Northern Crusades

12th/13th century crusades around the Baltic Sea

For the film, see Northern Crusades (film).

Danish crusaders in the Battle of Lindanise (Tallinn) against Estonian pagans, 15 June 1219. Painted by C. A. Lorentzen in 1809.

* v
* t
* e

Crusades

Ideology and institutions

* Crusading movement
* Military order (religious society)
* Crusade indulgence
* Papal income tax

In the Holy Land (1095–1291)

* First
* 1101
* Norwegian
* Venetian
* 1129
* Second
* Second Norwegian
* Third
* 1197
* Fourth
* Fifth
* Sixth
* Barons'
* Seventh
* 1267
* Catalan
* Eighth
* Lord Edward's
* Fall of Outremer

Later Crusades (1291–1717)

* Crusades after Acre, 1291–1399
* Smyrniote
* Alexandrian
* Savoyard
* Barbary
* 1390
* 1398
* 1399
* Ottoman Crusades
* Nicopolis
* Varna
* Belgrade
* Ottoman–Venetian wars
* Holy Leagues
* 1332
* 1495
* 1511
* 1526
* 1535
* 1538
* 1571
* 1594
* 1684
* 1717

Reconquista (722–1492)

Northern (1147–1410)

* Kalmar
* Wendish
* Swedish
* 1150
* 1249
* 1293
* Livonian
* Prussian
* Lithuanian
* Votian
* Ice
* Tatar

Against Christians (1107–1588)

* 1107
* Constantinople
* Aragon
* Albigensian
* Colonna family
* Drenther
* Holy Roman Empire
* Hohenstaufen
* Guelphs and Ghibellines
* Stedinger
* Bosnian
* Bohemian
* Despenser's
* Hussite
* Spanish Armada

Popular (1096–1320)

* People's (1096)
* Children's
* Shepherds' (1251)
* Crusade of the Poor
* Shepherds' (1320)

Crusader states (Site)

The Northern Crusades[1] or Baltic Crusades[2] were Christianization campaigns undertaken by Catholic Christian military orders and kingdoms, primarily against the pagan Baltic, Finnic, and West Slavic peoples around the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic Sea.

The most notable campaigns were the Livonian and Prussian crusades. Some of these wars were called crusades during the Middle Ages, however others, including the 12th century First Swedish Crusade and several following military incursions by Scandinavian Christians against the then pagan Finns, were dubbed "crusades" only in the 19th century by romantic nationalist historians. However, crusades against Estonians and against "other pagans in those parts" were authorized by Pope Alexander III in the crusade bull Non parum animus noster,[3] in 1171 or 1172.[4]

## Background

[edit]

At the outset of the northern crusades, Christian monarchs across northern Europe commissioned forays into territories that comprise modern-day Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Russia. The indigenous populations of Pagans suffered forced baptisms and the ravages of military occupation. Spearheading, but by no means monopolizing these incursions, the ascendant Teutonic Order profited immensely from the crusades, as did German merchants who fanned out along trading routes traversing the Baltic frontier.[5]

The official starting point for the Northern Crusades was Pope Celestine III's call in 1195,[6] but the Catholic kingdoms of Scandinavia, Poland, and the Holy Roman Empire had begun moving to subjugate their pagan neighbors even earlier (see Christianization of Pomerania).[7] The non-Christian people who were objects of the campaigns at various dates included:

* the Polabian Wends, Sorbs, and Obotrites between the Elbe and Oder rivers (by the Saxons, Danes, and Poles, beginning with the Wendish Crusade in 1147)
* the Finns proper in the 1150s in the First Crusade by the Swedes; by the Danes in 1191 and 1202; Tavastia in 1249 in the Second Crusade by the Swedes; and Karelia in 1293 in the Third Crusade by the Swedes; Christianization in these areas had started earlier.
* Livonians, Latgallians, Selonians, and Estonians (by the Germans and Danes, 1193–1227).
* Semigallians and Curonians (1219–1290).
* Old Prussians.
* Lithuanians and Samogitians (by the Germans, unsuccessfully, 1236–1410).

Armed conflict between the Finnic peoples, Balts, and Slavs who lived by the Baltic shores, and their Saxon and Danish neighbors to the north and south, had been common for several centuries before the crusade. The previous battles had largely been caused by attempts to destroy castles and sea trade routes to gain an economic advantage in the region, and the crusade basically continued this pattern of conflict, albeit now inspired and prescribed by the Pope and undertaken by Papal knights and armed monks.

*   Norway
*   Germany
*   Denmark
*   Sweden
*   Teutonic Order
*   Livonian Sword Brothers / Order

## Wendish Crusade

[edit]

Main article: Wendish Crusade

The campaigns started with the 1147 Wendish Crusade against the Polabian Slavs (or "Wends") of what is now northern and eastern Germany. The crusade occurred parallel to the Second Crusade to the Holy Land, and continued irregularly until the 16th century.

## Swedish Crusades

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Main articles: First Swedish Crusade, Second Swedish Crusade, Third Swedish Crusade, and Swedish–Novgorodian Wars

The Swedish crusades were campaigns by Sweden against Finns, Tavastians, and Karelians during the period from 1150 to 1293. The wars with the Eastern Orthodox Novgorod Republic also had a religious aspect.

## Danish Crusades

[edit]

See also: Wetheman

The Danes are known to have made at least three crusades to Finland. The first mention of these crusades is from 1187, when crusader Esbern Snare mentioned in his Christmas feast speech a major victory over the Finns.[8] The two next known crusades were made in 1191 and in 1202. The latter one was led by the Bishop of Lund, Anders Sunesen, with his brother.[9]

## Livonian Crusade

[edit]

Main article: Livonian Crusade

By the 12th century, the peoples inhabiting the lands now known as Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania formed a pagan wedge between increasingly powerful rival Christian states – the Orthodox Church to their east and the Catholic Church to their west. The difference in creeds was one of the reasons they were able to resist being forcibly converted to a different religion. During a period of more than 150 years leading up to the arrival of German crusaders in the region, Estonia was attacked thirteen times by Russian principalities, and by Denmark and Sweden as well. Estonians for their part made raids upon Denmark and Sweden. There were peaceful attempts by some Catholics to convert the Estonians, starting with missions dispatched by Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, in 1045–1072. However, these peaceful efforts seem to have had limited success.

### Campaign against the Livonians (1198–1212)

[edit]

Moving in the wake of German merchants who were now following the old trading routes of the Vikings, a canon named Meinhard landed at the mouth of the Daugava river in present-day Latvia in 1180 and was made bishop in 1186. Pope Celestine III proclaimed a crusade against the Baltic pagans in 1195, which was reiterated by Pope Innocent III, and a crusading expedition led by Meinhard's successor, Bishop Berthold of Hanover, landed in Livonia (part of present-day Latvia, surrounding the Gulf of Riga) in 1198. Although the crusaders won their first battle, Bishop Berthold was mortally wounded and the crusaders were repelled.

In 1199, Albert of Buxhoeveden was appointed by the Archbishop Hartwig II of Bremen to Christianise the Baltic countries. By the time Albert died 30 years later, the conquest and formal Christianisation of present-day Estonia and northern Latvia was complete. Albert began his task by touring the Empire, preaching a Crusade against the Baltic countries, and was assisted in this by a papal bull which declared that fighting against the Baltic heathens was of the same rank as participating in a crusade to the Holy Land. Although he landed in the mouth of the Daugava in 1200 with only 23 ships and 500 soldiers, the bishop's efforts ensured that a constant flow of recruits followed. The first crusaders usually arrived to fight during the spring and returned to their homes in the autumn. To ensure a permanent military presence, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were founded in 1202. The founding by Bishop Albert of the market at Riga in 1201 attracted citizens from the Empire and economic prosperity ensued. At Albert's request, Pope Innocent III dedicated the Baltic countries to the Virgin Mary to popularize recruitment to his army and the name "Mary's Land" has survived up to modern times. This is noticeable in one of the names given to Livonia at the time, Terra Mariana (Land of Mary).

Ruins of the castle in Sigulda

In 1206, the crusaders subdued the Livonian stronghold in Turaida on the right bank of Gauja River, the ancient trading route to the Northwestern Rus. In order to gain control over the left bank of Gauja, the stone castle was built in Sigulda before 1210. By 1211, the Livonian province of Metsepole (now Limbaži district) and the mixed Livonian–Latgallian inhabited county of Idumea (now Straupe) was converted to the Roman Catholic faith. The last battle against the Livonians was the siege of Satezele hillfort near to Sigulda in 1212. The Livonians, who had been paying tribute to the East Slavic Principality of Polotsk, had at first considered the Germans useful allies. The first prominent Livonian to be christened was their leader Caupo of Turaida. As the German grip tightened, the Livonians rebelled against the crusaders and the christened chief but were put down. Caupo of Turaida remained an ally of the crusaders until his death in the Battle of St. Matthew's Day in 1217.[10]

The German crusaders enlisted newly baptised Livonian warriors to participate in their campaigns against Latgallians and Selonians (1208–1209), Estonians (1208–1227), and against Semigallians, Samogitians, and Curonians (1219–1290).

### Campaign against the Latgallians and Selonians (1208–1224)

[edit]

Baltic Tribes c 1200

After the subjugation of the Livonians, the crusaders turned their attention to the Latgallian principalities to the east, along the Gauja and Daugava rivers. The military alliance in 1208 and later conversion from Greek Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism of the Principality of Tālava was the only peaceful subjugation of the Baltic tribes during the Nordic crusades. The ruler of Tālava, Tālivaldis (Talibaldus de Tolowa), became the most loyal ally of German crusaders against the Estonians, and he died a Catholic martyr in 1215. The war against the Latgallian and Selonian countries along the Daugava waterway started in 1208 with the occupation of the Orthodox Principality of Koknese and the Selonian Sēlpils hillfort. The campaign continued in 1209 with an attack on the Orthodox Principality of Jersika (known as Lettia), accused by crusaders of being in alliance with Lithuanian pagans. After the defeat, the king of Jersika, Visvaldis, became the vassal of the Bishop of Livonia and received part of his country (southern Latgale) as a fiefdom. The Selonian stronghold of Sēlpils was briefly the seat of a Selonian diocese (1218–1226), and then came under the rule of the Livonian Order (and eventually the stone castle of Selburg was built in its place). Only in 1224, with the division of Tālava and Adzele counties between the Bishop of Riga and the Order of the Swordbearers, did Latgallian countries finally become the possession of German conquerors. The territory of the former Principality of Jersika was divided between the Bishop of Riga and the Livonian Order in 1239.

### Campaign against the Estonians (1208–1224)

[edit]

Kuressaare Castle, Estonia, constructed by the Teutonic Order

By 1208, the Germans were strong enough to begin operations against the Estonians, who were at that time divided into eight major and several smaller counties led by elders with limited cooperation between them. In 1208–1227, war parties of the different sides rampaged through the Livonian, Northern Latgallian, and Estonian counties, with Livonians and Latgallians normally as allies of the Crusaders, and the Principalities of Polotsk and Pskov appearing as allies of different sides at different times. Hillforts, which were the key centres of Estonian counties, were besieged and captured a number of times. A truce between the war-weary sides was established for three years (1213–1215) and proved generally more favourable to the Germans, who consolidated their political position, while the Estonians were unable to develop their system of loose alliances into a centralised state. The Livonian leader Kaupo was killed in battle near Viljandi (Fellin) on 21 September 1217, but the battle was a crushing defeat for the Estonians, whose leader Lembitu was also killed. Since 1211, his name had come to the attention of the German chroniclers as a notable Estonian elder, and he had become the central figure of the Estonian resistance.

The Christian kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden were also greedy for conquests on the Eastern shores of the Baltic. While the Swedes made only one failed foray into western Estonia in 1220, the Danish Fleet, headed by King Valdemar II of Denmark, had landed at the Estonian town of Lindanisse[11] (present-day Tallinn) in 1219. After the Battle of Lindanise, the Danes established a fortress, which was besieged by Estonians in 1220 and 1223, but held out. Eventually, the whole of northern Estonia came under Danish control.

### Wars against Saaremaa (1206–1261)

[edit]

The last Estonian county to hold out against the invaders was the island county of Saaremaa (Ösel), whose war fleets had raided Denmark and Sweden during the years of fighting against the German crusaders.

In 1206, a Danish army led by the king Valdemar II and Andreas, the Bishop of Lund, landed on Saaremaa and attempted to establish a stronghold without success. In 1216, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the bishop Theodorich joined forces and invaded Saaremaa over the frozen sea. In return, the Oeselians raided the territories in Latvia that were under German rule the following spring. In 1220, the Swedish army led by king John I of Sweden and the bishop Karl of Linköping conquered Lihula in Rotalia in Western Estonia. Oeselians attacked the Swedish stronghold the same year, conquered it, and killed the entire Swedish garrison, including the Bishop of Linköping.

In 1222, the Danish king Valdemar II attempted the second conquest of Saaremaa, this time establishing a stone fortress housing a strong garrison. The Danish stronghold was besieged and surrendered within five days, with the Danish garrison being returned to Revel, leaving bishop Albert of Riga's brother Theodoric, and few others, behind as hostages for peace. The castle was razed to the ground by the Oeselians.[12]

A 20,000 strong army under Papal legate William of Modena crossed the frozen sea while the Saaremaa fleet was icebound, in January 1227. After the surrender of two major Oeselian strongholds, Muhu and Valjala, the Oeselians formally accepted Christianity.

In 1236, after the defeat of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the Battle of Saule, military action on Saaremaa broke out again. In 1261, warfare continued as the Oeselians had once more renounced Christianity and killed all the Germans on the island. A peace treaty was signed after the united forces of the Livonian Order, the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek, and Danish Estonia, including mainland Estonians and Latvians, defeated the Oeselians by conquering their stronghold at Kaarma. Soon thereafter, the Livonian Order established a stone fort at Pöide.

### Wars against the Curonians and Semigallians (1201–1290)

[edit]

Although the Curonians had attacked Riga in 1201 and 1210, Albert of Buxhoeveden, considering Courland a tributary of Valdemar II of Denmark, had been reluctant to conduct a large scale campaign against them. After Albert's death in 1229, the crusaders secured the peaceful submission of Vanemane (a county with a mixed Livonian, Oselian, and Curonian population in the northeastern part of Courland) by treaty in 1230. In the same year, the papal vice-legate Baldouin of Alnea annulled this agreement and concluded an agreement with the ruler (rex) of Bandava in the central Courland Lammekinus, delivering his kingdom into the hands of the papacy. Baldouin became the popes's delegate in Courland and bishop of Semigallia; however, the Germans complained about him to the Roman Curia, and in 1234, Pope Gregory IX removed Baldouin as his delegate.

After their decisive defeat in the Battle of Saule by the Samogitians and Semigallians, the remnants of the Sword Brothers were reorganized in 1237 as a subdivision of the Teutonic Order, and became known as the Livonian Order. In 1242, under the leadership of the master of the Livonian Order Andrew of Groningen, the crusaders began the military conquest of Courland. They defeated the Curonians as far south as Embūte, near the contemporary border with Lithuania, and founded their main fortress at Kuldīga. In 1245, Pope Innocent IV allotted two-thirds of conquered Courland to the Livonian Order, and one third to the Bishopric of Courland.

At the Battle of Durbe in 1260, a force of Samogitians and Curonians overpowered the united forces of the Livonian and Teutonic Orders; over the following years, however, the Crusaders gradually subjugated the Curonians, and in 1267, concluded the peace treaty stipulating the obligations and the rights of their defeated rivals. The unconquered southern parts of their territories (Ceklis and Megava) were united under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Tērvete castle hill in 2010.

The conquest of Semigallian counties started in 1219 when crusaders from Riga occupied Mežotne, the major port on the Lielupe waterway, and founded the Bishopric of Semigallia. After several unsuccessful campaigns against the pagan Semigallian duke Viestards and his Samogitian kinsfolk, the Roman Curia decided in 1251 to abolish the Bishopric of Semigallia, and divided its territories between the Bishopric of Riga and the Order of Livonia. In 1265, a stone castle was built at Jelgava, on the Lielupe, and became the main military base for crusader attacks against the Semigallians. In 1271, the capital hillfort of Tērvete was conquered, but Semigallians, under the Duke Nameisis, rebelled in 1279, and the Lithuanians under Traidenis defeated Livonian Order forces in the Battle of Aizkraukle. Duke Nameisis' warriors unsuccessfully attacked Riga in 1280, in response to which around 14,000 crusaders besieged Turaida castle in 1281. To conquer the remaining Semigallian hillforts, the Order's master Villekin of Endorpe built a castle called Heiligenberg (lit. 'Saints' Hill') right next to the Tērvete castle in 1287. The same year, the Semigallians made another attempt to conquer Riga, but again failed to take it. On their return home, Livonian knights attacked them, but were defeated at the Battle of Garoza, in which the Orders' master Villekin and at least 35 knights lost their lives. The new master of the Order Konrad von Hattstein organised the last campaigns against the Semigallians in 1289 and 1290; the hillforts of Dobele, Rakte, and Sidabre were conquered, and most of the Semigallian warriors joined the Samogitian and Lithuanian forces.

## Prussia and Lithuania

[edit]

Main articles: Prussian Crusade and Lithuanian Crusade

### Campaigns of Bolesław the Curly and Konrad of Masovia

[edit]

From 1147, the Polish Duke of Mazovia, Boleslaw the Curly, led many expeditions against pagan Prussia, with some of them being successful and resulting in the conquest of parts of the Prussian territories.[13]

Konrad I, the Polish Duke of Masovia, unsuccessfully attempted to conquer pagan Prussia in crusades in 1219 and 1222.[14] Taking the advice of the first Bishop of Prussia, Christian of Oliva, Konrad founded the crusading Order of Dobrzyń (or Dobrin) in 1220. However, this order was largely ineffective, and Konrad's campaigns against the Old Prussians were answered by incursions into the already captured territory of Culmerland (Chełmno Land). Subjected to constant Prussian counter-raids, Konrad wanted to stabilize the north of the Duchy of Masovia in this fight over the border area of Chełmno Land. Masovia became part of Poland in the 10th century, but native Prussians, Yotvingians, and Lithuanians were still living in the territories north of Masovia, where no settled borders existed. Konrad's military weakness led him, in 1226, to ask the Roman Catholic monastic order of the Teutonic Knights to come to Prussia and suppress the Old Prussians.

### Campaigns of Bolesław the Chaste and Leszek the Black

[edit]

Campaigns against Yotvingians and Lithuanians were also conducted in the years 1248–1282 by princes Bolesław the Chaste and Leszek the Black. They defeated the forces of pagans invading Mazovia, Kujawy, and the Lublin region. They also carried out several expeditions to Yotvingian territories.[15]

## Teutonic Order in Livonia and Votia (1237–1410)

[edit]

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Further information: Treaty of Stensby, 1240–1241 Votia campaign, Battle of Wesenberg (1268), and Battle of Grunwald

See also: 1240 Izborsk and Pskov campaign and Battle of Lake Peipus

The Northern Crusades provided both the rationale and the opportunity for the growth and expansion of the Teutonic Order, a German military religious order founded as a hospital in Acre around 1190 and established as a military order in 1198. Duke Konrad I of Masovia, a region in east-central Poland, appealed to the Teutonic Knights to defend his borders and subdue the pagan Old Prussians in 1226. In 1234, a significant expedition began in which Polish forces, allied with the Teutonic Knights, defeated the Old Prussians in a battle on the Dzierzgoń river.[16] While engaged in the decades-long subjugation of the Prussians, the Teutonic Knights also entered into conflict with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[citation needed]

When the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were heavily defeated by Samogitians and Semigallians at the Battle of Saule in 1236, coinciding with Estonian revolts, the remnants of the order were incorporated into the Teutonic Order in 1237, becoming its autonomous Livonian branch. This allowed the Teutonic Order, through its Livonian branch, to exercise political control over large territories in the Baltic region. Mindaugas, the ruler of Lithuania, was baptised with his wife around 1251 and crowned King in 1253 with papal approval, hoping this would help stop Crusader attacks, although it ultimately did not prevent further conflict. The Teutonic Knights failed to subdue Lithuania. The country began its official conversion to Catholic Christianity following the marriage of Grand Duke Jogaila to Jadwiga, the young ruling Queen (crowned as King) of Poland, and Jogaila's own baptism in 1386; the formal Christianization of Lithuania commenced in 1387. However, even after Lithuania's official conversion, the conflict persisted, culminating in the pivotal Battle of Grunwald (also known as Tannenberg or Žalgiris) in 1410. In this battle, the allied forces of Poland and Lithuania, supported by Tatar, Moldovan, Ruthenian, and Czech contingents, decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights.[citation needed]

In 1221, Pope Honorius III expressed concern about conflicts in the Finnish region involving Novgorod, after receiving alarming information from the Archbishop of Uppsala. He authorized the Bishop of Finland to establish a trade embargo against the "barbarians" described as threatening Christianity in Finland.[17] The specific identity or origin of these "barbarians", presumably cited from the Archbishop's letter, remains unclear and may not have been known precisely, even by the Pope. However, when the call for an embargo was renewed around 1229, it specifically targeted Russians (Novgorodians).[18][19] Based on Papal letters from that year,[25] the Bishop of Finland requested that the Pope, Gregory IX, authorize or call for a trade embargo against Novgorodians to be implemented by Baltic Sea ports, including Visby, Riga, and Lübeck. In the following decade (specifically around 1232-1237), Pope Gregory IX also requested the Livonian Brothers of the Sword send troops to protect Finland from Novgorod incursions. Whether any knights were actually dispatched remains unknown.[26]

The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer Orthodox Russian lands (particularly the Republics of Pskov and Novgorod), an enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX,[1] were a component of the Northern Crusades. One of the major setbacks for the eastward expansion into Russian principalities was the Battle of the Ice in 1242, where forces of Novgorod defeated the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order. Separately, with or without explicit papal blessing for every campaign, Sweden also undertook several crusades against Orthodox Novgorod.[citation needed]

Missionary work and crusading activity in Estonia by the Livonian Order and other Catholic powers led to conflicts with Novgorod, which had its own interests in the region, including attempts to subjugate, raid, or convert the pagan Estonians. The Estonians, in turn, sometimes sought alliances with Novgorod against the Crusaders.[27]

Intermittent warfare between Novgorod and the crusader states in Livonia continued. These conflicts ultimately halted the eastward expansion of the Livonian Order, while Novgorodian attempts to gain control over Estonia and Livonia also failed. The region (Terra Mariana) remained under the complex political control of the Livonian Confederation, primarily the Livonian Order and powerful Prince-Bishops.

## See also

[edit]

* Ostsiedlung
* Finnish–Novgorodian wars
* Swedish–Novgorodian wars
* Christianization of Lithuania
* Chronology of the Northern Crusades

## External links

[edit]

* Northern Crusades, article about the crusades from Ancient History Encyclopedia

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Paul Srodecki and Norbert Kersken, eds. The Expansion of the Faith: Crusading on the Frontiers of Latin Christendom in the High Middle Ages. Turnhout: Brepols, 2022. ISBN 978-2-503-58880-3

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b Christiansen, Erik (1997). The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 287. ISBN 0-14-026653-4.
2. ^ Hunyadi, Zsolt; József Laszlovszky (2001). The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity. Budapest: Central European University Press. p. 606\. ISBN 963-9241-42-3.
3. ^ Pope Alexander III; Curtin, D. P. (May 2008). Non Parum Animus Noster. Dalcassian Press. ISBN 9798869282217.
4. ^ Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 71
5. ^ Pluskowski, Aleksander, "Crusading into the medieval Baltic: Stanford Humanities Center Q&A with Aleks Pluskowski" Stanford Humanities Center Dec 12, 2016[permanent dead link]
6. ^ Christopher Tyerman, God's War: A New History of the Crusades, (University of Harvard Press, 2006), 488.
7. ^ von Güttner-Sporzyński, Darius. "Poland and the papacy before the second crusade".
8. ^ Jensen, Kurt Villads (2019). Ristiretket. Turun Historiallinen Yhdistys. pp. 126–127\. ISBN 9789527045091.
9. ^ Haggren, Georg; Halinen, Petri; Lavento, Mika; Raninen, Sami; Wessman, Anna (2015). Muinaisuutemme jäljet. Gaudeamus. p. 380.
10. ^ The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia. Columbia University Press. 1961. ISBN 0-231-12889-4. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
11. ^ "Estland". Salmonsens konversationsleksikon (in Danish).
12. ^ Urban, William L. (1994). The Baltic Crusade. Lithuanian Research and Studies Center. pp. 113–114\. ISBN 0-929700-10-4.
13. ^ Biniaś-Szkopek, Magdalena (2009). Bolesław IV Kędzierzawy – książę Mazowsza i princeps (in Polish). Poznań.
14. ^ Lewinski-Corwin, Edward Henry (1917). A History of Prussia. New York: The Polish Book Importing Company. p. 628.
15. ^ Marcin, Kromer (1857). Kronika polska Marcina Kromera biskupa warmińskiego ksiąg XXX... (in Polish). Sanok. p. 475.
16. ^ Biskup, Marian; Labuda, Gerard (1986). Dzieje Zakonu Krzyżackiego w Prusach (in Polish). Gdańsk: Morskie. p. 140.
17. ^ Pope Honorius III (13 January 1221). "To prevent all supplies to the barbarian peoples who surrounded his diocese, in order thereby to possibly inhibit their attacks" (in Latin). Letter to the Bishop of Finland. Diplomatarium Fennicum 64.
18. ^ a b Pope Gregory IX (23 January 1229). "To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith for as long as they hate and attack the recently converted Finns" (in Latin). Letter to the Bishop and Archdeacon of Riga and the Abbot of Dünamünde. Diplomatarium Fennicum 74.
19. ^ a b Pope Gregory IX (27 January 1229). "To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith for as long as they hate and attack the newly converted Finns" (in Latin). Letter to the Bishop and Abbot of the Order of St John and the Dean of Lübeck. Diplomatarium Fennicum 76.
20. ^ Pope Gregory IX (23 January 1229). "Concerning the removal of the diocesan see in Finland to a more suitable location" (in Latin). Letter to the Bishop and Abbot of the Order of St John and the Dean of Lübeck. Diplomatarium Fennicum 72.
21. ^ Pope Gregory IX (23 January 1229). "To ensure that no injustice be done to the Bishop, clergy and people of Finland, which the Holy See has taken under its protection" (in Latin). Letter to the bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Provost of Visby. Diplomatarium Fennicum 73.
22. ^ Pope Gregory IX (27 January 1229). "To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith as long as they hate and attack the newly converted Finns" (in Latin). Letter to the Bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Provost of Visby. Diplomatarium Fennicum 75.
23. ^ Pope Gregory IX (31 January 1229). "Bull ratifying ownership by the Finnish church of former pagan groves and sanctuaries which the converts have voluntarily given to the church" (in Latin). Letter to the Bishop of Finland. Diplomatarium Fennicum 77.
24. ^ Pope Gregory IX. "To prevent merchants of Gotland from engaging in trade with the heathens harassing the Christian church in Finland" (in Latin). Letter to the Bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Dean of Visby. Diplomatarium Fennicum 78.
25. ^ See Diplomatarium Fennicum documents 72,[20] 73,[21] 74,[18] 75,[22] 76,[19] 77,[23] and 78.[24]
26. ^ Pope Gregory IX (24 November 1232). "To protect the Bishop of Finland and the recently converted Finns from the attacks of the Russians" (in Latin). Letter to the Order of the Sword in Livonia. Diplomatarium Fennicum 80.
27. ^ Fonnesberg-Schmidt, I.M. (2007). The popes and the Baltic crusades, 1147–1254. Brill. pp. 215–218, 220. ISBN 9789004155022.

* v
* t
* e

Crusader states

List of Crusader states

Levant|

* Kingdom of Jerusalem
* vassals
* Principality of Antioch
* Antioch
* County of Edessa
* Marash
* County of Tripoli
* Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
* Kingdom of Cyprus

Greece|

* Latin Empire of Constantinople
* Duchy of Philippopolis
* Kingdom of Thessalonica
* Principality of Achaea
* Duchy of Athens
* Duchy of Neopatras
* Duchy of the Archipelago
* Triarchy of Negroponte
* County Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos
* Lordship of Argos and Nauplia
* Venetian Stato da Màr
* Knights Hospitaller
* Hospitaller Rhodes
* Genoese colonies

Prussia
and Livonia|

* State of the Teutonic Order*
* Teutonic Order
* Livonian Order
* Livonian Brothers of the Sword*
* Archbishopric of Riga
* Bishopric of Courland
* Bishopric of Dorpat
* Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek
* Bishopric of Reval
* Dobrzyń Land
* Order of Dobrzyń
* Free City of Riga

* Military orders
* Crusading movement
* Crusades

* v
* t
* e

Catholic Church in Sweden

Roman Catholic
Diocese
of Stockholm|

* Saint Eugenia
* Saint Eric
* Saint Francis of Assisi
* Saint Mary

Education|

* Newman Institute

Services|

* Caritas
* Catholic Cemetery
* Malteser International

Saints|

* Sigfrid
* Eric
* Helena
* Ingrid
* Bridget
* Catherine
* Elizabeth

Bishops|

* Anders Arborelius (1998–)
* Hubertus Brandenburg (1977–1998)
* John Taylor (1962–1976)
* Knut Ansgar Nelson (1957–1962)
* (...)

History|

| Middle Ages
(c. 829–1527)|

* Christianisation (c. 829–1087)
* Archbishopric of Bremen (c. 829–1104)
* Archdiocese of Lund (1104–1164)
* Archdiocese of Uppsala (1164–1557)
* Swedish Crusades (12th–13th centuries)
* First (1150s)
* Second (1240s)
* Third (1293)
* Swedish–Novgorodian Wars

| Former
dioceses|

* Skara (990/1014–1529)
* Uppsala (1164–1557)
* Sigtuna (c. 11th century–1164)
* Linköping (c. 1129–1527)
* Strängnäs (c. 1100/1129–1536)
* Tuna "Eskilstuna" (c. 1100s–1170)
* Växjö (1163–1530)
* Västerås (1164–1534/1606 )
* Åbo (c. 1100s/1249–1554)

|

Former
monasteries
and convents
(List)|

* Alvastra Abbey
* Askeby Abbey
* Blackfriars (Stockholm)
* Bäckaskog Abbey
* Börringe Priory
* Dalby Priory
* Dragsmark Abbey
* Greyfriars (Stockholm)
* Greyfriars (Ystad)
* Gudhem Abbey
* Herrevad Abbey
* Julita Abbey
* Kastelle Priory
* Mariefred Charterhouse
* Nydala Abbey
* Riseberga Abbey
* Roma Abbey
* Skänninge Abbey
* Sko Abbey
* Solberga Abbey
* St. Clare's Priory (Stockholm)
* St. John's Priory (Kalmar)
* St. Peter's Priory (Lund)
* Vårfruberga Abbey
* Varnhem Abbey
* Vreta Abbey
* Ås Abbey
* Öved Abbey

Reformation
(c. 1527–1600)|

* Dalecarlian rebellions (1524–1533)
* Recess of Västerås (1527)
* Reductions of Gustav I of Sweden (1527–1560)
* Örebro Synod (1529)
* Västergötland rebellion (1529)
* Dacke War (1542-1543)
* Liturgical Struggle (1574–1593)
* Uppsala Synod (1593)
* War against Sigismund (1598–1600)

Post-
Tridentine
(1563–)|

* Anti-Catholicism (c. 1527–1977)
* Apostolic Vicariate of the Nordic Missions (1667–1781)
* Tolerance Act (1781)
* Apostolic prefecture (1781–1783)
* Apostolic vicariate (1783–1953)
* Dissenter Acts (1860–1873)
* Scandinavian Bishops Conference (1960–)
* Roman Catholic Diocese of Stockholm (1953–)

* See also: Episcopal Conference of Scandinavia

* v
* t
* e

Latin Church

Patriarchates
(by order of precedence)|

| Current|

* Rome ('Patriarch of the West'): Pope Leo XIV (with cathedra in Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran)

* Jerusalem: Pierbattista Pizzaballa
* East Indies: Filipe Neri Ferrão
* Lisbon: Rui Valério
* Venice: Francesco Moraglia

|

Defunct|

* Carthage (?−1964)
* Alexandria (1276–1964)
* Antioch (1098–1964)
* Constantinople (1204–1964)
* West Indies (1524–1963)
* Aquileia (560–1751)
* Ethiopia (1555–1663)
* Grado (560–1451)

History|

* Apostolic succession
* History of the papacy
* Papal primacy
* Historical development
* First Martyrs
* Great Church
* Early African church
* Vulgate
* East–West Schism
* Scholasticism
* Crusades
* Western Schism
* Age of Discovery
* Humanism
* Protestant Reformation
* Council of Trent
* Counter-Reformation
* Vatican I
* Vatican II
* 1983 Code of Canon Law

| Apostolic sees|

* Rome
* Peter
* Paul
* Syracuse
* Peter
* Malta
* Paul
* Milan
* Barnabas
* Santiago de Compostela
* James

|

Church Fathers|

* Tertullian
* Cyprian
* Hilary of Poitiers*
* Ambrose*
* Pope Damasus I
* Jerome*
* Augustine of Hippo*
* Pope Gregory I*
* Isidore of Seville*

Language|

* Ecclesiastical Latin
* Liturgical use of Latin

Liturgical rites
Liturgical days|

| Current|

* Ambrosian Rite
* Rite of Braga
* Mozarabic Rite
* Rite of Lyon
* Roman Rite
* Mass of Paul VI (Ordinary form)
* Tridentine Mass
* Extraordinary form
* Anglican Use
* Zaire Use

| Orders|

* Benedictine Rite
* Carmelite Rite
* Carthusian Rite
* Cistercian Rite
* Dominican Rite
* Norbertine Rite

|

Defunct|

* African Rite
* Aquileian Rite
* British
* Celtic Rite
* Durham Rite
* Hereford Use
* Sarum Use
* York Use
* Gallican Rite
* Missa Nautica
* Missa sicca
* Missa Venatoria
* Pre-Tridentine Mass

See also|

* Latin cross
* Latin Church in the Middle East
* Latins
* Turkey
* Titular sees
* Eastern Catholic Churches
* Conference of the Latin Bishops of the Arab Regions
* Western Rite Orthodoxy

* * also Doctors of the Church
* Category

* v
* t
* e

History of the Catholic Church

General|

* History of the Catholic Church
* By country or region
* Ecclesiastical history
* Timeline
* Papacy
* Papal primacy
* Catholic ecumenical councils
* First seven
* Catholic Bible
* Biblical canon
* Vulgate
* Crusading movement
* History of the Roman Curia
* Religious institutes
* Christian monasticism
* Catholic culture
* Art
* Role in civilization
* Vatican City
* Papal States
* Latin Church
* Eastern Catholic Churches

Early Church
(30–325/476)|

| Origins and
Apostolic Age (30–100)|

* Jesus
* Ministry
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Holy Spirit
* Mary
* John the Baptist
* Apostles in the New Testament
* Commissioning
* Peter
* John
* Paul
* Stephen
* Council of Jerusalem
* Split with Judaism
* New Testament
* Background
* Gospels
* Acts
* Pauline epistles
* General epistles
* Revelation

|

Ante-Nicene period (100–325)|

* Persecution
* Church Fathers
* Apostolic Fathers
* Pope Clement I
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Canon
* Tertullian
* Origen

Late antiquity
(313–476)|

| Great Church
(180–451)
Roman
state church
(380–451)|

* Constantine the Great
* Christianity
* Arian controversy
* Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
* Old St. Peter's Basilica
* First Council of Nicaea
* Pope Sylvester I
* First Council of Constantinople
* Biblical canon
* Jerome
* Vulgate
* Council of Ephesus
* Council of Chalcedon

|

Early Middle Ages|

* Benedict of Nursia
* Monasticism
* Second Council of Constantinople
* Pope Gregory I
* Gregorian chant
* Third Council of Constantinople
* Saint Boniface
* Byzantine Iconoclasm
* Second Council of Nicaea
* Charlemagne
* Pope Leo III
* Fourth Council of Constantinople
* East–West Schism

High Middle Ages|

* Pope Urban II
* Investiture Controversy
* Clash against the empire
* Crusades
* Universities
* Scholasticism
* First Council of the Lateran
* Second Council of the Lateran
* Third Council of the Lateran
* Pope Innocent III
* Latin Empire
* Francis of Assisi
* Fourth Council of the Lateran
* Inquisition
* First Council of Lyon
* Second Council of Lyon
* Bernard of Clairvaux

Late Middle Ages|

* Thomas Aquinas
* Pope Boniface VIII
* Western Schism
* Avignon Papacy
* Pope Clement V
* Council of Vienne
* Knights Templar
* Catherine of Siena
* Pope Alexander VI
* Age of Discovery

Protestant Reformation
Counter-Reformation

* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Counter-Reformation
* Exsurge Domine
* Dissolution of the monasteries
* Council of Trent
* Thomas More
* Pope Leo X
* Society of Jesus
* Ignatius of Loyola
* Francis Xavier
* Pope Pius V
* Tridentine Mass
* Teresa of Ávila
* John of the Cross
* Peter Canisius
* Philip Neri
* Robert Bellarmine
* European wars of religion
* Thirty Years' War

Baroque period to the
French Revolution

* Pope Innocent XI
* Pope Benedict XIV
* Suppression of the Society of Jesus
* Age of Enlightenment
* Anti-clericalism
* Pope Pius VI
* Shimabara Rebellion
* Edict of Nantes
* Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

19th century|

* Pope Pius VII
* Pope Pius IX
* United States
* Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary
* Our Lady of La Salette
* Our Lady of Lourdes
* First Vatican Council
* Papal infallibility
* Pope Leo XIII
* Mary of the Divine Heart
* Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart
* Rerum novarum

20th century|

* Pope Pius X
* Our Lady of Fátima
* Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII
* Pope Pius XII
* Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
* Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary
* Lateran Treaty
* Nazi Germany
* Mit brennender Sorge
* Pope John XXIII
* Pacem in terris
* Second Vatican Council
* Ecumenism
* Judaism
* Pope Paul VI (coronation)
* Pope John Paul I
* Mother Teresa
* USSR
* Pope John Paul II
* HIV/AIDS
* World Youth Day
* 1995

21st century|

* Sexual abuse scandal
* Islam
* World Youth Day
* 2000
* 2002
* 2005
* 2008
* 2011
* 2013
* 2016
* 2019
* 2023
* Pope Benedict XVI
* Pope Francis
* Laudato si'
* Patriarch Kirill
* COVID-19 pandemic
* Pope Leo XIV

* Vatican City portal
* Catholicism portal

* v
* t
* e

History of Christianity

* Spread
* History of theology
* Historicity of the Bible
* List of martyrs

Timeline|

| Centuries|

* 1st
* 2nd and 3rd
* 4th
* 5th
* 6th
* 7th
* 8th
* 9th
* 10th
* 11th
* 12th
* 13th
* 14th
* 15th
* 16th
* 17th
* 18th
* 19th
* 20th
* 21st

|

Early
Christianity|

| Origins and
Apostolic Age|

* Background
* Chronology of Jesus
* birth
* baptism
* ministry
* crucifixion
* resurrection
* Great Commission
* ascension
* historical Jesus
* Holy Spirit
* Apostles in the New Testament
* Jewish Christianity
* Split
* Paul the Apostle
* Council of Jerusalem
* Gospels
* Acts
* Pauline epistles
* General epistles
* Revelation

|

Ante-Nicene
period|

* Diversity
* Adoptionism
* Arianism
* Docetism
* Donatism
* Gnosticism
* Marcionism
* Montanism
* Canon development
* Persecution
* Apostolic / Church Fathers
* Clement of Rome
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Tertullian
* Origen
* Great Church
* Early African

Late antiquity|

* Constantine
* Constantinian shift
* Roman state religion
* Monasticism
* Councils
* Nicaea I
* Creed
* Christianity
* Athanasius
* Jerome
* Augustine
* Constantinople I
* Ephesus I
* Chalcedon
* Chalcedonian / Non-Chalcedonian
* Biblical canon

Catholicism
(Timeline)|

* Papacy
* Development of primacy
* Eastern Orthodox opposition
* Peace and Truce of God
* Crusading movement
* Lateran IV
* Art patronage of Julius II
* Leo X
* Counter-Reformation
* Trent
* Art
* Catholic Reformation
* Jesuits
* Xavier
* Thomas More
* Monastery dissolution
* Wars
* Mass rocks and priest holes
* Guadalupe
* Jansenists
* Molinists
* Neo-Scholasticism
* Teresa
* Modernism
* Independent Catholics
* Vatican I and Vatican II
* Ecclesial community

Eastern
Christianity|

* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Church of the East
* Chrysostom
* Nestorianism
* Icons
* Iconodulism
* Iconoclasm
* Great Schism
* Fall of Constantinople
* Armenia
* Georgia
* Greece
* Egypt
* Syriac
* Ethiopia
* Ottoman Empire
* Bulgaria
* Russia
* Serbia
* North America

Middle Ages|

* Pelagianism
* Gregory I
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Franks
* Gothic
* Scandinavian
* Iceland
* Slavs
* Bohemia
* Bulgaria
* Kievan Rus'
* Moravia
* Poland
* Pomerania
* Investiture
* Anselm
* Abelard
* Bernard
* Bogomils
* Bosnian
* Cathars
* Apostolic Brethren
* Dulcinian
* Crusades
* Waldensians
* Inquisition
* Early Scholasticism
* Christian mysticism
* Dominic
* Francis
* Bonaventure
* Aquinas
* Five Ways
* Wycliffe
* Avignon
* Papal Schism
* Bohemian Reformation
* Hus
* Conciliarism
* Synods

Reformation
and
Protestantism|

* Erasmus
* Eucharist
* Calvinist–Arminian debate
* Arminianism
* Wars
* Resistance theories
* Separation of church and state
* Nicodemites
* Hymnody of continental Europe
* Formal and material principles
* Law and Gospel
* Literature
* Protestant work ethic

| Lutheranism|

* Luther
* Ninety-five Theses
* Diet of Worms
* Theology
* Bible
* Melanchthon
* Book of Concord
* Orthodoxy
* Eucharist
* Art

|

Calvinism|

* Zwingli
* Calvin
* Huguenots
* Presbyterianism
* Scotland
* Knox
* TULIP
* Baptism
* Dort
* Three Forms of Unity
* Westminster
* Orthodoxy
* Metrical psalters

Anglicanism
(Timeline)|

* Henry VIII
* Cranmer
* Elizabethan
* 39 Articles
* Puritans
* Civil War
* Church music
* Book of Common Prayer
* King James Version

Anabaptism|

* Theology
* Radical Reformation
* Grebel
* Swiss Brethren
* Müntzer
* Martyrs' Synod
* Menno Simons
* Smyth
* Martyrs Mirror
* Ausbund

1640–1789|

* Revivalism
* Missionaries
* timeline
* Baptists
* Separation of church and state
* Edicts of toleration
* Congregationalism
* First Great Awakening
* Methodism
* Millerism
* Pietism
* Fostering of early experimental science
* Neo- and Old Lutherans

1789–present|

* Camp meeting
* Holiness movement
* Second Great Awakening
* Restorationists
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Mormonism
* Seventh-day Adventist
* Adventism
* Oxford Movement
* Laestadianism
* Finnish Awakening
* Christian existentialism
* Third Great Awakening
* Azusa Revival
* Gospel music
* Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy
* Pacifism
* Ecumenism
* Five solae
* Jesus movement
* Pentecostalism
* Charismatics
* Liberation theology
* Reformed epistemology
* Fourth Great Awakening
* Evangelical and Mainline Protestants
* Christian right and left
* Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America

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*[lit.]: literal translation
*[c.]: circa