North Caucasian languages

Proposed language family

North Caucasian

Caucasic
(controversial)
Geographic
distribution| Caucasus
Linguistic classification| Proposed language family
Subdivisions|

* Northwest Caucasian
* Northeast (or Alarodian)

Language codes
ISO 639-5| `ccn`
Glottolog| None

North Caucasian languages

West Caucasian

Circassian

Abkhaz

Ubykh (extinct)

East Caucasian

Nakh

Avar-Andi and Tsezic

Dargin

Lezgic and Khinalug

Lak

|

The North Caucasian languages, sometimes called simply Caucasic, is a proposed language family consisting of a pair of well established language families spoken in the Caucasus, predominantly in the north, consisting of the Northwest Caucasian family (also called Pontic, Abkhaz–Adyghe, Circassian, or West Caucasian) and the Northeast Caucasian family (also called Nakh–Dagestanian, Caspian or East Caucasian). There are some 34 to 38 distinct North Caucasian languages.[citation needed]

The Kartvelian languages, including Georgian, Zan and Svan, were once known as South Caucasian. However, they are no longer considered related to the North Caucasian languages and are classified as an independent language family.

Some linguists, notably Sergei Starostin and Sergei Nikolaev, believe that the two groups sprang from a common ancestor about five thousand years BCE.[1] However, this proposal is difficult to evaluate, and remains controversial.

North Caucasian has also been given in an automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013).[2] However, since the analysis was automatically generated, Müller et al. (2013) does not conclude whether the grouping is due to mutual lexical borrowing or genetic inheritance.

## Internal classification

[edit]

Among the linguists who support the North Caucasian hypothesis, the main split between Northeast Caucasian and Northwest Caucasian is considered uncontroversial. Problems arise when it gets to the internal structure of Northeast Caucasian itself. So far no general agreement has been reached in this respect. The following classification is based on Nikolayev & Starostin (1994):

* North Caucasian
* Abkhazo-Adyghean (Northwest Caucasian)
* Nakh–Daghestanian (Northeast Caucasian)
* Nakh
* Daghestanian
* Avar–Andi–Dido
* Lak–Dargwa
* Lezgic

## Comparison of the two phyla

[edit]

North Caucasian family tree (Nikolayev & Starostin 1994)Glottochronological model[3]

The main perceived similarities between the two phyla lie in their phonological systems. However, their grammars are quite different.

### Main similarities

[edit]

Both phyla are characterised by high levels of phonetic complexity, including the widespread usage of secondary articulation. Ubykh (Northwest) has 84 consonants, and Archi (Northeast) is thought to have 76.

A list of possible cognates has been proposed. However, most of them may be loanwords or simply coincidences, since most of the morphemes in both phyla are quite short (often just a single consonant).

### Main differences

[edit]

The Northeast Caucasian languages are characterised by great morphological complexity in the noun. For example, in Tsez, a series of locative cases intersect with a series of suffixes designating motion with regard to the location, producing an array of 126 locative suffixes (often – depending on the analysis – described as noun cases).

By contrast, the Northwest Caucasian noun systems are relatively poor in morphology, usually distinguishing just two or three cases. However, they make up for it by possessing a very complex verbal structure: the subject, the direct object, the indirect object, benefactive objects and most local functions are expressed in the verb.

### Some comparisons

[edit]

Personal pronouns[4]

Person | Northeast Caucasian[5] | PNWC[1] | PNC[1]
PN | PDL | PLK | PAAT | PNEC
1sg  | *su- | *du | *zʷə- | dVpal | *zʷə- | *sA | *zoː
2sg  | *ħu- | *ħʷə | *ʁʷə- | dVlab/mV | *ʁʷə- | *wA | *u̯oː/*ʁwVː
1pl-i  | *way[6] | *-χːa | *χːə- | *iλiː | *łiː- (?) | *šʲə/tːa/χːa[7] | *Läː
1pl-e  | *tχu-[8] | *žu | *žʲə | *išiː | *z⇨ʲə- | *ži
2pl  | *šu- | *-šːa/zu | *žʷə | *bišːdi | *z⇨ʷə- | *sʷV | *źwe

Abbreviations: PN = Proto-Nakh, PDL = Proto-Dargi-Lak, PLK = Proto-Lezgic-Khinalugh, PAAT = Proto-Avar–Andic–Tsezic, PNEC = Proto-Northeast Caucasian, PNWC = Proto-Northwest Caucasian, PNC = Proto-North Caucasian; i = inclusive, e = exclusive

Number  | PNEC (S)  | PNEC (N)  | PNWC (Ch)  | PNWC (Co)  | PNC (S)

|
|
|
|
|

1  | *c(h)a  | #c(ʕ)V  | *za  |  | *cHǝ̆
2  | *qʷ’a  |  | *t’qʷ’a  | *t’q’o  | *q̇Hwǟ
3  | *ɬeb (?)  |  | *λ:ə  | *(y-)x̂ə/a  | *ƛHĕ
4  | *əmq(ʷ)’i  |  | *p’λ’a  |  | *hĕmq̇ɨ
5  | *x̂ʷə  | #(W)=ƛƛi/ƛƛwi  | *sx̂ʷə  | *(w-/y-)ćx̂ə  | *f_ɦä̆
6  | *renɬə-  |  | *ɬʷə  | *(w-)x̂cə  | *ʔrǟnƛ_E
7  | *u̯ərδ (?)  |  | *bδə  |  | *ʡĕrŁ_ɨ̆
8  | *mbərδ  |  | \
  | *(w-/y-)ɣə/a  | *bǖnŁ_e (˜-a)
9  | *wərč’  |  | *bğʷʲə  | *-ɣə́  | *ʔĭlć̣wɨ
10  | *wəc’  |  | *bć’ʷə  | *(p-/w-)źə́/źá  | *ʡĕnc̣Ĕ

Abbreviations: PNEC (S) = Schulze, PNEC (N) = Nichols, PNWC (Ch) = Chirikba, PNWC (Co) = Colarusso, PNC (S) = Starostin & Nikolayev

## Criticism

[edit]

Not all scholars accept the unity of the North Caucasian languages, and some who do believe that the two are, or may be, related do not accept the methodology used by Nikolayev and Starostin.[9]

## See also

[edit]

* Dené–Caucasian languages

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c Nikolayev, S., and S. Starostin. 1994 North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary. Moscow: Asterisk Press. Available online.
2. ^ Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013).
3. ^ JAZYKY KAVKAZU Archived September 28, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
4. ^ PN = Proto-Nakh, PDL = Proto-Lak-Dargwa, PLK = Proto-Lezghian-Khinalug, PAAT = Proto-Avar-Andi-Tsezic, PNEC = Proto-Northeast Caucasian, PNWC = Proto-Northwest Caucasian, PNC = Proto-North Caucasian
5. ^ Wolfgang Schulze 2007 [1996]. Personalität in den ostkaukasischen Sprachen (190 pp.). Munich Working Papers in Cognitive Typology
6. ^ Schulze considers this to be a loanword from Proto-Indo-European
7. ^ Ubykh/Proto-Adyghe–Kabardian/Proto-Abkhaz–Tapant. These forms are difficult to reconcile.
8. ^ Probably the original 1st plural inclusive.
9. ^ Nichols, J. 1997. Nikolaev and Starostin's "North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary" and the Methodology of Long-Range Comparison: an assessment. Paper presented at the 10th Biennial Non-Slavic Languages (NSL) Conference, Chicago, 8–10 May 1997.

* v
* t
* e

North Caucasian languages

The proposed North Caucasian language family comprises the Northeast and Northwest Caucasian language families.

Northwest
(Pontic)|

* Abazgi
* Abaza
* Abkhaz
* Bzyb
* Chakobsa
* Circassian
* Adyghe
* Black Sea coast
* Natukhaj
* Shapsug
* Hakuchi
* Northern
* Kfar Kama
* Kuban River
* Abzakh
* Bzhedug
* Hatuqwai
* Kabardian
* Besleney
* Hattic (proposed)
* Ubykh

Northeast
(Caspian)|

| Avar–Andic|

* Andic
* Andi
* Akhvakh
* Bagvalal–Tindi
* Botlix–Godoberi
* Chamalal
* Karata-Tukita [ru]
* Avar

|

Dargic|

* Chirag

North-Central|

* Mehweb
* Gapshima–Butri [lez]
* Muira [ru]
* Tsudaqar–Usisha
* North Dargwa
* Aqusha
* Literary Dargwa
* Murego–Gubden [uk]
* Kadar
* Mugi [ru]
* Upper Mulebki
* Urakhi

Southern|

* Ashti [ru]–Kubachi
* Sanzhi–Itsari
* Amuzgi–Shiri
* Sanakari–Chakhrizhi
* Southwestern Dargwa
* Sirhwa [lez; uk]
* Tanti
* Upper Vurqni [ru]

Kaitag–Shari|

* Kaitag
* Shari

Tsezic|

* Bezhta–Hunzib–Khwarshi
* Inkhoqwari
* Hinukh–Tsez

Lezgic|

* Archi

Samur|

| Eastern|

* Aghul
* Lezgian
* Tabasaran
* Udi
* Caucasian Albanian

|

Southern|

* Budukh
* Kryts

Western|

* Rutul
* Tsakhur

Nakh|

* Bats
* Vainakh
* Chechen
* Aukh
* Ingush

Other|

* Khinalug
* Lak

Italics indicate extinct languages

* v
* t
* e

Primary language families

Africa|

* Afroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Khoe–Kwadi
* Kx'a
* Niger–Congo
* Nilo-Saharan(?)
* Tuu
* Dogon?
* Ijoid?
* Kadu?
* Katla?
* Kru?
* Lafofa?
* Mande?
* Rashad?
* Songhay?
* Talodi–Heiban?
* Ubangian?

Isolates|

* Bangime
* Gule
* Hadza
* Jalaa
* Sandawe
* Laal?
* Mimi of Decorse?
* Ongota?
* Shabo?

Eurasia
(Europe
and Asia)|

* Afroasiatic
* Ainu
* Austroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan
* Dravidian
* Eskaleut
* Great Andamanese
* Hmong–Mien
* Hurro-Urartian
* Indo-European
* Japonic
* Kartvelian
* Koreanic
* Kra–Dai
* Mongolic
* Nivkh
* Northeast Caucasian
* Northwest Caucasian
* Ongan
* Sino-Tibetan
* Tungusic
* Turkic
* Tyrsenian
* Uralic
* Yeniseian
* Yukaghir
* Arunachal?
* Digaro?
* Kho-Bwa?
* Mijiic?
* Miju?
* Siangic?

Isolates|

* Basque
* Burushaski
* Elamite
* Hattic
* Kusunda
* Nihali
* Rutulian
* Sumerian
* Vedda
* Bugun?
* Eteocretan?
* Eteocypriot?
* Hruso?
* Kenaboi?
* Minoan?
* Puroik?
* Shompen?
* Tambora?

New Guinea
and the Pacific|

* Arai–Samaia
* Austronesian
* Berau Gulf
* Binanderean–Goilalan
* Border
* Bulaka River
* Central Solomons
* Chimbu–Wahgi
* Demta–Sentani
* Doso–Turumsa
* East Geelvink Bay
* East New Britain
* East Strickland
* Eleman
* Engan
* Fas
* Foja Range
* Gogodala–Suki
* Hatam–Mansim
* Kaure–Kosare
* Kiwaian
* Kutubuan
* Lakes Plain
* Lower Mamberamo
* Lower Sepik
* Madang
* Mairasi
* Mantion–Meax
* North Bougainville
* North Halmahera
* Pauwasi
* Ramu
* Senagi
* Senu River
* Sepik
* Skou
* South Bougainville
* Teberan–Pawaian
* Torricelli
* Trans-Fly
* Trans–New Guinea
* Turama–Kikorian
* Upper Yuat
* West Bird's Head
* Yam
* Yawan
* Yuat
* Northwest Papuan?
* Papuan Gulf?
* West Papuan?

Isolates|

* Abinomn
* Abun
* Burmeso
* Kol
* Kuot
* Maybrat
* Mpur
* Porome
* Anêm?
* Ata?
* Sulka?
* Taiap?
* Tambora?
* Yele?

Australia|

* Bunuban
* Eastern Daly
* Eastern Tasmanian
* Garawan
* Gunwinyguan
* Iwaidjan
* Jarrakan
* Maningrida
* Mirndi
* Northeastern Tasmanian
* Northern Tasmanian
* Nyulnyulan
* Pama–Nyungan
* Southern Daly
* Tangkic
* Wagaydyic (Northern Daly?)
* Western Daly
* Western Tasmanian
* Worrorran
* Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan?
* Darwin Region?
* Marrku–Wurrugu?
* Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)?

Isolates|

* Giimbiyu
* Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?)
* Tiwi
* Gaagudju?
* Kungarakany?

North
America|

* Algic
* Caddoan
* Chimakuan
* Chinookan
* Chumashan
* Comecrudan
* Coosan
* Eskaleut
* Iroquoian
* Kalapuyan
* Maiduan
* Muskogean
* Na-Dene
* Palaihnihan
* Plateau Penutian
* Pomoan
* Salishan
* Shastan
* Siouan
* Tanoan
* Tsimshianic
* Utian
* Uto-Aztecan
* Wakashan
* Wintuan
* Yuki–Wappo
* Yuman–Cochimí

Isolates|

* Alsea
* Atakapa
* Cayuse
* Chimariko
* Chitimacha
* Coahuilteco
* Cotoname
* Esselen
* Haida
* Karuk
* Keres?
* Kutenai
* Natchez
* Salinan
* Seri
* Siuslaw
* Takelma
* Timucua
* Tonkawa
* Tunica
* Waikuri
* Washo
* Yana
* Yokuts?
* Yuchi
* Zuni

Mesoamerica|

* Arawakan
* Chibchan
* Jicaquean
* Lencan
* Mayan
* Misumalpan
* Mixe–Zoque
* Oto-Manguean
* Tequistlatecan
* Totonacan
* Uto-Aztecan
* Xincan

Isolates|

* Cuitlatec
* Huave
* Tarascan/Purépecha

South
America|

* Alacalufan
* Andoque–Urequena
* Araucanian
* Arawakan
* Arawan
* Aymaran
* Barbacoan
* Boran
* Bororoan
* Cahuapanan
* Cañari–Puruhá
* Cariban
* Chapacuran
* Charruan
* Chibchan
* Chicham
* Choco
* Chonan
* Guaicuruan
* Guajiboan
* Harákmbut–Katukinan
* Hibito–Cholón
* Huarpean
* Jirajaran
* Kakwa-Nukak
* Kariri
* Lule–Vilela
* Macro-Jê
* Mascoian
* Matacoan
* Nadahup
* Nambikwaran
* Otomákoan
* Pano-Tacanan
* Peba–Yaguan
* Piaroa–Saliban
* Quechuan
* Ticuna–Yuri
* Timotean
* Tiniguan
* Tucanoan
* Tupian
* Uru–Chipaya
* Witotoan
* Xukuruan
* Yanomaman
* Zamucoan
* Zaparoan
* Catacaoan?

Isolates|

* Aikanã
* Arutani
* Betoi
* Camsá
* Candoshi-Shapra
* Canichana
* Cayubaba
* Chimane
* Chiquitano
* Chono
* Cofán
* Culle
* Esmeralda
* Guachí
* Guamo
* Guató
* Hodï/Joti
* Iatê
* Irantxe
* Itonama
* Kanoê
* Kunza
* Kwaza
* Leco
* Maku/Jukude
* Matanawi
* Mochica
* Movima
* Munichi
* Mura-Pirahã
* Omurano
* Otí
* Páez
* Payaguá
* Puinave
* Purian
* Puquina
* Sape
* Sechura
* Tallán
* Taruma
* Taushiro
* Tequiraca
* Trumai
* Urarina
* Waorani/Huaorani
* Warao
* Yaruro
* Yahgan
* Yuracaré
* Yurumangui
* Katembri?
* Sanavirón?

Sign
languages|

* Arab
* Australian Aboriginal
* BANZSL
* Chinese
* Francosign
* Germanosign
* Hand Talk
* Indo-Pakistani
* Japanese
* Original Thai
* Swedish
* Paraguay–Uruguay?
* Providencia–Cayman?
* Sudanese?
* Tanzanian?

Isolates|

* See list of sign languages
* Village sign languages

See also|

* Constructed languages
* Creoles
* Language isolates
* Mixed languages
* Pidgins
* Spurious languages
* Unclassified languages
* Whistled languages

* Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
* Families in italics have no living members.
* Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.

* v
* t
* e

Long-range comparative linguistics

Concepts|

* Comparative method
* Etymological dictionary
* Glottochronology
* Lexicostatistics
* Linguistic reconstruction
* Internal reconstruction
* Linguistic universal
* Macrofamily
* Mass comparison
* Origin of language
* Paleolinguistics
* Proto-language
* Swadesh list
* Dolgopolsky list
* Leipzig–Jakarta list

Language families|

* Proto-human
* Borean
* Amerind
* Nostratic
* Elamo-Dravidian
* Eurasiatic
* Altaic
* Ural-Altaic
* Indo-Uralic
* Sino-Uralic
* Dené–Caucasian
* North Caucasian
* Austric
* Indo-Pacific

Linguists|

* John Bengtson
* Václav Blažek
* Allan R. Bomhard
* Svetlana Burlak
* Aharon Dolgopolsky
* Vladimir Dybo
* Harold C. Fleming
* Joseph Greenberg
* Eugene Helimski
* Murray Gell-Mann
* Vladislav Illich-Svitych
* Frederik Kortlandt
* Alexis Manaster Ramer
* Sergei Nikolaev
* Sorin Paliga
* Holger Pedersen
* Ilia Peiros
* Martine Robbeets
* Merritt Ruhlen
* Vitaly Shevoroshkin
* Georgiy Starostin
* Sergei Starostin
* Alfredo Trombetti

Journals|

* Journal of Language Relationship
* Mother Tongue

Books|

* Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages
* The Languages of Africa

Institutions and schools|

* Evolution of Human Languages
* Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences
* Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
* Russian State University for the Humanities
* Santa Fe Institute

Linguistics portal Category

* v
* t
* e

Muslims in Europe

Majority|

| Indo-European|

* Albanians
* Cham Albanians
* Bosniaks
* Gorani
* Kurds
* in Germany
* in France
* in the Netherlands
* Muslims
* Pomaks
* Talysh
* Tats

|

Turkic|

* Azerbaijanis
* Balkars
* Bashkirs
* Crimean Tatars
* Crimean Roma
* Dobrujan Tatars
* Finnish Tatars
* Karachays
* Kazakhs
* Kumyks
* Lipka Tatars
* Nogais
* Tatars in Bulgaria
* Turks
* Cypriot
* Dodecanese
* German
* Meskhetian
* Western Thracian
* Other
* Volga Tatars
* Mishar Tatars
* Yörüks

North Caucasian|

* Abazins
* Abkhazians
* Sadz
* Andis
* Akhvakhs
* Bagvalals
* Botlikhs
* Chamalals
* Godoberis
* Karatas
* Tindis
* Avars
* Chechens
* Aukhs
* Kists
* Circassians
* Abzakhs
* Adygeans
* Besleneys
* Bzhedugs
* Chemirgoys
* Kabardians
* Natukhajs
* Shapsugs
* Ubykhs
* Dargins
* Kaitags
* Kubachins
* Tsudakhars
* Chirags
* Ingush
* Laks
* Lezgins
* Aghuls
* Archis
* Budukh
* Rutuls
* Khinalugs
* Kryts
* Tabasarans
* Tsakhurs
* Jeks
* Tsez
* Bezhtas
* Hinukhs
* Hunzibs
* Khwarshis

Kartvelian|

* Lazs
* Ingiloys

Uralic|

* Besermyan

Other|

* Arabs
* in Europe
* Moors
* in Spain
* Berbers
* in France
* in Belgium
* in the Netherlands
* Dönmeh

Minority|

* Afghans
* Bengalis
* Bulgarian
* Croats
* Georgians
* Adjarians
* Meskhetians
* Greek
* Vallahades
* Cretan
* Hemshenis
* Macedonian
* Maghrebis
* Pakistanis
* Megleno-Romanians
* Ossetians
* Romani
* Arlije
* Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians
* Crimean Roma
* Serbs

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