Norse colonization of North America

This article is about the Viking presence in the western Arctic. For the Swedish, see Swedish colonization of the Americas. For Danish-Norwegian, see Danish colonization of the Americas.

Part of a series on the

Norse colonization
of North America

Leiv Eirikson Discovering America, 1893 painting by Christian Krohg

Places

* Vinland
* Markland
* Helluland
* L'Anse aux Meadows
* Eastern Settlement
* Western Settlement
* Middle Settlement
* Gunnbjörn's skerries
* Great Ireland
* Tanfield Valley
* Straumfjörð

Alleged artifacts

* Maine penny
* Skálholt Map
* Kensington Runestone
* Vinland Map

Explorers

* Erik the Red
* Leif Erikson
* Thorvald Eiriksson
* Freydís Eiríksdóttir
* Gunnbjörn Ulfsson
* Snæbjörn galti
* Bjarni Herjólfsson
* Thorfinn Karlsefni
* Helgi and Finnbogi

Literature

* Saga of Erik the Red
* Saga of the Greenlanders
* Flateyjarbók
* Hauksbók
* Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum
* Book of Icelanders
* Skræling
* Greenlandic Norse

Researchers

* Galvano Fiamma
* Adam of Bremen
* Carl Christian Rafn
* Helge Ingstad
* Anne Stine Ingstad
* Birgitta Wallace
* Patricia Sutherland
* Robert McGhee
* Gwyn Jones
* William W. Fitzhugh

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Part of a series on

European colonization
of the Americas

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* Curonian
* Danish
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* Colonization of Canada
* Colonization of the United States
* Decolonization

History portal

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The Norse exploration of North America began in the late 10th century, when Norsemen explored areas of the North Atlantic colonizing Greenland and creating a short term settlement near the northern tip of Newfoundland. This is known now as L'Anse aux Meadows where the remains of buildings were found in 1960 dating to approximately 1,000 years ago.[1][2][3] This discovery helped reignite archaeological exploration for the Norse in the North Atlantic.[4] This single settlement, located on the island of Newfoundland and not on the North American mainland, was abruptly abandoned.

The Norse settlements on Greenland lasted for almost 500 years. L'Anse aux Meadows, the only confirmed Norse site in present-day Canada,[5] was small and did not last as long. Other such Norse voyages are likely to have occurred for some time, but there is no evidence of any Norse settlement on mainland North America lasting beyond the 11th century.

The Norse exploration of North America has been subject to numerous controversies concerning the European exploration and settlement of North America.[6] Pseudoscientific and pseudohistorical theories have emerged since the public acknowledgment of these Norse expeditions and settlements.[6]

## Norse Greenland

[edit]

Main article: Norse settlements in Greenland

A map of the Eastern Settlement on Greenland, covering approximately the modern municipality of Kujalleq. Eiriksfjord (Erik's fjord) and his farm Brattahlíð are shown, as is the location of the bishopric at Gardar.

According to the Sagas of Icelanders, Norsemen from Iceland first settled Greenland in the 980s. There is no special reason to doubt the authority of the information that the sagas supply regarding the very beginning of the settlement, but they cannot be treated as primary evidence for the history of Norse Greenland because they embody the literary preoccupations of writers and audiences in medieval Iceland that are not always reliable.[7]

Erik the Red (Old Norse: Eiríkr rauði), having been banished from Iceland for manslaughter, explored the uninhabited southwestern coast of Greenland during the three years of his banishment.[8][9] He made plans to entice settlers to the area, naming it Greenland on the assumption that "people would be more eager to go there because the land had a good name".[10] The inner reaches of one long fjord, named Eiriksfjord after him, was where he eventually established his estate Brattahlíð. He issued tracts of land to his followers.[11]

Map showing the extent of the Norse world

Norse Greenland consisted of two settlements. The Eastern was at the southwestern tip of Greenland, while the Western Settlement was about 500 km up the west coast, inland from present-day Nuuk. A smaller settlement near the Eastern Settlement is sometimes considered the Middle Settlement. The combined population was around 2,000–3,000.[12] At least 400 farms have been identified by archaeologists.[11] Norse Greenland had a bishopric (at Garðar) and exported walrus ivory, furs, rope, sheep, whale and seal blubber, live animals such as polar bears, supposed "unicorn horns" (in reality narwhal tusks), and cattle hides. In 1126, the population requested a bishop (headquartered at Garðar), and in 1261, they accepted the overlordship of the Norwegian king. They continued to have their own law and became almost completely politically independent after 1349, the time of the Black Death. In 1380, the Kingdom of Norway entered into a personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark.[13]

### Western trade and decline

[edit]

There is evidence of Norse trade with the natives (called the Skrælingjar by the Norse). The Norse would have encountered both Native Americans (the Beothuk, related to the Algonquin) and the Thule, the ancestors of the Inuit. The Dorset had withdrawn from Greenland before the Norse settlement of the island. Items such as comb fragments, pieces of iron cooking utensils and chisels, chess pieces, ship rivets, carpenter's planes, and oaken ship fragments used in Inuit boats have been found far beyond the traditional range of Norse colonization. A small ivory statue that appears to represent a European has also been found among the ruins of an Inuit community house.[13]

Map showing the expansion of the Thule people (900 to 1500)

The settlements began to decline in the 14th century. The Western Settlement was abandoned around 1350, and the last bishop at Garðar died in 1377.[13] After a marriage was recorded in 1408, no written records mention the settlers. It is probable that the Eastern Settlement was defunct by the late 15th century. The most recent radiocarbon date found in Norse settlements as of 2002 was 1430 (±15 years).[14] Several theories have been advanced to explain the decline.

The Little Ice Age of this period would have made travel between Greenland and Europe, as well as farming, more difficult; although seal and other hunting provided a healthy diet, there was more prestige in cattle farming, and there was increased availability of farms in Scandinavian countries depopulated by famine and plague epidemics.[15] In addition, Greenlandic ivory may have been supplanted in European markets by cheaper ivory from Africa.[16] Despite the loss of contact with the Greenlanders, the Norwegian-Danish crown continued to consider Greenland a possession.

Not knowing whether the old Norse civilization remained in Greenland or not—and worried that if it did, it would still be Catholic 200 years after the Scandinavian homelands had undergone the Reformation—a joint merchant-clerical expedition led by the Norwegian missionary Hans Egede was sent to Greenland in 1721.[17] Though this expedition found no surviving Europeans, it marked the beginning of Denmark's re-assertion of sovereignty over the island.[18]

### Climate and Norse Greenland

[edit]

Norse Greenlanders were limited to scattered fjords on the island that provided a spot for their animals (such as cattle, sheep, goats, dogs, and cats) to be kept and farms to be established.[19][20] In these fjords, the farms depended upon stables (byres) to host their livestock in the winter, and routinely culled their herds so that they could survive the season.[19][20][21] The coming warmer seasons meant that livestock were taken from their byres to pasture, the most fertile being controlled by the most powerful farms and the church.[20][21][22] What was produced by livestock and farming was supplemented with subsistence hunting of mainly seal and caribou as well as walrus for trade.[19][20][21] The Norse mainly relied on the Nordrsetur hunt, a communal hunt of migratory harp seals in the spring.[19][22]

Trade was highly important to the Greenland Norse and they relied on imports of lumber due to the barrenness of Greenland. In turn they exported goods such as walrus ivory and hide, live polar bears, and narwhal tusks.[21][22] Ultimately these setups were vulnerable as they relied on migratory patterns created by climate as well as the viability of the few fjords on the island.[20][22] A portion of the time the Greenland settlements existed was during the Little Ice Age and the climate was, overall, becoming cooler and more humid.[19][20][21] As climate began to cool and humidity began to increase, this brought more storms, longer winters and shorter springs, and affected the migratory patterns of the harp seal.[19][20][21][22] Pasture space began to dwindle and fodder yields for the winter became much smaller. This combined with regular herd culling made it hard to maintain livestock, especially for the poorest of the Greenland Norse.[19] Closer to the Eastern Settlement, temperatures remained stable but a prolonged drought reduced fodder production.[23] In spring, the voyages to where migratory harp seals could be found became more dangerous due to more frequent storms, and the lower population of harp seals meant that Nordrsetur hunts became less successful, making subsistence hunting extremely difficult.[19][20] The strain on resources made trade difficult, and as time went on, Greenland exports lost value in the European market due to competing countries and the lack of interest in what was being traded.[22] Trade in elephant ivory began competing with the trade in walrus tusks that provided income to Greenland, and there is evidence that walrus over-hunting, particularly of the males with larger tusks, led to walrus population declines.[24]

In addition, it seemed that the Norse were unwilling to integrate with the Thule people of Greenland, through either marriage or culture. There is evidence of contact as seen through the Thule archaeological record, including ivory depictions of the Norse as well as bronze and steel artifacts. In the 20th century, there was little evidence for Thule artifacts among Norse habitations,[19] however it is now known that Thule artifacts are found among Norse habitations, indicating that both groups acquired material goods from each other.[25] The older research posited that it was not climate change alone that led to Norse decline, but also their unwillingness to adapt.[19] For example, if the Norse had decided to focus their subsistence hunting on the ringed seal (which could be hunted year round, though individually), and decided to reduce or do away with their communal hunts, food would have been much less scarce during the winter season.[20][21][22][26] Also, had Norse individuals used skins instead of wool for their clothing, they would have fared better nearer to the coast, and would not have been as confined to the fjords.[20][21][22]

However, more recent research has shown that the Norse did try to adapt in their own ways. This included increased subsistence hunting. A significant number of bones of marine animals can be found at the settlements, suggesting increased hunting with the absence of farmed food. In addition, pollen records show that the Norse did not always devastate the small forests and foliage, as previously thought. Instead they ensured that overgrazed or overused sections were given time to regrow and moved to other areas. Norse farmers also attempted to adapt; with the increased need for winter fodder and smaller pastures, they would self-fertilize their lands to try to keep up with the new demands caused by the changing climate.[27] However, even with these attempts, climate change was not the only thing putting pressure on the Greenland Norse. The economy was changing, and the exports they relied on were losing value.[22] Current research suggests that the Norse were unable to maintain their settlements because of economic and climatic change happening at the same time.[27]

A 2022 study indicates that gravitational effects from a readvance of the Southern Greenland Ice Sheet caused a relative sea level rise of "up to ~3.3 m outside the glaciation zone during Viking settlement, producing shoreline retreat of hundreds of meters. Sea-level rise was progressive and encompassed the entire Eastern Settlement. Moreover, pervasive flooding would have forced abandonment of many coastal sites. These processes likely contributed to the suite of vulnerabilities that led to Viking abandonment of Greenland. Sea-level change thus represents an integral, missing element of the Viking story."[28]

## Vinland

[edit]

Main articles: Vinland and L'Anse aux Meadows

According to the Icelandic sagas—Saga of Erik the Red,[29] plus chapters of the Hauksbók and the Flatey Book—the Norse started to explore lands to the west of Greenland only a few years after the Greenland settlements were established. In 985, while sailing from Iceland to Greenland with a migration fleet consisting of 400–700 settlers[11] and 25 other ships (14 of which completed the journey), a merchant named Bjarni Herjólfsson was blown off course, and after three days' sailing he sighted land west of the fleet. Bjarni was only interested in finding his father's farm, but he described his findings to Leif Erikson who explored the area in more detail and planted a small settlement fifteen years later.[11]

The sagas describe three separate areas that were explored: Helluland, which means "land of the flat stones"; Markland, "the land of forests", definitely of interest to settlers in Greenland where there were few trees; and Vinland, "the land of wine", found somewhere south of Markland. It was in Vinland that the settlement described in the sagas was founded.

Markland was first mentioned in the Mediterranean area in 1345 by the Milanese friar Galvaneus Flamma. He probably derived it from oral sources in Genoa.[30]

### Leif's winter camp

[edit]

Graphical description of the different sailing routes to Greenland, Vinland (Newfoundland), Helluland, (Baffin Island) and Markland (Labrador) travelled by different characters in the Icelandic Sagas, mainly Saga of Eric the Red and Saga of the Greenlanders. Modern English versions of the Norse names.

Using the routes, landmarks, currents, rocks, and winds that Bjarni had described to him, Leif sailed from Greenland westward across the Labrador Sea, with a crew of 35—sailing the same knarr Bjarni had used to make the voyage. He described Helluland as "level and wooded, with broad white beaches wherever they went and a gently sloping shoreline."[11] Leif and others had wanted his father, Erik the Red, to lead this expedition and talked him into it. However, as Erik attempted to join his son Leif on the voyage towards these new lands, he fell off his horse as it slipped on the wet rocks near the shore; thus he was injured and stayed behind.[11]

Sometime around AD 1000, Leif spent the winter, probably near Cape Bauld on the northern tip of Newfoundland, where one day his foster father Tyrker was found drunk, on what the saga describes as "wine-berries." Squashberries, gooseberries, and cranberries all grew wild in the area. There are varying explanations for Leif apparently describing fermented berries as "wine."

Leif spent another winter at "Leifsbudir" without conflict, and sailed back to Brattahlíð in Greenland to assume filial duties to his father.

### Thorvald's voyage

[edit]

A couple of years later,[31] Leif's brother Thorvald Eiriksson sailed with a crew of 30 men to Vinland and spent the following winter at Leif's camp. In the spring, Thorvald attacked nine of the native people who were sleeping under three skin-covered canoes. The ninth victim escaped and soon came back to the Norse camp with a force. Thorvald was killed by an arrow that succeeded in passing through the barricade. Although brief hostilities ensued, the Norse explorers stayed another winter and left the following spring. Subsequently, another of Leif's brothers, Thorstein, sailed to the New World to retrieve his dead brother's body, but he died before leaving Greenland.[11]

Summer in the Greenland coast circa year 1000 by Jens Erik Carl Rasmussen (1841–1893)

### Karlsefni's expedition

[edit]

A few years later,[31] Thorfinn Karlsefni, also known as "Thorfinn the Valiant", supplied three ships with livestock and 160 men and women (although another source sets the number of settlers at 250). After a cruel winter, he headed south and landed at Straumfjörð.[32] He later moved to Straumsöy, possibly because the current was stronger there. A sign of peaceful relations between the indigenous peoples and the Norsemen is noted here. The two sides bartered with furs and gray squirrel skins for milk and red cloth,[33] which the natives tied around their heads as a sort of headdress.

There are conflicting stories but one account states that a bull belonging to Karlsefni came storming out of the wood, so frightening the natives that they ran to their skin-boats and rowed away. They returned three days later, in force. The natives used catapults, hoisting "a large sphere on a pole; it was dark blue in color"[34] and about "the size of a sheep's stomach",[35] which flew over the heads of the men and "made an ugly din when it struck the ground".[34]

The Norsemen retreated. Leif Erikson's half-sister Freydís Eiríksdóttir was pregnant and unable to keep up with the retreating Norsemen. She called out to them to stop fleeing from "such pitiful wretches", adding that if she had weapons, she could do better than that. Freydís seized the sword belonging to a man who had been killed by the natives. She pulled one of her breasts out of her bodice and slapped it with the sword, frightening the natives, who fled.[36][37]

## Historiography

[edit]

The 1590 Skálholt Map showing Latinized Norse placenames in North America:[38]
• Land of the Risi (a mythical location)
• Greenland
• Helluland (Baffin Island)
• Markland (the Labrador Peninsula)
• Land of the Skræling (location undetermined)
• Promontory of Vinland (the Great Northern Peninsula)

For centuries, it remained unclear whether the Icelandic stories represented real voyages by the Norse to North America. Although the idea of Norse voyages to, and a colony in, North America was discussed by Swiss scholar Paul Henri Mallet in his book Northern Antiquities (English translation 1770),[39] the sagas first gained widespread attention in 1837 when the Danish antiquarian Carl Christian Rafn revived the idea of a Viking presence in North America.[40] North America, by the name Winland, first appeared in written sources in a work by Adam of Bremen from approximately 1075.[41] The most important works about North America and the early Norse activities there, namely the Sagas of Icelanders, were recorded in the 13th and 14th centuries. In 1420, some Inuit captives and their kayaks were taken to Scandinavia.[42][43] The Norse sites were depicted in the Skálholt Map, made by an Icelandic teacher in 1570 and depicting part of northeastern North America and mentioning Helluland, Markland and Vinland.[44]

A reconstruction of Norse buildings at the UNESCO listed L'Anse aux Meadows site in Newfoundland, Canada. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that iron working, carpentry, and boat repair were conducted at the site.[45]

Evidence of the Norse west of Greenland came in the 1960s when archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad and author Helge Ingstad excavated a Norse site at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland. They found a bronze, ring-headed pin like those the Norse used to fasten their cloaks inside the cooking pit of one of the larger dwellings. A stone oil lamp and a small spindle whorl, used as the flywheel of a handheld spindle, were found inside another building. A fragment of a bone needle believed to have been used for knitting was discovered in the firepit of a third dwelling. A small, decorated brass fragment, once gilded, was also discovered. Much slag formed as a by-product from the smelting and working of iron was found on the site along with many iron boat nails or rivets.[46]

In 2012, Canadian researchers identified possible signs of Norse outposts in Nanook at Tanfield Valley on Baffin Island, as well as on Nunguvik, Willows Island, and Avayalik.[47][48][49] Unusual fabric cordage found on Baffin Island in the 1980s and stored at the Canadian Museum of Civilization was identified in 1999 as possibly of Norse manufacture; that discovery led to more comprehensive exploration of the Tanfield Valley archaeological site for points of contact between Norse Greenlanders and the indigenous Dorset people.[50][51]

The location of L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland

In 2021, some wood from L'Anse aux Meadows that was chopped by an axe was dated to 1021, thus providing for the first time a certain date with regard to the Norse presence at the site.[52]

## Pseudohistory

[edit]

Purported runestones have been found in North America, most famously the Kensington Runestone. These are generally considered forgeries or misinterpretations of Native American petroglyphs.[53] There are many claims of Norse colonization in New England, none well founded.

Gordon Campbell's book Norse America, published in 2021, develops his thesis that the "fleeting and ill-documented" idea that Vikings "discovered America" quickly seduced Americans of northern European Protestant descent, some of whom went on to deliberately manufacture evidence to support it.[54] There is no physical evidence of a Norse presence in North America except for the far east of Canada.[55] Other so-called discoveries, mostly in the United States, have been rejected by scholars.[56] Supposed physical evidence has been found to be deliberately falsified or historically baseless, often to promote a political agenda. Literary critic Annette Kolodny criticized attempts to evoke what she termed "plastic vikings". These were fictional characters treated as historical figures, but "depicted variously as heroic warriors and empire builders, barbarous berserker invaders, fighters for freedom, courageous explorers, would-be colonists, seamen and merchants, poets and saga men, glorious ancestors, bloodthirsty pagan pirates, and civilized Christian converts" depending on the speaker or author.[57][58]

Monuments claimed to be Norse include:[59]

* Stone Tower in Newport, Rhode Island
* Viking Altar Rock
* Spirit Pond runestones
* AVM Runestone
* Hammer of Thor (monument)
* Bourne stone
* Narragansett Runestone
* Maine penny
* Ulen sword
* Beardmore Relics
* Oklahoma runestones
* The petroglyphs on Dighton Rock, from the Taunton River in Massachusetts The Kensington Runestone on display in the Alexandria Chamber of Commerce and Runestone Museum.

### Kensington Runestone

[edit]

Main article: Kensington Runestone

In late 1898, Swedish immigrant Olof Öhman stated that he found this rune in Kensington, Minnesota, while clearing land he had recently acquired.[60] He stated that the rune was lying face down and tangled in various roots near the crest of a small knoll within an area of wetlands. After Olaus J. Breda (1853–1916), professor of Scandinavian Languages and Literature in the Scandinavian Department at the University of Minnesota analyzed the inscriptions, he declared the rune-stone to be a forgery and published a discrediting article in Symra in 1910.[61] Breda also forwarded copies of the inscription to various contemporary Scandinavian linguists and historians, such as Oluf Rygh, Sophus Bugge, Gustav Storm, Magnus Olsen and Adolf Noreen. They "unanimously pronounced the Kensington inscription a fraud and forgery of recent date".[62]

### Horsford's Norumbega

[edit]

Main article: Eben Norton Horsford § Viking

The nineteenth-century Harvard chemist Eben Norton Horsford connected the Charles River Basin to places described in the Norse sagas and elsewhere, notably Norumbega.[63] He published several books on the topic and had plaques, monuments, and statues erected in honor of the Norse.[64] His work received little support from mainstream historians and archeologists at the time, and even less today.[65][66]

Other nineteenth-century writers, such as Horsford's friend Thomas Gold Appleton, in his A Sheaf of Papers (1875), and George Perkins Marsh, in his The Goths in New England, seized upon such false notions of Viking expansion history also to promote the superiority of white people (as well as to oppose the Catholic Church). Such misuse of Viking history and imagery reemerged in the twentieth century among some groups promoting white supremacy.[67]

Vinland map

### Vinland Map

[edit]

Main article: Vinland Map

During the mid-1960s, Yale University announced the acquisition of a map purportedly drawn around 1440 that showed Vinland and a legend concerning Norse voyages to the region.[68] However certain experts doubted the authenticity of the map, based on linguistic and cartographic inconsistencies. Chemical analysis of the map's ink later shed further doubts on its authenticity. Scientific debate continued until in 2021 the university finally acknowledged that the Vinland Map is a forgery.[69]

### Misattributed archeological findings

[edit]

Archeological findings in 2015 at Point Rosee,[70][71] on the southwest coast of Newfoundland, were originally thought to reveal evidence of a turf wall and the roasting of bog iron ore, and therefore a possible 10th century Norse settlement in Canada.[72] Findings from the 2016 excavation suggest the turf wall and the roasted bog iron ore discovered in 2015 were the result of natural processes.[73] The possible settlement was initially discovered through satellite imagery in 2014,[74] and archaeologists excavated the area in 2015 and 2016.[74][72] Birgitta Linderoth Wallace, one of the leading experts of Norse archaeology in North America and an expert on the Norse site at L'Anse aux Meadows, is unsure of the identification of Point Rosee as a Norse site.[75] Archaeologist Karen Milek was a member of the 2016 Point Rosee excavation and is a Norse expert. She also expressed doubt that Point Rosee was a Norse site as there are no good landing sites for their boats and there are steep cliffs between the shoreline and the excavation site.[76] In their 8 November 2017 report,[77] Sarah Parcak and Gregory Mumford, co-directors of the excavation, wrote that they "found no evidence whatsoever for either a Norse presence or human activity at Point Rosee prior to the historic period"[71] and that "none of the team members, including the Norse specialists, deemed this area as having any traces of human activity."[70]

## Duration of Norse contact

[edit]

Settlements in continental North America aimed to exploit natural resources such as furs and in particular lumber, which was in short supply in Greenland.[78] It is unclear why the short-term settlements did not become permanent, though it was likely in part because of hostile relations with the indigenous peoples, referred to as the Skræling by the Norse.[79] Nevertheless, it appears that sporadic voyages to Markland for forages, timber, and trade with the locals could have lasted as long as 400 years.[80][81]

James Watson Curran writes:

> From 985 to 1410, Greenland was in touch with the world. Then silence. In 1492 the Vatican noted that no news of that country "at the end of the world" had been received for 80 years, and the bishopric of the colony was offered to a certain ecclesiastic if he would go and "restore Christianity" there. He didn't go.[82]

## See also

[edit]

* Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
* Vestri Obygdir
* History of Greenland
* Gunnbjörn's skerries
* History of Nunavut
* History of Newfoundland
* Danish-Norwegian colonization of the Americas
* Leif Erikson Day
* List of North American settlements by year of foundation
* Akilineq
* Wonderstrands
* Vinland flag
* White Amazonian Indians

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Nydal, Reidar (1989). "A Critical Review of Radiocarbon Dating of a Norse Settlement at L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland Canada". Radiocarbon. 31 (3): 976–985. Bibcode:1989Radcb..31..976N. doi:10.1017/S0033822200012613. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 129636032.
2. ^ Cordell, Linda S.; Lightfoot, Kent; McManamon, Francis; Milner, George (2009). "L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site". Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 82\. ISBN 978-0-313-02189-3. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
3. ^ Kuitems, Margot; Wallace, Birgitta L.; Lindsay, Charles; Scifo, Andrea; Doeve, Petra; Jenkins, Kevin; Lindauer, Susanne; Erdil, Pınar; Ledger, Paul M.; Forbes, Véronique; Vermeeren, Caroline (20 October 2021). "Evidence for European presence in the Americas in ad 1021". Nature. 601 (7893): 388–391. Bibcode:2022Natur.601..388K. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 8770119. PMID 34671168.
4. ^ Fitzhugh, William W, 'Vikings: The north Atlantic saga', Anthronotes museum of natural history publication for education, available at www.anthropology.si.edu.
5. ^ "L'Anse aux Meadows". L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site of Canada. Parks Canada. 2018. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2018. "Here [L'Anse aux Meadows] Norse expeditions sailed from Greenland, building a small encampment of timber-and-sod buildings ..."
6. ^ a b Feder, Kenneth L. (2020). Frauds, myths, and mysteries : science and pseudoscience in archaeology (10 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 127–137. ISBN 978-0-19-009641-0. OCLC 1108812780. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2022.
7. ^ Grove, Jonathan. 2009. "The Place of Greenland in Medieval Icelandic Saga Narrative" Archived 26 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, in Norse Greenland: Selected Papers of the Hvalsey Conference 2008, Journal of the North Atlantic Special Volume 2, 30–51.
8. ^ He remained there making explorations for three years and decided to found a settlement there (Anderson, Rasmus B. (18 February 2004) [1906]. Hare, John Bruno (ed.). "Norse voyages in the tenth and following centuries". The Norse Discovery of America. Archived from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2008.).
9. ^ Reeves, Arthur Middleton; Anderson, Rasmus B. (1906). "Discovery and colonization of Greenland". Saga of Erik the Red. Archived from the original on 10 January 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2008. "The first winter he was at Eriksey, nearly in the middle of the Eastern Settlement; the spring after repaired he to Eriksfjord, and took up there his abode. He removed in summer to the western settlement, and gave to many places names. He was the second winter at Holm in Hrafnsgnipa, but the third summer went he to Iceland, and came with his ship into Breidafjord."
10. ^ Íslendingabók at Wikisource.
11. ^ a b c d e f g Wernick, Robert; The Seafarers: The Vikings (1979), 176 pages, Time-Life Books, Alexandria, Virginia: ISBN 0-8094-2709-5.
12. ^ Lynnerup, Niels (2014). "Endperiod Demographics of the Greenland Norse". Journal of the North Atlantic. 7 (sp7): 18–24. doi:10.3721/037.002.sp702. JSTOR 26671842. S2CID 163050538.
13. ^ a b c Wahlgren, Erik (1986). The Vikings and America. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-02109-0.
14. ^ Dugmore, Andrew J.; Keller, Christian; McGovern, Thomas H. (2007). "Norse Greenland Settlement: Reflections on Climate Change, Trade, and the Contrasting Fates or Human Settlements in the North Atlantic Islands". Arctic Anthropology. 44 (1): 12–36. doi:10.1353/arc.2011.0038. ISSN 0066-6939. JSTOR 40316683. PMID 21847839. S2CID 10030083. Archived from the original on 27 February 2022. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
15. ^ Stockinger, Günther (10 January 2012). "Archaeologists Uncover Clues to Why Vikings Abandoned Greenland". Der Spiegel Online. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2013.
16. ^ Seaver, Kirsten A. (2009). "Desirable Teeth: the Medieval Trade in Arctic and African Ivory". Journal of Global History. 4 (2). Cambridge University Press: 271–292. doi:10.1017/S1740022809003155. S2CID 153720935.
17. ^ Nedkvitne, Arnved (2018). Norse Greenland: Viking Peasants in the Arctic. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-25958-3. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
18. ^ Stern, Pamela (2021). The Inuit World. Routledge. pp. 179–182. ISBN 978-1-000-45613-4. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
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26. ^ McGovern, Thomas H. (1991). "Climate, Correlation, and Causation in Norse Greenland". Arctic Anthropology. 28 (2): 77–100. JSTOR 40316278.
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28. ^ Borreggine, Marisa; Latychev, Konstantin; Coulson, Sophie; Powell, Evelyn; Mitrovica, Jerry; Milne, Glenn; Alley, Richard (17 April 2023). "Sea-level rise in Southwest Greenland as a contributor to Viking abandonment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 120 (17): e2209615120. Bibcode:2023PNAS..12009615B. doi:10.1073/pnas.2209615120. PMC 10151458. PMID 37068242. S2CID 258189345.
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31. ^ a b See chronology here Archived 21 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
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33. ^ Magnusson & Pálsson1973" p. 30
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35. ^ Magnusson & Pálsson, 1973 p. 187
36. ^ Balkun, Mary McAleer; Imbarrato, Susan C. (2016). Women's Narratives of the Early Americas and the Formation of Empire. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 21\. ISBN 978-1-137-54320-2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2022.
37. ^ Gardeła, Leszek (2021). Women and Weapons in the Viking World: Amazons of the North. Oxbow Books. p. 93\. ISBN 978-1-78925-668-0. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
38. ^ "Skálholt Map" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
39. ^ Mallet, Paul Henri (1770). Description of the manners, &c. of the ancient Danes. Vol. I. T. Carnan and Company. pp. 282–289. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 20 May 2022. "Hitherto we have seen the Norwegians only making slight efforts to establish themselves in Vinland. The year after Thorstein's death proved more favourable to the design of settling a colony."
40. ^ Watts, Edward (2020). "The Norse Forefathers of the American Empire". Colonizing the Past: Mythmaking and Pre-Columbian Whites in Nineteenth-Century American Writing. University of Virginia Press. pp. 242–243. ISBN 978-0-8139-4388-6. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. "Translated to English and published on both sides of the Atlantic, Rafn's book, the interpretive translation of the Icelandic sagas originally transcribed by Snorri Sturluson and other Skaldic poets in the fourteenth century, catalyzed a transatlantic fascination with all things Viking. This would encompass more than the expected primordial land-based fantasy of a Norse origin. It also catalyzed a more durable blood-based fabrication that pushed the American appropriation of Gothic Anglo-Saxon identity deeper into the legendary past to its fictional roots in Scandinavian Teutonism by designating Anglo-Saxonism as a subculture of Norse Teutonism."
41. ^ Whittock, Martyn (2018). Tales of Valhalla. Simon and Schuster. p. 9\. ISBN 978-1-68177-912-6. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023.
42. ^ Weaver, Jace (2014). The Red Atlantic: American Indigenes and the Making of the Modern World, 1000–1927. UNC Press Books. p. 37\. ISBN 978-1-4696-1439-7. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023.
43. ^ Plank, Geoffrey (2020). Atlantic Wars: From the Fifteenth Century to the Age of Revolution. Oxford University Press. p. 5\. ISBN 978-0-19-086046-2. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023.
44. ^ Ingstad, Helga; Ingstad, Anne Stine (2001). The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse Settlement in L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland. Breeakwater Books. p. 111\. ISBN 978-0816047161. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023.
45. ^ Wallace, Birgitta. "L'Anse aux Meadows". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
46. ^ Mueller-Vollmer, Tristan; Wolf, Kirsten (2022). Vikings: An Encyclopedia of Conflict, Invasions, and Raids. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-4408-7730-8. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023.
47. ^ Pringle, Heather (19 October 2012). "Evidence of Viking Outpost Found in Canada". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. Archived from the original on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
48. ^ Pringle, Heather (November 2012). "Vikings and Native Americans". National Geographic. 221 (11). Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
49. ^ The Nature of Things (22 November 2012). "The Norse: An Arctic Mystery". CBC Television. Archived from the original on 27 November 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
50. ^ Sutherland, Patricia (2000). "Strands of Culture Contact: Dorset-Norse Interactions in the Canadian Eastern Arctic". In Appelt, Martin; Berglund, Joel; Gulløv, Hans Christian (eds.). Identities and Cultural Contacts in the Arctic: Proceedings from a Conference at the Danish National Museum, Copenhagen, 30 November to 2 December 1999. Copenhagen, Denmark: The Danish National Museum & Danish Polar Center. pp. 159–169. Archived from the original on 4 December 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
51. ^ "Strangers, Partners, Neighbors? Helluland Archaeology Project: Recent Finds". Canadian Museum of History. Archived from the original on 3 December 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
52. ^ Kuitems, Margot; Wallace, Birgitta L.; Lindsay, Charles; Scifo, Andrea; Doeve, Petra; Jenkins, Kevin; Lindauer, Susanne; Erdil, Pınar; Ledger, Paul M.; Forbes, Véronique; Vermeeren, Caroline (20 October 2021). "Evidence for European presence in the Americas in AD 1021". Nature. 601 (7893): 388–391. Bibcode:2022Natur.601..388K. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 8770119. PMID 34671168. S2CID 239051036. "Our result of AD 1021 for the cutting year constitutes the only secure calendar date for the presence of Europeans across the Atlantic before the voyages of Columbus. Moreover, the fact that our results, on three different trees, converge on the same year is notable and unexpected. This coincidence strongly suggests Norse activity at L'Anse aux Meadows in AD 1021. In addition, our research demonstrates the potential of the AD 993 anomaly in atmospheric 14C concentrations for pinpointing the ages of past migrations and cultural interactions."
53. ^ Annette Kolodny, "Fictions of American Prehistory: Indians, Archeology, and National Origin Myths", American Literature 75 4: 693–721, December 2003 full text at Project MUSE Archived 20 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
54. ^ Campbell, Gordon (2021). Norse America: The Story of a Founding Myth. Oxford University Press. pp. 27, 212. ISBN 978-0-19-886155-3. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023.
55. ^ Rotella, Carlo (Summer 2007). "Pulp History". Raritan. 27 (1). Rutgers University: 11–36.
56. ^ Kraft, Herbert C. (1989). "Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Indian/White Trade Relations in the Middle Atlantic and Northeast Regions". Archaeology of Eastern North America. 17: 1–29. ISSN 0360-1021.
57. ^ Watts, Edward (2020). "The Norse Forefathers of the American Empire". Colonizing the Past: Mythmaking and Pre-Columbian Whites in Nineteenth-Century American Writing. University of Virginia Press. p. 243\. ISBN 978-0-8139-4388-6.
58. ^ Kolodny, Annette (2012). In Search of First Contact. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. p. 204.
59. ^ Christopher Klein, "Uncovering New England's Viking connections", Boston Globe, 23 November 2013 [1] Archived 25 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
60. ^ Campbell, Gordon (2021). Norse America: The Story of a Founding Myth. Oxford University Press. p. 173\. ISBN 978-0-19-886155-3. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023.
61. ^ Breda, Olaus (1910). "Kensington-stenen". Symra. pp. 65–80.
62. ^ Blegen, Theodore Christian (1968). The Kensington rune stone; new light on an old riddle. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society. ISBN 0-87351-044-5. OCLC 190744.
63. ^ Robin Fleming (1995). "Picturesque History and the Medieval in Nineteenth-Century America". The American Historical Review. 100 (4): 1079–1082. doi:10.1086/ahr/100.4.1061. JSTOR 2168201.
64. ^ Eben Norton Horsford; Edward Henry Clement (1890). The discovery of the ancient city of Norumbega: A communication to the president and council of the American Geographical Society at their special session in Watertown, November 21, 1889. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 14.
65. ^ Steven Williams, Fantastic Archaeology: The Wild Side of North American Prehistory, 1991.
66. ^ Gloria Polizzotti Greis "Vikings on the Charles or The Strange Saga of Dighton Rock, Norumbega, and Rumford Double-Acting Baking Powder". Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2012.. Needham Historical Society
67. ^ Regal, Brian (November–December 2019). "Everything Means Something in Viking". Skeptical Inquirer. Vol. 43, no. 6\. Center for Inquiry. pp. 44–47.
68. ^ Cummings, Mike (1 September 2021). "Analysis unlocks secret of the Vinland Map — it's a fake". YaleNews. Archived from the original on 15 September 2021. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
69. ^ Yuhas, Alan (30 September 2021). "Yale Says Its Vinland Map, Once Called a Medieval Treasure, Is Fake". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 21 November 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.
70. ^ a b Bird, Lindsay (30 May 2018). "Archeological quest for Codroy Valley Vikings comes up short – Report filed with province states no Norse activity found at dig site". CBC. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
71. ^ a b McKenzie-Sutter, Holly. "No Viking presence in southern Newfoundland after all, American researcher finds". The Canadian Press. Archived from the original on 18 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
72. ^ a b Strauss, Mark (31 March 2016). "Discovery Could Rewrite History of Vikings in New World". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2016. "Sarah Parcak, a National Geographic Fellow and "space archaeologist" who has used satellite imagery to locate lost Egyptian cities, temples, and tombs [...] supported, in part, by a grant from the National Geographic Society [...] led a team of archaeologists to Point Rosee last summer [2015] to conduct a "test excavation," a small-scale dig to search for initial evidence that the site merits further study."
73. ^ Pringle, Heather (March 2017). "Vikings". National Geographic. 231 (3). Archived from the original on 7 May 2017. Retrieved 14 May 2017. "During a small excavation in 2015, Parcak and her colleagues found what looked like a turf wall [...] But a larger excavation last summer [2016] cast serious doubt on those interpretations, suggesting that the turf wall and accumulation of bog ore were the results of natural processes"
74. ^ a b Kean, Gary (30 September 2017). "Update: Archaeologist thinks Codroy Valley may have once been visited by Vikings". The Western Star. Archived from the original on 26 September 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2018. "The expedition was documented by the PBS show "NOVA" in partnership with the BBC. The two-hour documentary, titled "Vikings Unearthed," will air on PBS [...]"
75. ^ Barry, Garrett (1 April 2016). "Potential Viking site found in Newfoundland". CBC. Archived from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2018.
76. ^ Bird, Lindsay (12 September 2016). "On the Trail of Vikings: Latest search for Norse in North America". CBC. Archived from the original on 31 May 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2018.
77. ^ Parcak, Sarah; Mumford, Gregory (8 November 2017). "Point Rosee, Codroy Valley, NL (ClBu-07) 2016 Test Excavations under Archaeological Investigation Permit #16.26" (PDF). geraldpennyassociates.com, 42 pages. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018. "[The 2015 and 2016 excavations] found no evidence whatsoever for either a Norse presence or human activity at Point Rosee prior to the historic period. ... None of the team members, including the Norse specialists, deemed this area as having any traces of human activity."
78. ^ Diamond, Jared: Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed
79. ^ Murrin, John M; Johnson, Paul E; McPherson, James M; Gerstle, Gary (2008). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, Compact. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 6\. ISBN 978-0-495-41101-7. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
80. ^ Schledermann, Peter. 1996. Voices in Stone. A Personal Journey into the Arctic Past. Komatik Series no. 5. Calgary: The Arctic Institute of North America and the University of Calgary.
81. ^ Sutherland, Patricia. 2000. "The Norse and Native Norse Americans". In William W. Fitzhugh and Elisabeth I. Ward, eds., Vikings: The North Atlantic Saga, pp. 238–247. Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution.
82. ^ Curran, James Watson (1939). Here was Vinland: The Great Lakes Region of America. Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario: Sault Daily Star. p. 207\. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023.

## External links

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* L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site, Parks Canada website
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* Kuchin
* Brusilov expedition
* Sv. Anna
* Brusilov
* Albanov
* Konrad
* Wiese
* Nagórski
* Taymyr / Vaygach
* Vilkitsky
* Maud
* Amundsen
* AARI
* Samoylovich
* Begichev
* Urvantsev
* Sadko
* Ushakov
* Glavsevmorput
* Schmidt
* Aviaarktika
* Shevelev
* A. Sibiryakov
* Voronin
* Chelyuskin
* Krassin
* Gakkel
* Nuclear-powered icebreakers
* Lenin
* Arktika-class icebreaker

Antarctic

* Continent
* History
* Expeditions

Antarctic/Southern Ocean|

* Roché
* Bouvet
* Kerguelen
* HMS Resolution
* J. Cook
* HMS Adventure
* Furneaux
* Smith
* San Telmo
* Vostok
* Bellingshausen
* Mirny
* Lazarev
* Bransfield
* Palmer
* Davis
* Weddell
* Morrell
* Astrolabe
* Dumont d'Urville
* United States Exploring Expedition
* USS Vincennes
* Wilkes
* USS Porpoise
* Ringgold
* Ross expedition
* HMS Erebus (J. C. Ross
* Abernethy)
* HMS Terror (Crozier)
* Cooper
* Challenger expedition
* HMS Challenger
* Nares
* Murray
* Jason
* C. A. Larsen

"Heroic Age"|

* Belgian Antarctic Expedition
* Belgica
* de Gerlache
* Lecointe
* Amundsen
* Cook
* Arctowski
* Racoviță
* Dobrowolski
* Southern Cross
* Southern Cross
* Borchgrevink
* Discovery
* Discovery
* Discovery Hut
* Gauss
* Gauss
* Drygalski
* Swedish Antarctic Expedition
* Antarctic
* O. Nordenskjöld
* C. A. Larsen
* Scottish Antarctic Expedition
* Bruce
* Scotia
* Orcadas Base
* Nimrod Expedition
* Nimrod
* French Antarctic Expeditions
* Pourquoi-Pas
* Charcot
* Japanese Antarctic Expedition
* Shirase
* Amundsen's South Pole expedition
* Fram
* Amundsen
* Framheim
* Polheim
* Terra Nova
* Terra Nova
* Scott
* Wilson
* E. R. Evans
* Crean
* Lashly
* Filchner
* Australasian Antarctic Expedition
* SY Aurora
* Mawson
* Far Eastern Party
* Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition
* Endurance
* Shackleton
* Wild
* James Caird
* Ross Sea party
* Mackintosh
* Shackleton–Rowett Expedition
* Quest

IPY * IGY
Modern research|

* Christensen
* Byrd
* BANZARE
* BGLE
* Rymill
* New Swabia
* Ritscher
* Operation Tabarin
* Marr
* Operation Highjump
* Captain Arturo Prat Base
* British Antarctic Survey
* Operation Windmill
* Ketchum
* Ronne Expedition
* F. Ronne
* E. Ronne
* Schlossbach
* Operation Deep Freeze
* McMurdo Station
* Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition
* Hillary
* V. Fuchs
* Soviet Antarctic Expeditions
* 1st
* Somov
* Klenova
* Mirny
* 2nd
* Tryoshnikov
* 3rd
* Tolstikov
* Antarctic Treaty System
* Transglobe Expedition
* Fiennes
* Burton
* Lake Vostok
* Kapitsa

Farthest South
South Pole|

* HMS Resolution
* J. Cook
* HMS Adventure
* Furneaux
* Weddell
* HMS Erebus
* J. C. Ross
* HMS Terror
* Crozier
* Southern Cross
* Borchgrevink
* Discovery
* Barne
* Nimrod
* Shackleton
* Wild
* Marshall
* Adams
* South magnetic pole
* Mawson
* David
* Mackay
* Amundsen's South Pole expedition
* Fram
* Amundsen
* Bjaaland
* Helmer
* Hassel
* Wisting
* Polheim
* Terra Nova
* Scott
* E. Evans
* Oates
* Wilson
* Bowers
* Cherry-Garrard
* Byrd
* Balchen
* McKinley
* Dufek
* Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station
* Hillary
* V. Fuchs
* Pole of Cold
* Vostok Station
* Pole of inaccessibility
* Pole of Inaccessibility research station
* Tolstikov
* Crary
* A. Fuchs
* Messner

* v
* t
* e

Greenland articles

* Greenland is an autonomous constituent country of the Kingdom of Denmark

History|

* Timeline
* Paleo-Eskimo
* Dorset culture
* Thule people
* Norse Colonization
* Eastern Settlement
* Western Settlement
* Language
* Skræling
* Hans Egede
* Treaty of Kiel
* Erik the Red's Land
* Fridtjof Nansen Land
* World War II
* Thule accident
* County of Greenland
* Home rule
* Autonomy (self-rule)
* Cartographic expeditions

Geography|

* Climate
* change
* Fjords
* Geology
* Glaciers
* Ice sheet
* Islands
* by area
* Mountains
* National park
* Rivers
* Straits
* Towns and villages
* Wildlife

Politics|

* Administrative divisions
* Elections
* Independence movement
* Foreign relations
* High Commissioner
* Parliament
* Law enforcement
* LGBT rights
* Military
* Political parties
* Ruling monarchs
* Political leader
* Governor (1728–1730, 1925–1979)
* Inspector (1782–1924)
* Prime Minister (1979–current)

Economy|

* Bank
* Companies
* Krone (currency)
* Fishing industry
* Mining
* National Bank
* Taxation
* Telecommunications
* Tourism
* Transport

Society|

* Demographics
* Inuit
* Inughuit
* Kalaallit
* Tunumiit
* Danes
* Danish
* Notable individuals
* artists
* Inuit
* Suicide

Culture|

* Art
* Cuisine
* Hunting
* Jante Law
* Mythology
* Language
* Music
* Public holidays
* Religion
* Sports

Symbols|

* Coat of arms
* Flag
* National (civic) anthem
* Royal anthem

* Outline
* Index

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Pre-Columbian North America

Periods
Lithic
Archaic
Formative
Classic
Post-Classic

Archaeological
cultures|

* Adena
* Alachua
* Ancient Beringian
* Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi)
* Anishinaabe
* Avonlea
* Baytown
* Belle Glade
* Buttermilk Creek complex
* Caborn-Welborn
* Cades Pond
* Calf Creek
* Caloosahatchee
* Clovis
* Coles Creek
* Comondú
* Deptford
* Folsom
* Fort Ancient
* Fort Walton
* Fremont
* Glacial Kame
* Glades
* Hohokam
* Hopewell
* List of Hopewell sites
* La Jolla
* Las Palmas
* Maritime Archaic
* Mississippian
* List of Mississippian sites
* Mogollon
* Monongahela
* Old Cordilleran
* Oneota
* Paleo-Arctic
* Paleo-Indians
* Patayan
* Plano
* Plaquemine
* Poverty Point
* Red Ocher
* Safety Harbor
* Santa Rosa-Swift Creek
* St. Johns
* Steed-Kisker
* Suwannee Valley
* Tchefuncte
* Troyville
* Weeden Island

Archaeological
sites|

* Angel Mounds
* Anzick site
* Bandelier National Monument
* Bastian
* Benson
* Blue Spring Shelter
* Bluefish Caves
* The Bluff Point Stoneworks
* Brewster
* Cahokia
* Candelaria Cave
* Casa Grande
* Chaco Canyon
* Coso Rock Art District
* Crystal River
* Cuarenta Casas
* Cueva de la Olla
* Cutler
* Eaker
* El Fin del Mundo
* El Vallecito
* Effigy Mounds
* Etowah Indian Mounds
* Eva
* Folsom
* Fort Ancient
* Fort Center
* Fort Juelson
* Four Mounds
* Gila Cliff Dwellings
* Glenwood
* Grimes Point
* Helen Blazes
* Holly Bluff
* Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
* Horr's Island
* Huápoca
* Key Marco
* Kimball Village
* Kincaid Mounds
* Kolomoki Mounds
* Lake Jackson Mounds
* Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site
* L'Anse aux Meadows
* Lynch Quarry Site
* Marksville
* Marmes Rockshelter
* Meadowcroft Rockshelter
* Mesa Verde
* Moaning Cavern
* Moorehead Circle
* Morrison Mounds
* Moundville
* Mummy Cave
* Nodena site
* Ocmulgee Mounds
* Old Stone Fort
* Orwell site
* Paquime
* Painted Bluff
* Parkin Park
* Pinson Mounds
* Plum Bayou Mounds
* Portsmouth Earthworks
* Poverty Point
* Pueblo Bonito
* Rassawek
* Recapture Canyon
* River Styx
* Roberts Island
* Rock Eagle
* Rock Hawk
* Rosenstock Village
* Russell Cave
* Salmon Ruins
* Serpent Mound
* Sierra de San Francisco
* Shell ring sites
* Spiro Mounds
* Stallings Island
* SunWatch
* Taos Pueblo
* Town Creek Indian Mound
* Turkey River Mounds
* Upward Sun River
* Velda Mound
* West Oak Forest Earthlodge
* Wickiup Hill
* Windover
* Winterville
* Wupatki

Human
remains|

* Anzick-1
* Arlington Springs Man
* Buhl Woman
* Kennewick Man
* La Brea Woman
* Leanderthal Lady
* Melbourne Man
* Minnesota Woman
* Peñon woman
* Spirit Cave mummy
* Vero man

Miscellaneous|

* Aridoamerica
* Ballgame
* Black drink
* Ceremonial pipe
* Chanunpa
* Chunkey
* Clovis point
* Container Revolution
* Eastern Agricultural Complex
* Eden point
* Effigy mound
* Falcon dancer
* Folsom point
* Green Corn Ceremony
* Horned Serpent
* Kiva
* Medicine wheel
* Metallurgy
* Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing
* Mound Builders
* N.A.G.P.R.A.
* Norse colonization of North America
* Oasisamerica
* Piasa
* Projectile point
* Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
* Stickball
* Three Sisters agriculture
* Thunderbird
* Transoceanic contact
* Underwater panther
* Water glyphs

Related
Genetic history
Pre-Columbian era

Authority control databases: National |

* United States
* Israel

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