Occitano-Romance languages

Branch of the Romance language group

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|

Occitano-Romance

Geographic
distribution| France, Spain, Andorra, Monaco, Italy
Linguistic classification| Indo-European

* Italic
* Latino-Faliscan
* Latin
* Romance
* Italo-Western
* Western Romance
* Gallo-Iberian?
* (disputed)
* Occitano-Romance

Early forms

Old Latin

* Vulgar Latin
* Proto-Romance
* Old Occitan

Subdivisions|

* Catalan
• Valencian
• Judaeo-Catalan?
* Occitan
• Gardiol
• Gascon
• Judeo-Gascon
• Judeo-Provençal
* Aragonese?
• Judaeo-Aragonese?

Language codes
Glottolog| None

Occitan in shades of Purple, Catalan in shades of Red and Aragonese in shades of Yellow

Occitano-Romance (Catalan: llengües occitanoromàniques; Occitan: lengas occitanoromanicas; Aragonese: luengas occitanoromanicas) is a branch of the Romance language group that encompasses the Catalan/Valencian, Occitan languages and sometimes Aragonese, spoken in parts of southern France and northeastern Spain.[1][2]

The classification of Occitano-Romance languages within the wider Romance language family has been a subject of a long-standing debate due to its transitional nature in the Western Romance dialect continuum.

The Gardiol language has been classified by Glottolog as a independent language in the Occitanic language family,[3] but has also been classified as a dialect of Occitan.[4]

## Extent

[edit]

The group covers the languages of the southern part of France (Occitania including Northern Catalonia), eastern Spain (Catalonia, Valencian Community, Balearic Islands, La Franja, Carche, Northern Aragon), together with Andorra, Monaco, parts of Italy (Occitan Valleys, Alghero, Guardia Piemontese), and historically in the County of Tripoli and the possessions of the Crown of Aragon. The existence of this group of languages is discussed on both linguistic and political bases.

## Classification of Catalan

[edit]

The classification of Occitano-Romance languages has been debated since the middle of the 19th century. According to some linguists, both Occitan and Catalan/Valencian should be considered genealogically Gallo-Romance languages. Other linguists concur in regards to Occitan but consider Catalan and Aragonese to be part of the Ibero-Romance languages. The matter is complicated by the group's transitional nature and qualities within the Western Romance dialect continuum; Occitano-Romance languages maintain a level of mutual intelligibility as well as shared characteristics with both neighboring Gallo-Romance and Ibero-Romance. They have also historically been heavily influenced by and borrowed from both of those language groups which further obscures clear classification.

The issue is as political as it is linguistic as the division into Gallo-Romance languages and Ibero-Romance languages was contemporaneous with nation-building of the current nation states of France and Spain and so is based more on territorial criteria than historic and linguistic criteria. In the early 21st century, Occitan and Catalan, the group's two major representatives, are generally spoken regionally alongside the dominant state languages, namely French and Spanish. One of the main proponents of the unity of the languages of the Iberian Peninsula was Spanish philologist Ramón Menéndez Pidal, and for a long time, others such as Swiss linguist Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke (Das Katalanische, Heidelberg, 1925) have supported the kinship of Occitan and Catalan. Also, due to Aragonese not having been studied as much as both Catalan and Occitan, many people still label it as a Spanish dialect.[5]

From the 8th century to the 13th century, there was no clear sociolinguistic distinction between Occitania and Catalonia. For instance, the Provençal troubadour, Albertet de Sestaró, says: "Monks, tell me which according to your knowledge are better: the French or the Catalans? And here I shall put Gascony, Provence, Limousin, Auvergne and Viennois while there shall be the land of the two kings."[6] In Marseille, a typical Provençal song is called 'Catalan song'.[7]

## Classification of Aragonese

[edit]

Aragonese is a language which has not been studied as much as Catalan and Occitan. On many occasions throughout history, people have disregarded it and label it as a Spanish dialect, mainly because of extralinguistic reasons such as its small extension and the fact that it's spoken in rural areas.

The language has been minoritized for centuries and labelled as either a broken dialect or as a second class language. Spanish became the language of prestige right away after the union of Aragon with Castile and the use of Aragonese started to decline. Even though it had been used by the government and administration for many years, it rapidly became a language that was used informally and looked down upon.

Territorial decline of the Aragonese language in favour of Spanish

This situation of diglossia meant the beginning of a period (that still lasts) of a strong Spanish influence. Many Spanish loanwords entered Aragonese and its evolution from that moment on was tied to Spanish. Some grammatical features documented in medieval Aragonese were lost, such as the usage of the Latin ending -ŪTUM for the creation of the participle verb forms such as in perduto (lost) instead of -ĪTUM that ended up being perdito, which later became perdiu in many dialects due to Spanish influence as well. Many of the loanwords that entered Aragonese were names of new concepts, but many others were basic words of the everyday life such as numbers or the days of the week. Aragonese morphology could have been affected as well. One example of the morphological influence of Spanish is the treatment of the terminal Latin vowels -Ĕ, -Ŭ (later -e, -o). Aragonese tends to lose the final unstressed -e that Spanish preserves (compare the word for milk in Aragonese leit and in Spanish leche), while the final -o is maintained more depending on the dialect and the degree of Spanish influence. Some dialects, such as Belsetan, a central dialect, tend to have the apocope of -o when the word ends with -n, -r and -l, such as in camín (path), rar (rare) and pel (hair). However, this apocope of -o but also the apocope of -e have been receding in territory and usage, and the final vowels have been reintroduced in many dialects.[8][9]

On the other hand, the recent studies have allowed us to get a better insight into the core of the Aragonese language. Despite the previously mentioned influence, there are still many features that bring Aragonese closer to both Occitan and Catalan. The lexicon of everyday life is harder to change after being influenced by other languages. The lexicon of plants, animals and the rural life poses a great example of this:[10]

English | Occitan | Catalan | Aragonese | Spanish

|
|
|
|

oat | civada | civada | cibada ~ cebada | avena
barley | òrdi | ordi | hordio | cebada
acorn | aglan | glà | glan | bellota
rosehip | gratacuol | gavarrera ~ gavarró | garrabera ~ gabardera | escaramujo
pomegranate | milgrana | magrana ~ mangrana | minglana ~ mengrana | granada
fern | falguièra ~ feuse | falguera | feleguera ~ felce | helecho
squirrel | esquiròl | esquirol | esquirol ~ esquiruelo | ardilla

Another example would be the use of the verb "to be". Aragonese and Occitan use one verb for what Catalan and the Ibero-Romance languages use two:

1. Occitan: èsser (depending on the dialect they can use other forms such as èstre, estar and èster)

Èster vielha. (to be old, in Aranese Occitan)
2. Aragonese: estar

Estar viella (to be old)
3. Catalan, just as in Spanish: ser and estar:

Ser vella (to be old. In this case ser and estar can't be used indistinctly without altering the meaning)

The conjugation of the Aragonese and Occitan forms comes close to the conjugation of ser in Catalan, and this sets the three languages apart from the Ibero-Romance languages with the kind of uses that the verb "to be" has. For example with the sentence "We are here" we can see the difference in use of the verb "to be" when used to talk about a location:

1. Occitan: sem aicí !
2. Aragonese: som aquí!
3. Catalan: som aquí!
4. Spanish: estamos aquí!

### The Ribagorçan dialect

[edit]

Romance languages form what is called a linguistic continuum. Each language within this continuum tends to be linked to another via a dialect that shares many traits with the other language. Usually these dialects are far enough from the standard forms of the two languages they link, and sometimes they can be difficult to classify as a dialect of language X or language Y. Between Aragonese and Catalan there is a linguistic variety called Ribagorçan. This constitutive dialect makes a clean transition between Aragonese and Catalan. Some linguists consider that it belongs to the Aragonese language, some others that it belongs to the Catalan language and some others that it constitutes a micro-language on its own.[11] Nowadays, most of the dialect is considered to be Aragonese and it is recognized as such by the regional governments. The matter is that the Ribagorçan variety has more characteristics that take it closer to Catalan than other Aragonese dialects. Therefore some of the people that argue that Ribagorçan is Catalan, could argue that it should be classified alongside Catalan.

It's important to note that, unlike between Aragonese and Catalan, there isn't a constitutive dialect between Aragonese and Spanish. During the Middle Ages, there were two linguistic varieties (Riojan and Navarrese respectively) between old Spanish and old Aragonese. However these two varieties were replaced by Spanish and the dialect continuum was broken between the Ibero-Romance languages and Aragonese plus the other Romance languages.

## Internal variation

[edit]

Most linguists separate Catalan and Occitan, but both languages have been treated as one in studies by Occitan linguists attempting to classify the dialects of Occitan in supradialectal groups, as is the case of Pierre Bec[12] and, more recently, of Domergue Sumien.[13]

* Supradialectal classification of Occitano-Romance according to P. Bec

* Supradialectal classification of Occitano-Romance according to D. Sumien

Both join together in an Aquitano-Pyrenean or Pre-Iberian group including Catalan, Gascon and a part of Languedocien, leaving the rest of Occitan in one (Sumien: Arverno-Mediterranean) or two groups (Bec: Arverno-Mediterranean, Central Occitan).

The answer to the question of whether Gascon or Catalan should be considered dialects of Occitan or separate languages has long been a matter of opinion or convention, rather than based on scientific grounds. However, two recent studies support Gascon's being considered a distinct language. For the very first time, a quantifiable, statistics-based approach was applied by Stephan Koppelberg in an attempt to solve this issue.[14] Based on the results he obtained, he concludes that Catalan, Occitan, and Gascon should all be considered three distinct languages. More recently, Y. Greub and J.P. Chambon (Sorbonne University, Paris) demonstrated that the formation of Proto-Gascon was already complete on the eve of the 7th century, whereas Proto-Occitan was not yet formed at that time.[15] These results induced linguists to do away with the conventional classification of Gascon, favoring the "distinct language" alternative.[citation needed] Both studies supported the early intuition of late Kurt Baldinger, a specialist of both medieval Occitan and medieval Gascon, who recommended that Occitan and Gascon be classified as separate languages.[16][17]

## Linguistic variation

[edit]

### Similarities between Catalan, Occitan and Aragonese

[edit]

* Both Catalan and Occitan have apocope on terminal Latin vowels -Ĕ, -Ŭ (later -e, -o). Aragonese however has apocope of -Ĕ and in some cases, depending on the dialect, of -Ŭ:  Latin | Catalan | Occitan | Aragonese | Spanish

|
|
|
|

Orthography | IPA | Orthography | IPA | Orthography | IPA | Orthography | IPA
TRÚNCU(M) | [ˈtrʊŋkũː] | tronc | [tɾoŋ(k)] | tronc | [tɾuŋ(k)] | tronco | [ˈtɾoŋko] | tronco
MANUS | [ˈmanʊs] | mà | [ma] | man | [ma] | man | [man] | mano

This evolution does not occur when the ellision of -e or -o results in a terminal consonant cluster.

Latin | Old Occitan | Catalan | Occitan | Aragonese

|
|
|
|

ÁRBORE(M) | ARBRE | arbre | arbre | árbol*
QUÁTTOR | QUÁTRO | quatre | quatre | cuatre

Due to the evolution of the word ÁRBORE(M) in Aragonese, this example doesn't show the conservation of -e or -o that prevents a terminal consonant cluster.

However, even though it is considered a Gallo-Romance trait, it's not present in Franco-Provençal, one of the main two languages of the Gallo-Romance, generally preserves the original final vowel after a syllable-final cluster, such as quattuor "four" > quatro (compare French quatre).
* Another shared trait is the conservation of the Latin initial consonantic groups FL-/CL-/PL-:  English | Latin | Catalan | Occitan | Aragonese

|
|
|
|

key | CLAVIS | clau | clau | clau
flame | FLAMMA | flama | flama | flama
full | PLĒNUS | ple | plen | plen ~ pleno
Some dialects of both Occitan and Aragonese palatalize these groups into FLL-/CLL-/PLL-.
* A large part of the lexicon is shared, and in general written words in Catalan, Aragonese and Occitan are mutually intelligible. Similar to the differences in lexicon between Portuguese and Spanish (although this is not always the case with spoken language and varies from dialect to dialect). There are also notable cognates between Catalan, Occitan and Aragonese.  English | Latin | Catalan | Occitan | Aragonese

|
|
|
|

old | VÉCLA(M) | vella | vièlha | viella
night | NOCTEM | nit | nuèit ~ nuèch | nueit ~ nit
to rise | PODIŌ | pujar | pujar | puyar
to eat | MANDŪCĀRE | menjar | manjar | minchar
to take | PRĒNDŌ | prendre | préner ~ prendre | prener ~ prenre
middle / half | MÉDIU(M) | mig | mièg | meyo
enough | PRŌDE | prou | pro ~ pron | prou ~ pro
I | ÉGO | jo | ieu | yo
to follow | SÉQUERE | seguir | seguir | seguir(e)
leaf | FÓLIA(M) | fulla | fuèlha | fuella ~ fulla
morning | MĀTŪTĪNUS | matí | matin | maitín

### Differences between Catalan, Occitan and Aragonese

[edit]

Most of the differences of the vowel system stem from neutralizations that take place on unstressed syllables. In both languages a stressed syllable has a great number of possible different vowels, while phonologically different vowels end up being articulated in the same way in an unstressed syllable. Although this neutralization is common to both languages, the details differ markedly. In Occitan the form of neutralization depends on whether a vowel is pretonic (before the stressed syllable) or posttonic (after the stressed syllable). For example /ɔ/ articulates as [u] in pretonic position and as [o] in posttonic position, and only as [ɔ] in stressed position. In contrast, neutralization in Catalan is the same regardless of the position of the unstressed syllable (although it differs from dialect to dialect). Many of these changes happened in the 14th or late 13th century.

Slightly older are the palatalizations present in Occitan before a palatal or velar consonant:

Occitan | Catalan | English

|
|

vièlha | vella | Old
mièg | mig | Middle/Half
ieu | jo | I
seguir | seguir | To follow
fuèlha | fulla | Leaf

The diphthongs and also set all these three languages apart, having each language different patterns and systems. Most of these come from the diphthongisation of Latin words with monophthongs, such as the descendants of the words like FĒSTA (party) or OCULUS (eye), or the monophthongization of Latin words that already had a diphthong, like CAUSA (thing). Some examples:

English | Catalan | Occitan | Aragonese

|
|
|

eye | ull | uèlh | uello
leaf | fulla | fuèlha | fuella
bridge | pont | pont | puent
party | festa | fèsta | fiesta
thing | cosa | causa | cosa
few, little | poc | pauc | poco

### Shared traits between Catalan and Aragonese but not Occitan

[edit]

A noticeable difference heard by speakers of Catalan and Aragonese is the use of rounded vowels in Occitan. Both Catalan and Aragonese lack rounded vowels. However, Occitan has /y/ and /œ/ in words like luna and fuèlha respectively.

The treatment of the Latin geminate -nn- also differs in Occitan. While Catalan and Aragonese tend to reduce the -nn- into a [ɲ], in Occitan it turned into a [n]:

English | Catalan | Aragonese | Occitan

|
|
|

year | any | anyo | an

On another page, while Occitan uses exclusively the simple past tense, Catalan (most dialects) and Aragonese (Eastern dialects) use another past tense called the periphrastic past. This tense is made of the sum of the conjugation of the verb to go plus the verb performing the action in infinitive form:

English | Catalan | Aragonese | Occitan

|
|
|

I bought | vaig comprar | va crompar ~ voi crompar | crompèri
you bought | vas comprar | vas crompar | crompères
he/she bought | va comprar | va crompar | crompèt
we bought | vam comprar | vam crompar ~ vom crompar | crompèrem
you bought | vau comprar | vaz crompar ~ voz crompar | crompèretz
they bought | van comprar | van crompar | crompèron

### Shared traits between Catalan and Occitan but not Aragonese

[edit]

Something that sets apart Aragonese and some Catalan dialects (such as central Valencian or Ribagorçan Catalan) from Occitan and most of the Catalan dialects is the devoicing or desonorization that happened in the former group. Phonemes such as /dʒ/ and /z/, which were replaced by /tʃ/ and /θ/.

Aragonese is the only of the three languages to have the -mbr- consonant cluster between vowels. Note that Ribagorçan tends to lose them as well:

English | Catalan | Occitan | Aragonese

|
|
|

hunger | fam | fam/talent | fambre
man | home | òme | hombre

### Shared traits between Occitan and Aragonese but not Catalan

[edit]

Catalan also has some things that sets it apart from the other two is the palatalization of the initial L. From /l/ to /ʎ/.[18]

English | Catalan | Occitan | Aragonese

|
|
|

tongue | llengua | lenga | luenga ~ lengua
to read | llegir | legir | leyer

It is important to note those dialects of Aragonese that palatalize the consonant clusters mentioned before, also palatalize the initial L:

English | Catalan | Ribagorçan

|
|

Tongue | llengua | lluenga ~ llengua
to read | llegir | llechir ~ lleyer

Another trait is the use of the descendants of the pronoun EGO when used as the object of a preposition. Most Catalan dialects and the Ibero-Romance languages distinguish between the pronoun used as a subject EGO and the object of a preposition MIHĪ̆, while both Aragonese and Occitan use the descendant of EGO:

English | Catalan | Occitan | Aragonese

|
|
|

I | jo | ieu | yo
(with) me | amb mi | amb ieu | con yo

Moreover, Aragonese and Occitan do not have proparoxytones, words with stress on the antepenultimate (third last) syllable. However, Catalan has them. The word "music" can be an example of this:

* Occitan: [myˈzikɔ] ⓘ
* Aragonese: [muˈsika]
* Catalan: [ˈmuzikə] ⓘ

### Lexical comparison

[edit]

Variations in the spellings and pronunciations of numbers in several Occitano-Romance dialects:[19][20]

Numeral | Occitan | Catalan | Aragonese[21] | PROTO-
OcRm

|
|
|
|

Northern Occitan  | Western Occitan  | Eastern Occitan  | Eastern Catalan | Northwestern Catalan
Auvergnat | Limousin | Gascon | Languedocien | Provençal
1 | vyn / vynɐ
vun / vunå | ỹ / ynɔ
un / una | y / yo
un / ua | yᵑ / ynɒ
un / una | yŋ / yno
un / una | un / unə
un / una | un / una
un / una | un~uno / una
un~uno / una | *un / *una
2 | du / dua
dou / duas | du / dua
dos / doas | dys / dyos
dus / duas | dus / duɒs
dos / doas | dus / duas
dous / douas | dos / duəs
dos / dues | dos/dues
dos / dues | dos / duas
dos / duas | *dos~dus / *duas
3 | tʀei
trei | trei
tres | tres
tres | tʁɛs
tres | tʀes
tres | trɛs
tres | trɛs
tres | tɾes
tres | *tres
4 | katʀə
catre | katre
quatre | kwatə
quatre | katʁe
quatre | katʀə
quatre | kwatrə
quatre | kwatre
quatre | kwatre~kwatro
quatre / quatro | *kwatre
5 | ʃin
sin | ʃin
cinc | siŋk
cinq | siŋk
cinc | siŋ
cinq | siŋ / siŋk
cinc | siŋ / siŋk
cinc | θiŋko~θiŋk
cinco / cinc | *siŋk
6 | ʃei
siei | ʃiei
sieis | ʃeis
sheis | si̯ɛi̯s
sièis | siei
sieis | sis
sis | sis
sis | seis~sieis
seis / sieis | *sieis
7 | se
sé | ʃe
sèt | sɛt
sèt | sɛt
sèt | sɛ
sèt | sɛt
set | sɛt
set | siet~sɛt
siet / set | *sɛt
8 | vø
veu | jɥe
uèch | weit
ueit | y̯ɛt͡ʃ / y̯ɛi̯t
uèch / uèit | vɥe
vue | buit / vuit
vuit | vuit / wit
vuit / huit | weito~weit
ueito / ueit | *weit
9 | niø~nou
nieu~nou | nɔu
nòu | nau
nau | nɔu̯
nòu | nu
nòu | nɔu
nou | nɔu
nou | nweu~nɔu
nueu / nou | *nɔu
10 | die~de
dié~dé | diɛ~de
detz | dɛt͡s
dètz | dɛt͡s
dèts | dɛs
dès | dɛu
deu | dɛu
deu | dieθ~deu
diez / deu | *dɛt͡s

The numbers 1 and 2 have both feminine and masculine forms agreeing with the object they modify.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Mas se confrontam los parlars naturals de Catalonha e d'Occitania, i a pas cap de dobte, em en preséncia de parlars d'una meteissa familha linguistica, la qu'ai qualificada d'occitano-romana, plaçada a egala distància entre lo francés e l'espanhòl." Loís Alibèrt, Òc, n°7 (01/1950), p. 26
2. ^ Lozano Sierra J, Saludas Bernad A.. Aspectos morfosintácticos del Belsetán. Saragossa: Gara d'Edizions, 2007, p. 180. ISBN 84-8094-056-5.
3. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Gardiol". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
4. ^ Christopher Moseley; Alexandre Nicolas (2010). "Atlas of the world's languages in danger". UNESCO. p. 39. Retrieved 2025-05-21.
5. ^ Tomás Arias, Javier. Elementos de lingüística contrastiva en aragonés: estudio de algunas afinidades con gascón, catalán y otros romances (Thesis). Universitat de Barcelona, 2016-07-08
6. ^ Monges, causetz, segons vostre siensa qual valon mais, catalan ho francés?/ E met de sai Guascuenha e Proensa/ E lemozí, alvernh’ e vianés/ E de lai met la terra dels dos reis.
7. ^ Manuel Milá y Fontanals (1861). De los trovadores en España: Estudio de lengua y poesía provenzal. J. Verdaguer. p. 14.
8. ^ Tomás Faci, Guillermo (2020). El aragonés medieval: lengua y Estado en el reino de Aragón. Colección Humanidades (1a. edición ed.). Zaragoza, España: Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza. ISBN 978-84-1340-056-3.
9. ^ M. BADIA I MARGARIT, ANTONI. EL HABLA DEL VALLE DE BIELSA. Zaragoza: Aladrada ediciones. ISBN 978-84-942470-8-8.
10. ^ Laspeñas Garcia, Daniel (2022) Correspondencias léxicas entre aragonés, catalán y occitano. Algunas relaciones en el mundo vegetal a la luz de las fuentes bibliográficas. Zaragoza, España: Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza. https://zaguan.unizar.es/record/112134/files/TESIS-2022-075.pdf
11. ^ Casasnovas, Gabriel Sanz (2022-05-27). "Sobre la adscripción lingüística del Ribagorzano". Liburna. Revista Internacional de Humanidades (in Spanish) (19): 219–231\. doi:10.46583/lb_2022.19.856. ISSN 1889-1128.
12. ^ Pierre BEC (1973), Manuel pratique d’occitan moderne, coll. Connaissance des langues, Paris: Picard
13. ^ Domergue SUMIEN (2006), La standardisation pluricentrique de l'occitan: nouvel enjeu sociolinguistique, développement du lexique et de la morphologie, coll. Publications de l'Association Internationale d'Études Occitanes, Turnhout: Brepols
14. ^ Stephan Koppelberg, El lèxic hereditari característic de l'occità i del gascó i la seva relació amb el del català (conclusions d'una anàlisi estadística), Actes del vuitè Col·loqui Internacional de Llengua i Literatura Catalana, Volume 1 (1988). Antoni M. Badia Margarit & Michel Camprubi ed. (in Catalan)
15. ^ Chambon, Jean-Pierre; Greub, Yan (2002). "Note sur l'âge du (proto)gascon". Revue de Linguistique Romane (in French). 66: 473–495.
16. ^ Baldinger, Kurt (1962). "La langue des documents en ancien gascon". Revue de Linguistique Romane (in French). 26: 331–347.
17. ^ Baldinger, Kurt (1962). "Textes anciens gascons". Revue de Linguistique Romane (in French). 26: 348–362.
18. ^ Elementos de lingüística contrastiva en aragonés: estudio de algunas afinidades con gascón, catalán y otros romances http://hdl.handle.net/10803/401328
19. ^ "Indo-European numerals (Eugene Chan)". Archived from the original on 2012-02-12. Retrieved 2019-05-15.
20. ^ an:Cardinals en l'aragonés
21. ^ "Los números en aragonés: Cardinales". Archived from the original on 2019-04-21. Retrieved 2019-05-15.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)