mentuhotep
* Senusret IV
* Pepi III

Abydos|

* Senebkay
* Wepwawetemsaf
* Pantjeny
* Snaaib

XVII|

* Rahotep
* Nebmaatre
* Sobekemsaf I
* Sobekemsaf II
* Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef
* Nubkheperre Intef
* Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef
* Senakhtenre Ahmose
* Seqenenre Tao
* Kamose

New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period (1550–664 BC)

Period

Dynasty

* Pharaohs  (male
* female♀)
* uncertain

|

New Kingdom
(1550–1070 BC)|

| XVIII|

* Ahmose I
* Amenhotep I
* Thutmose I
* Thutmose II
* Hatshepsut♀
* Thutmose III
* Amenhotep II
* Thutmose IV
* Amenhotep III
* Akhenaten
* Smenkhkare
* Neferneferuaten♀
* Tutankhamun
* Ay
* Horemheb

|

XIX|

* Ramesses I
* Seti I
* Ramesses II
* Merneptah
* Amenmesses
* Seti II
* Siptah
* Tausret♀

XX|

* Setnakhte
* Ramesses III
* Ramesses IV
* Ramesses V
* Ramesses VI
* Ramesses VII
* Ramesses VIII
* Ramesses IX
* Ramesses X
* Ramesses XI
* Ramesses XII

3rd Intermediate
(1069–664 BC)|

| XXI|

* Smendes
* Amenemnisu
* Psusennes I
* Amenemope
* Osorkon the Elder
* Siamun
* Psusennes II

|

High Priests of Amun|

* Herihor
* Pinedjem I
* Menkheperre

XXII|

* Shoshenq I
* Osorkon I
* Heqakheperre Shoshenq IIa
* Tutkheperre Shoshenq IIb
* Maatkheperre Shoshenq IIc
* Takelot I
* Osorkon II
* Shoshenq III
* Shoshenq IV
* Pami I
* Shoshenq V

Lines of XXII/XXIII|

* Harsiese
* Takelot II
* Pedubast I
* Iuput I
* Shoshenq VI
* Osorkon III
* Takelot III
* Rudamun
* Shoshenq VII
* Menkheperre Ini
* Iuput II of Leontopolis
* Peftjauawybast of Herakleopolis
* Nimlot I of Hermopolis
* Djehutyemhat of Hermopolis
* Nimlot II of Hermopolis
* Padinemti of Hermopolis

XXIII|

* Pedubast II
* Osorkon IV
* Pami II
* Gemenefkhonsbak
* Pedubast III

XXIV|

* Tefnakht
* Bakenranef

XXV|

* Piye
* Shebitku
* Shabaka
* Taharqa
* Tanutamun

Late to Roman Period (664 BC–313 AD)

Period

Dynasty

* Pharaohs
* male
* female♀
* uncertain

|

Late
(664–332 BC)|

| XXVI|

* Ammeris
* Tefnakht II
* Nekauba
* Necho I
* Psamtik I
* Necho II
* Psamtik II
* Wahibre
* Ahmose II
* Psamtik III

|

XXVII|

* Cambyses II
* Petubastis III
* Darius I
* Psammetichus IV
* Xerxes
* Artaxerxes I
* Darius II

XXVIII|

* Amyrtaeus

XXIX|

* Nepherites I
* Hakor
* Psammuthes
* Nepherites II
* Muthis

XXX|

* Nectanebo I
* Teos
* Nectanebo II

XXXI|

* Artaxerxes III
* Khabash
* Arses
* Darius III

Hellenistic
(332–30 BC)|

| Argead|

* Alexander the Great
* Philip III Arrhidaeus
* Alexander IV

|

Ptolemaic|

* Ptolemy I Soter
* Ptolemy II Philadelphus
* Ptolemy III Euergetes
* Ptolemy IV Philopator
* Ptolemy V Epiphanes
* Ptolemy VI Philometor
* Cleopatra II♀
* Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
* Ptolemy VIII Euergetes
* Cleopatra III♀
* Ptolemy IX Soter
* Ptolemy X Alexander I
* Berenice III♀
* Ptolemy XI Alexander II
* Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos
* Cleopatra V♀
* Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀
* Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀
* Cleopatra VII Philopator♀
* Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator
* Arsinoe IV♀
* Ptolemy XIV Philopator
* Ptolemy XV Caesarion

Roman
(30 BC–313 AD)|

| XXXIV|

* Augustus
* Tiberius
* Caligula
* Claudius
* Nero
* Galba
* Otho
* Vitellius
* Vespasian
* Titus
* Domitian
* Nerva
* Trajan
* Hadrian
* Antoninus Pius
* Lucius Verus
* Marcus Aurelius
* Commodus
* Pertinax
* Pescennius Niger
* Septimius Severus
* Geta
* Caracalla
* Macrinus
* Diadumenian
* Elagabalus
* Severus Alexander
* Maximinus Thrax
* Gordian I
* Gordian II
* Pupienus
* Balbinus
* Gordian III
* Philip
* Decius
* Trebonianus Gallus
* Aemilianus
* Valerian
* Macrianus Minor
* Quietus
* Lucius Mussius Aemilianus
* Gallienus
* Claudius Gothicus
* Quintillus
* Aurelian
* Tacitus
* Probus
* Carus
* Carinus
* Numerian
* Diocletian
* Maximian
* Galerius
* Maximinus Daza

|

Dynastic genealogies

* 1st
* 2nd
* 3rd
* 4th
* 11th
* 12th
* 18th
* 19th
* 20th
* 21st to 23rd
* 24th
* 25th
* 26th
* 27th
* 30th
* 31st
* Argead
* Ptolemaic

List of pharaohs

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* 2
* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Latvia
* Chile
* Sweden
* Poland
* Vatican
* Israel
* Finland
* Catalonia
* Belgium

Artists|

* ULAN
* MusicBrainz
* FID

People|

* Deutsche Biographie
* DDB

Other|

* IdRef
* SNAC
* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa
*[b.]: Babylonian