North Report

The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia, providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming. It was produced by a National Research Council committee, chaired by Gerald North, at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science.

These reconstructions had been dubbed "hockey stick graphs" after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann, Bradley and Hughes (MBH99), which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years (MBH98). A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. It was disputed by various contrarians, and in the politicisation of this "hockey stick controversy" the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick (MM05) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement. On 23 June 2005, Rep. Joe Barton, chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce, with Ed Whitfield, Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article, and demanding that Mann, Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods, finances and careers, information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for, and the exact computer codes used to generate their results.[1][2] Boehlert said this was a "misguided and illegitimate investigation" into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee, and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, Boehlert requested the review, which became the North Report.[3]

The North Report went through a rigorous review process,[4] and was published on 22 June 2006.[5] It concluded "with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries", justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies, but "Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600".[6] It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies, which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records, while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods.[7] The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended—but it had little influence on the final reconstructions, and other methods produced similar results.[8][9]

## Outline[edit]

At the request of the U.S. Congress, initiated by Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science, a special "Committee on Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Past 2,000 Years" was assembled by the National Research Council to quickly prepare a concise report. The NRC Committee, chaired by Gerald North, consisted of 12 scientists and statisticians from different disciplines. Its task was "to summarize current scientific information on the temperature record for the past two millennia, describe the main areas of uncertainty and how significant they are, describe the principal methodologies used and any problems with these approaches, and explain how central is the debate over the paleoclimate temperature record to the state of scientific knowledge on global climate change."[10] The NRC report went through a rigorous review process involving 15 independent experts.[4] The report provided a summary and an overview, followed by 11 technical chapters covering the instrumental and proxy records, statistical procedures, paleoclimate models, and the synthesis of large scale temperature reconstructions with an assessment of the "strengths, limitations, and prospects for improvement" in techniques used.[11]

### Publication and press conference[edit]

The NRC committee's report (the North report) was published on 22 June 2006.[5] Committee member John Michael Wallace said that "Our conclusion is that this recent period of warming is likely the warmest in the last millennium", and added that "This doesn't change the scientific landscape in terms of the greenhouse warming debate".[12] At a press conference, held on the same day, clarifications were given by three members of the NRC committee science panel: Gerald North, the statistician Peter Bloomfield and ice sheet/borehole specialist Kurt M. Cuffey.[9]

#### NRC report summary[edit]

In its summary, the NRC committee noted the development of large-scale surface temperature reconstructions, especially MBH98 and MBH99, and highlighted six recent reconstructions: Huang, Pollack & Shen 2000, Mann & Jones 2003, Hegerl et al. 2006, Oerlemans 2005, Moberg et al. 2005 and Esper, Cook & Schweingruber 2002. Its main findings were; 20th century instrumentally measured warming showed in observational evidence, and can be simulated with climate models, large-scale surface temperature reconstructions "yield a generally consistent picture of temperature trends during the preceding millennium", including the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age, "but the exact timing and duration of warm periods may have varied from region to region, and the magnitude and geographic extent of the warmth are uncertain." It concluded "with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries", justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies, but "Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600", and very little confidence could be assigned to hemispheric or global mean surface temperature estimates before about 900.[6]

The NRC committee stated that "The basic conclusion of Mann et al. (1998, 1999) was that the late 20th century warmth in the Northern Hemisphere was unprecedented during at least the last 1,000 years. This conclusion has subsequently been supported by an array of evidence that includes both additional large-scale surface temperature reconstructions and pronounced changes in a variety of local proxy indicators". It said "Based on the analyses presented in the original papers by Mann et al. and this newer supporting evidence, the committee finds it plausible that the Northern Hemisphere was warmer during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period over the preceding millennium", though there were substantial uncertainties before about 1600. It added that "Even less confidence can be placed in the original conclusions by Mann et al. (1999) that 'the 1990s are likely the warmest decade, and 1998 the warmest year, in at least a millennium' because the uncertainties inherent in temperature reconstructions for individual years and decades are larger than those for longer time periods and because not all of the available proxies record temperature information on such short timescales." It noted that "Surface temperature reconstructions for periods prior to the industrial era are only one of multiple lines of evidence supporting the conclusion that climatic warming is occurring in response to human activities, and they are not the primary evidence."[7]

At the press conference, North said of the MBH papers that "we do roughly agree with the substance of their findings. There is a small disagreement over exactly how sure we are."[9] All three from the NRC committee panel said it was probable, though not certain, that current warming exceeded any previous peak in the last thousand years.[3] When asked if they could quantify "less confidence" and "plausible", Bloomfield explained that their wording reflected the panel's scientific judgements rather than well defined statistical procedures, and "When we speak of 'less confidence' we're more into a level of sort of 2 to 1 odds, which IPCC, they interpreted 'likely' as that level, roughly 2 to 1 odds or better."[9][12]

#### MBH99 and controversy[edit]

The NRC report said that the MBH99 study had attracted considerable attention because of its conclusion that recent decades were the warmest in the northern hemisphere in 1000 years, and "Controversy arose because many people interpreted this result as definitive evidence of anthropogenic causes of recent climate change, while others criticized the methodologies and data that were used."[13] Chapter 11 of the report described MBH98 as the "first systematic, statistically based synthesis of multiple climate proxies", and noted that the MBH reconstructions "were the first to include explicit statistical error bars".[14] The report's overview section said that, despite the wide error bars, the hockey stick graph "was misinterpreted by some as indicating the existence of one 'definitive' reconstruction with small century-to-century variability prior to the mid-19th century".[15]

When questioned about who had said MBH99 was definitive when the paper itself emphasised the uncertainties, North said his opinion was that, "The community probably took the results to be more definitive than Mann and colleagues originally intended." Kurt Cuffey said the context was that the MBH work "...was really the first of its kind," and had generated debate in the normal process of science where ideas are put forward then challenged over time. The IPCC 2001 report had been careful to give the two-year-old paper's conclusion fairly low confidence as "likely" at 2 to 1 odds, but use of the graph as a visual had created a misleading impression that this research was more resolved. The graph had been used as a visual in several places, including the IPCC summary for policymakers.[9]

#### MBH statistical methods[edit]

Various criticisms of the MBH statistical methods were discussed in Chapter 11, in the context of more recent research that explored ways to address these problems, and showed greater amplitude of temperature variations over 1000 to 2000 years. Recent papers cited included Wahl & Ammann 2007. On McIntyre and McKitrick's criticism of principal component analysis as tending to bias the shape of the reconstructions, it found that "In practice, this method, though not recommended, does not appear to unduly influence reconstructions of hemispheric mean temperature", and reconstructions using other methods were qualitatively similar. Some of the criticisms of validation techniques were more valid than others, these issues and the effect on robustness of the choice of proxies contributed to the committee's view of increased uncertainties. They called for further research into methods and a search for more proxies for earlier periods.[8]

At the press conference the three NRC panellists said they found no evidence supporting the allegations of inappropriate behaviour such as data manipulation, or "anything other than an honest attempt to construct a data analysis procedure". Bloomfield as a statistician considered all the choices of data processing and methods to have been "quite reasonable" in a "first of its kind study". He said "I would not have been embarrassed by that work at the time if I'd been involved in it". In response to a question from Edward Wegman on the MBH use of principal components analysis, Bloomfield said this had been reviewed by the committee along with other statistical issues, and "while the issues are real, they had a very minimal effect, not a material effect on the final reconstruction."[9]

### Responses[edit]

The U.S. House Science Committee Chairman Sherwood Boehlert issued a statement on the day of publication: "I think this report shows the value of Congress handling scientific disputes by asking scientists to give us guidance. The report clearly lays out a scientific consensus position on the historic temperature record." He noted that the report raised no doubts about global climate change or the legitimacy of any paper, and concluded that "The report does show, unsurprisingly, that scientists need to continue to work to develop a more precise sense of what global temperatures were between the beginning of the last millennium and about 1600. Congress ought to let them go about that work without political interference."[16] In an opposing statement Senator Jim Inhofe said that "Today's NAS report reaffirms what I have been saying all along, that Mann's ‘hockey stick' is broken. Today's report refutes Mann's prior assertions that there was no Medieval Warm Period or Little Ice Age." Al Gore commented that Inhofe and other deniers "will seize on anything to say up is down and black is white."[17]

#### Blog responses on the day of publication[edit]

A group-authored post on RealClimate, of which Mann is one of the contributors, said "the panel has found reason to support the key mainstream findings of past research, including points that we have highlighted previously."[18] Similarly, Roger A. Pielke, Jr. said that the National Research Council publication constituted a "near-complete vindication for the work of Mann et al.";[19] McIntyre's blog Climate Audit published a review of the report by Hans von Storch, Eduardo Zorita and Jesus Rouco, who said that it supported their view that the MBH methodology was questionable.[20]

#### News coverage[edit]

On the day of publication, the Associated Press highlighted the panel's finding that "recent warmth is unprecedented for at least the last 400 years and potentially the last several millennia."[21] In an article titled "Science Panel Backs Study on Warming Climate", Andrew Revkin of the New York Times wrote that "A controversial paper asserting that recent warming in the Northern Hemisphere was probably unrivaled for 1,000 years was endorsed today, with a few reservations, by a panel convened by the nation's pre-eminent scientific body."[3]

Next day, the BBC News coverage on 23 June 2006 headed "Backing for 'hockey stick' graph" said the report "largely vindicates the researchers' work, first published in 1998."[22] The Boston Globe reported that the panel had concluded that the evidence presented in the hockey stick graph was "probably true".[12]

The Wall Street Journal story, written by the same reporter whose announcement of the McIntyre and McKitrick 2005 paper had featured on its front page, had the muted headline "Panel Study Fails To Settle Debate On Past Climates" for a piece on an inside page, which said the panel found that the key conclusion of MBH99 "is 'plausible' but not proved."[23][24]

#### Further discussion[edit]

On 28 June 2006 Nature reported the outcome as "Academy affirms hockey-stick graph. But it criticizes the way the controversial climate result was used."[25] The article said that the NRC panel had "concluded that systematic uncertainties in climate records from before 1600 were not communicated as clearly as they could have been". In a letter to Nature on August 10, 2006, Bradley, Hughes and Mann pointed out that this had been a comment made by North at the press conference, and was not stated in the report. The original title of their 1999 paper (MBH99) was "Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: inferences, uncertainties, and limitations", and it had concluded that "more widespread high-resolution data are needed before more confident conclusions can be reached". They said that "the uncertainties were the point of the article", and that it was "hard to imagine how much more explicit" they could have been about the uncertainties surrounding their work. They suggested that "poor communication by others" had led to the "subsequent confusion".[26][27]

At the Wegman Report hearings in July 2006, Gerald North testified that, "Dr. Wegman's criticisms of the statistical methodology in the papers by Mann et al. were consistent with our findings," referring to the NRC report that found that the methodology did not have an undue effect on the graphs. In his view, "None of the statistical criticisms that have been raised by various authors unduly influence the shape of the final reconstruction. This is attested to by the fact that reconstructions performed without using principal components yield similar results."[28]

In a debate in the United States House of Representatives on 2 December 2009, Representative Jim Sensenbrenner said that the National Academies NRC report had discredited Mann's theory and shown the "hockey stick" graph to be incorrect. This was disputed by John Holdren, the president's science adviser, who said that although the panel had found minor issues with Mann's methods, they had confirmed his results. When the question was subsequent put to the NRC panel chairman Gerald North, he agreed with Holdren and said "The conclusions that we came to were essentially the same as the hockey stick," and the scientific conclusion that the world was warming was independent of Mann's research.[29]

## Notes[edit]

1. ^ Washington Post editorial, 23 July 2005, Hunting Witches".
2. ^ HCEC, 23 June 2005; Barton & Whitfield 2005.
3. ^ a b c Revkin, 22 June 2006 (NYT).
4. ^ a b North et al. 2006, pp. viii, xi harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help)
5. ^ a b NAS press release, 22 June 2006.
6. ^ a b North et al. 2006, pp. 1–3 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help)
7. ^ a b North et al. 2006, pp. 3–4 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help)
8. ^ a b North et al. 2006, pp. 112–116 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help)
9. ^ a b c d e f NAS press conference, 22 June 2006.
10. ^ North et al. 2006, pp. vii, Appendix C: Biosketches of Committee Members (142–146). harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help)
11. ^ North et al. 2006, pp. xiii–xiv, 28 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help)
12. ^ a b c Daley, 23 June 2006 (Boston Globe).
13. ^ North et al. 2006, p. 1 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help).
14. ^ North et al. 2006, p. 111 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help)
15. ^ North et al. 2006, p. 16 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNorthBiondiBloomfieldChristy2006 (help)
16. ^ Boehlert, 22 June 2006 (statement).
17. ^ Mann 2012, p. 164.
18. ^ RealClimate, 22 June 2006.
19. ^ Pielke, 22 June 2006.
20. ^ von Storch, Zorita & González-Rouco, 22 June 2006.
21. ^ Mann 2012, p. 163; Heilprin, 22 June 2006.
22. ^ BBC News, 23 June 2006.
23. ^ Mann 2012, pp. 163–164.
24. ^ Regalado, 23 June 2006 (WSJ).
25. ^ Brumfiel 2006.
26. ^ Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999
27. ^ Bradley, Hughes & Mann 2006.
28. ^ HCEC Hearings, 19 July 2006, pp. 62, 591.
29. ^ Borenstein 2009

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2003

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2004

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2005

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2006

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2008

* Said, Y. H.; Wegman, E. J.; Sharabati, W. K.; Rigsby, J. T. (January 2008), "Social networks of author–coauthor relationships", Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 51 (4): 2177–2184, doi:10.1016/j.csda.2007.07.021. Retracted.
* Huang, S.; Pollack, H. N.; Shen, P. Y. (4 July 2008), "A late Quaternary climate reconstruction based on borehole heat flux data, borehole temperature data, and the instrumental record" (PDF), Geophysical Research Letters, 35 (L13703): L13703, Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3513703H, doi:10.1029/2008GL034187, hdl:2027.42/95180, S2CID 11399172, archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2012.
* Lee, T. C. K.; Zwiers, F. W.; Tsao, Min (1 August 2008), "Evaluation of proxy-based millennial reconstruction methods", Climate Dynamics, 31 (2–3): 263–281, Bibcode:2008ClDy...31..263L, doi:10.1007/s00382-007-0351-9, S2CID 3325498.
* Black, R. (1 September 2008). "Climate 'hockey stick' is revived". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-05-18.
* Mann, M. E.; Zhang, Z.; Hughes, M. K.; Bradley, R. S.; Miller, S. K.; Rutherford, S.; Ni, F. (9 September 2008), "Proxy-based reconstructions of hemispheric and global surface temperature variations over the past two millennia", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105 (36): 13252–13257, Bibcode:2008PNAS..10513252M, doi:10.1073/pnas.0805721105, PMC 2527990, PMID 18765811.
* Muller, R. (2008), Physics for future presidents: the science behind the headlines, W.W. Norton & Co., ISBN 978-0-393-06627-2.
* Weart, S. R. (2008), The Discovery of Global Warming (revised ed.), Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-03189-0. Provides an overview of The Discovery of Global Warming Archived 2011-08-04 at the Wayback Machine website.

2009

* Jones, P. D. (February 2009), "High-resolution palaeoclimatology of the last millennium: a review of current status and future prospects" (PDF), The Holocene, 19 (1): 3–49, Bibcode:2009Holoc..19....3J, doi:10.1177/0959683608098952, S2CID 129606908, archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-10-14, retrieved 2013-04-13.
* McIntyre, S.; McKitrick, R. (February 2009), "Proxy inconsistency and other problems in millennial paleoclimate reconstructions", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 106 (6): E10, author reply E11, Bibcode:2009PNAS..106E..10M, doi:10.1073/pnas.0812509106, PMC 2647809, PMID 19188613.
* Mann, M. E.; Bradley, R. S.; Hughes, Malcolm K. (10 February 2009), "Reply to McIntyre and McKitrick: Proxy-based temperature reconstructions are robust", PNAS, 106 (6): E11, Bibcode:2009PNAS..106E..11M, doi:10.1073/pnas.0812936106, PMC 2644169.
* Arctic Warming Overtakes 2,000 Years of Natural Cooling, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, 3 September 2009, archived from the original on 27 April 2011, retrieved 19 May 2011.
* Bello, D. (4 September 2009), "Global Warming Reverses Long-Term Arctic Cooling", Scientific American, retrieved 19 May 2011.
* Kaufman, D. (4 September 2009), "Recent warming reverses long-term arctic cooling", Science, 325 (5945): 1236–1239, Bibcode:2009Sci...325.1236K, doi:10.1126/science.1173983, PMID 19729653, S2CID 23844037.
* Appell, D. (28 October 2009), "Novel Analysis Confirms Climate "Hockey Stick" Graph", Scientific American, retrieved 27 May 2011.
* Hickman, L. (20 November 2009), "Climate sceptics claim leaked emails are evidence of collusion among scientists", The Guardian.
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* Communications Office (24 November 2009), CRU update 2, University of East Anglia, archived from the original on 11 December 2009, retrieved 2011-03-07.
* Johnson, K.; Naik, G. (24 November 2009), "Lawmakers Probe Climate Emails", Wall Street Journal, archived from the original on 28 December 2009.
* Mann, M. E.; Zhang, Z.; Rutherford, S.; Bradley, R. S.; Hughes, M. K.; Shindell, D.; Ammann, C. M.; Faluvegi, G.; Ni, F. (27 November 2009), "Global Signatures and Dynamical Origins of the Little Ice Age and Medieval Climate Anomaly" (PDF), Science, 326 (5957): 1256–1260, Bibcode:2009Sci...326.1256M, doi:10.1126/science.1177303, PMID 19965474, S2CID 18655276.
* "Climatologists under pressure", Nature, 462 (7273): 545, 3 December 2009, Bibcode:2009Natur.462..545., doi:10.1038/462545a, PMID 19956212.
* Borenstein, S. (3 December 2009), Business & Technology : Obama science advisers grilled over hacked e-mails, Seattle Times Newspaper, retrieved 11 December 2012.
* Michaels, P. (18 December 2009), "How to Manufacture a Climate Consensus", Wall Street Journal.
* von Storch, H. (22 December 2009), "Good Science, Bad Politics", Wall Street Journal.
* Mann, M. E. (31 December 2009), "Science Must Be Unpolluted by Politics", Wall Street Journal.
* Weart, S. R. (December 2009), "Climate over Millennia (Hockey Stick graph)", The Discovery of Global Warming, archived from the original on 2015-03-06, retrieved 2011-03-06.

2010

* Pearce, Fred (9 February 2010), "Part two: How the 'climategate' scandal is bogus and based on climate sceptics' lies", Environment, The Guardian, London, retrieved 2012-03-08.
* Pearce, Fred (9 February 2010), "Part three: Hockey stick graph took pride of place in IPCC report, despite doubts", Environment, The Guardian, London, retrieved 2012-03-08.
* Pearce, Fred (9 February 2010), "Part four: Climate change debate overheated after sceptics grasped 'hockey stick'", Environment, The Guardian, London, retrieved 2010-03-08.
* Tingley, M. P.; Huybers, P. (May 2010a), "A Bayesian Algorithm for Reconstructing Climate Anomalies in Space and Time. Part I: Development and Applications to Paleoclimate Reconstruction Problems", Journal of Climate, 23 (10): 2759–2781, Bibcode:2010JCli...23.2759T, doi:10.1175/2009JCLI3015.1, S2CID 4709675.
* Tingley, M. P.; Huybers, P. (May 2010b), "A Bayesian Algorithm for Reconstructing Climate Anomalies in Space and Time. Part II: Comparison with the Regularized Expectation–Maximization Algorithm", Journal of Climate, 23 (10): 2782–2800, Bibcode:2010JCli...23.2782T, doi:10.1175/2009JCLI3016.1, S2CID 4709733.
* Frank, D.; Esper, J.; Zorita, E.; Wilson, R. (14 May 2010), "A noodle, hockey stick, and spaghetti plate: A perspective on high-resolution paleoclimatology", Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 1 (4): 507–516, Bibcode:2010WIRCC...1..507F, doi:10.1002/wcc.53, S2CID 16524970.
* Russell, M.; Boulton, G.; Clark, P.; Eyton, D.; Norton, J. (7 July 2010), The Independent Climate Change E-mails Review (PDF) "ICCER".
* Chameides, B. (30 August 2010), "Climategate Redux", Scientific American, archived from the original on 7 March 2012, retrieved 4 March 2012.
* Ljungqvist, F. C. (September 2010), "A New Reconstruction of Temperature Variability in the Extra-Tropical Northern Hemisphere During the Last Two Millennia" (PDF), Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography, 92 (3): 339–351, Bibcode:2010GeAnA..92..339L, doi:10.1111/j.1468-0459.2010.00399.x, S2CID 55018654.
* Vergano, D. (8 October 2010), "University investigating prominent climate science critic", USA Today.
* Vergano, D. (22 November 2010), "Experts claim 2006 climate report plagiarized", USA Today.
* Pearce, F. (2010), The Climate Files: The Battle for the Truth About Global Warming, Random House UK, ISBN 978-0-85265-229-9.

2011

* Vergano, D. (15 May 2011), "Climate study gets pulled after charges of plagiarism", USA Today.
* Vergano, D. (16 May 2011), "Retracted climate critics' study panned by expert", USA Today.
* "Copy and paste", Nature, 473 (7348): 419–420, 26 May 2011, Bibcode:2011Natur.473R.419., doi:10.1038/473419b, PMID 21614031.
* Kintisch, E. (2 June 2011), Journal Retracts Disputed Network Analysis Paper on Climate, ScienceInsider, archived from the original on 7 June 2011.
* Weart, S. R. (2003–2011), The Discovery of Global Warming (website), American Institute of Physics, archived from the original on 2012-05-21, retrieved 2013-04-13. Chapters are available as pdf files Archived 2014-10-29 at the Wayback Machine.
* Weart, S. R. (February 2011c), "Modern Temperature Trend", The Discovery of Global Warming, archived from the original on 2012-05-21, retrieved 2011-03-06. Available as a pdf Archived 2014-11-29 at the Wayback Machine.
* Weart, S. R. (February 2011f), "The Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effect", The Discovery of Global Warming, archived from the original on 2012-05-21, retrieved 2011-03-06. Available as a pdf Archived 2013-09-24 at the Wayback Machine.
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2012

* Ljungqvist, F. C.; Krusic, P. J.; Brattström, G.; Sundqvist, H. S. (3 February 2012), "Northern Hemisphere temperature patterns in the last 12 centuries", Climate of the Past, 8 (1): 227–249, Bibcode:2012CliPa...8..227L, doi:10.5194/cp-8-227-2012.
* Vergano, D. (22 February 2012), "University reprimands climate science critic for plagiarism", USA Today.
* Mann, M. E. (6 March 2012), The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars: Dispatches from the Front Lines, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-15254-9.
* Christiansen, B.; Ljungqvist, F. C. (18 April 2012), "The extra-tropical Northern Hemisphere temperature in the last two millennia: Reconstructions of low-frequency variability" (PDF), Climate of the Past, 8 (2): 765–786, Bibcode:2012CliPa...8..765C, doi:10.5194/cp-8-765-2012.

2013

* Connor, S. (24 January 2013), "How the 'Kochtopus' stifled green debate - Climate Change - Environment", The Independent, archived from the original on 2022-06-21.
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* Marcott, S. A.; Shakun, J. D.; Clark, P. U.; Mix, A. C. (8 March 2013), "A Reconstruction of Regional and Global Temperature for the Past 11,300 Years", Science, 339 (6124): 1198–1201, Bibcode:2013Sci...339.1198M, doi:10.1126/science.1228026, PMID 23471405, S2CID 29665980.

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Climate change

Overview

* Attribution of recent climate change
* Climate system
* Effects of climate change
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* By country and region

Causes

| Overview

* Attribution of recent climate change
* Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
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* Scientific consensus on climate change

|

Sources|

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|

Flora and fauna|

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Mitigation

| Economics and finance|

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|

Energy|

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Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks|

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* Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF and AFOLU)
* Nature-based solutions

Personal|

* Individual action on climate change
* Plant-based diet

Society and adaptation

| Society|

* Business responses
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|

Adaptation|

* Adaptation strategies on the German coast
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Communication|

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International agreements|

* Glasgow Climate Pact
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* Nationally Determined Contributions
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Background and theory

| Measurements|

* Global surface temperature
* Instrumental temperature record
* Proxy (climate)
* Satellite measurements

|

Theory|

* Albedo
* Carbon cycle
* atmospheric
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