Off-road vehicle

Automotive vehicle capable of driving across difficult terrain beyond sealed roads

Not to be confused with Sport utility vehicle (SUV).

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)

This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with North America and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (May 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

(Learn how and when to remove this message)

Mercedes-Benz Unimog in the Dunes of Erg Chebbi in Morocco. The vehicle's portal gear axles provide high ground clearance.

An off-road vehicle (ORV), also known as an off-highway vehicle (OHV), overland vehicle or adventure vehicle, is a type of transportation specifically engineered to navigate unpaved roads and surfaces.[1] These include trails, forest roads, and other low-traction terrains. Off-road vehicles are widely used in various contexts, from recreational activities to practical applications like agriculture and construction. Events such as the annual Dakar Rally,[2] which spans multiple countries and challenges participants with diverse and extreme terrains, have brought significant attention to these vehicles.

## History

[edit]

Nicholas II's Packard Twin-6 with Kégresse track, 1917

One of the earliest modified off-road vehicles was the Kégresse track, a system for modifying cars developed by Adolphe Kégresse while working for Tsar Nicholas II of Russia between 1906 and 1916.[3] The system employed a caterpillar track with a flexible belt instead of interlocking metal segments, which could be fitted to a conventional vehicle, turning it into a half-track suitable for rough or soft terrain.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Kégresse returned to France and the system was used on Citroën cars between 1921 and 1937 for off-road and military vehicles. Citroën sponsored several overland expeditions with these vehicles, crossing North Africa and Central Asia.

The Antarctic Snow Cruiser, a large-wheeled vehicle designed between 1937 and 1939 under the direction of Thomas Poulter, was intended for transport in Antarctica. While the project incorporated novel features, it faced operational difficulties in the harsh Antarctic conditions, and was discontinued.[4]

Jeeps, originally developed as military vehicles during World War II, gained popularity among civilians as utility vehicles. This was also the start of off-roading as a hobby. The wartime Jeeps soon wore out, though, and the Jeep company started to produce civilian derivatives, closely followed by similar vehicles from British Land Rover and Japanese Toyota, Datsun/Nissan, Suzuki, and Mitsubishi. These were all similar: small, compact, four-wheel drive vehicles with, at most, a small hard top to protect the occupants from the elements.

Early off-road vehicles included the U.S. Jeep Wagoneer and Ford Bronco; the British Range Rover; and the Japanese Toyota Land Cruiser, Nissan Patrol, and Suzuki's LJ series. They featured bodies similar to those of a station wagon but on a light truck-like frame, with four-wheel-drive drivetrains. As off-road vehicles increased in popularity during the 1990s, more companies began producing their own lines of what became known as sport utility vehicles (SUV).[5] Manufacturers started incorporating more features to make off-road vehicles competitive with regular vehicles in the consumer market, which eventually evolved into the modern SUV and the newer crossover vehicle, whose off-roading capabilities were reduced in favor of improved on-road handling and luxury.

## Technical details

[edit]

Swedish Hägglunds Bv206 with wide rubber tracks

To effectively navigate off the pavement, off-road vehicles require low ground pressure, high ground clearance, and the ability to maintain wheels or track contact on uneven surfaces. Wheeled vehicles achieve this through large or additional tires combined with high and compliant suspension. Tracked vehicles use wide tracks and flexible suspension on the road wheels.

Russian GAZ-34039 [ru]

Tracked drivetrains are more expensive to produce and maintain but offer better off-road performance, while wheeled drivetrains are cheaper and allow for higher speeds.

Tires are crucial for wheeled off-road vehicles, and off-road tire tread types vary based on the terrain. Common types include A/T (All-Terrain) and M/T (mud terrain). A/T tires perform well on sand but are less effective in mud. Sand Blaster and Mud bogging tires are used for challenging terrains like dirt, sand, and water to ensure traction at high angles and speeds (off-road motorsport).[6]

Most off-road vehicles are equipped with low gearings, allowing the operator to optimize the engine's available power for slow movement through difficult terrain. An internal combustion engine coupled to a standard gearbox often has an output speed that is too high, which is resolved by using a very low ("granny") first gear (as in all-wheel drive Volkswagen Transporter versions) or an additional gearbox in line with the first, known as a reduction drive. Some vehicles, such as the Bv206, also have torque converters to reduce the gearing.[7]

## Criticism

[edit]

### Safety

[edit]

Main article: Criticism of sport utility vehicles

Sport utility vehicles have a higher center of gravity,[8] making them more prone to rollover accidents than standard passenger cars. A study in the United States found that SUVs have twice the fatality rate of passenger cars and nearly triple the fatality rate in rollover accidents.[9]

In the United States, light trucks (including SUVs) account for 36 percent of all registered vehicles and are involved in about half of all fatal two-vehicle crashes with passenger cars. In 80 percent of these crashes, the fatalities are occupants of the passenger cars.[9]

### Environment

[edit]

In the United States, the number of ORV users has increased sevenfold since 1972, from five million to 36 million in 2000.[10] Government policies that aim to protect wilderness while allowing recreational ORVs have been a subject of debate in the United States and other countries.[11]

All trail and off-trail activities affect natural vegetation and wildlife, leading to erosion, invasive species, habitat loss, and ultimately, species loss,[12][13][14] which reduces an ecosystem's ability to maintain homeostasis.[15] ORVs cause more environmental stress than foot traffic alone, and ORV operators who attempt to challenge natural obstacles can cause significantly more damage than those who stay on legal trails.[16][17] Illegal off-road vehicle use is a serious land management issue, comparable to illegal garbage dumping and other forms of vandalism.[18] Organizations such as Tread Lightly! and the Sierra Club promote responsible trail ethics.[19]

ORVs have also been criticized for creating excessive pollution in otherwise pristine areas, as well as noise pollution that can impair hearing and stress wildlife.[20] In 2002, the United States Environmental Protection Agency adopted emissions standards for all-terrain vehicles that, "when fully implemented in 2012, [...they] are expected to prevent the release of more than two million tons of air pollution each year—the equivalent of removing the pollution from more than 32 million cars every year."[21][22]

* Off-road vehicle erosion
* Negative environmental effects caused by motorcycles to a portion of the Los Padres National Forest

* Negative environmental effects that occurred when off-road vehicle drivers left the posted trail in Anza-Borrego Desert State Park

## Civilian use

[edit]

Common[where?] commercial vehicles used for off-roading include four-wheel-drive pickup trucks and SUVs such as the Ford F-Series, Jeep Wrangler, and Toyota Land Cruiser, among others. Owners often modify the wheels, tires, suspension, and body to improve off-road performance. Decommissioned military vehicles such as the Jeep CJ and the AM General Hummer have also been repurposed for civilian use. Some vehicles, like early Land Rovers, were adapted for military use from civilian versions. Specialized off-road vehicles include Utility terrain vehicles (UTVs), All-terrain vehicles (ATVs), dirt bikes, dune buggies, rock crawlers vehicles, and sandrails.

* An unmodified Nissan Patrol at the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia

* Modified Jeep Wrangler off-roading

* Polaris RZR, an example of a UTV

* Sandrail at Silver Lake Sand Dunes

* Ford F-350 modified for driving on snow in Iceland

### All-terrain vehicle

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from All-terrain vehicle.[edit]

The ATV is commonly called a four-wheeler in Australia, South Africa, parts of Canada, India, and the United States. They are used extensively in agriculture, because of their speed and light footprint.

An all-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a light utility vehicle (LUV),[23] a quad bike or quad (if it has four wheels), as defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), is a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, has a seat that is straddled by the operator, and has handlebars, similar to a motorcycle. As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. It is street-legal in some countries, but not in most states, territories and provinces of Australia, the United States, and Canada.

By the current ANSI definition, ATVs are intended for use by a single operator, but some ATVs, referred to as tandem ATVs, have been developed for use by the driver and one passenger.[24]

The rider sits on and operates these vehicles like a motorcycle, but the extra wheels give more stability at slower speeds. Although most are equipped with three or four wheels, six or eight wheel (tracked) models exist and have existed historically for specialized applications.[25] Multiple-user analogues with side-by-side seating are called utility terrain vehicles (UTVs) or side-by-sides to distinguish the classes of vehicle. Both classes tend to have similar powertrain parts. Engine sizes of ATVs for sale in the United States as of 2008 ranged from 49 to 1,000 cc (3.0 to 61 cu in).

## Other applications

[edit]

### Military vehicle

[edit]

The military market for off-road vehicles was once substantial but has diminished since the fall of the Iron Curtain in the 1990s. The U.S. jeeps, developed during World War II, popularized the term "jeep" for any light off-road vehicle. In the U.S., the Jeep's successor from the mid-1980s was the AM General HMMWV series. The Red Army used the GAZ-61 and GAZ-64 during World War II, while the Eastern Bloc used the GAZ-69 and UAZ-469 in similar roles.

* Unimog at IDEF'07 Arms Fair

* Two Polish Honkers in Iraq

* Volvo L3314N

* Mahindra and Mahindra Classic used by the Indian Army

* Soldiers from the 101st Airborne Division test prototype off-road vehicles

### Experimental vehicle

[edit]

* Experimental marsh buggy, 1928, stuck in mud

### Commercial vehicle

[edit]

* OKA Bus
* Coober Pedy Oodnadatta One Day Mail Run
* Arctic Trucks

* Off-road bus in Iceland

### Scientific vehicle

[edit]

* Northwest Passage Drive Expedition
* WindSled

### Expedition vehicle

[edit]

Vehicles used as primary transport in an expedition, not for profit, scientific research or personal use.

* American Expedition Vehicles
* AEV Brute
* AEV Prospector
* EarthCruiser

## See also

[edit]

* Amphibious vehicle
* Off-roading
* Suspension articulation
* Sport utility vehicle
* Pickup truck
* Safari vehicle
* Overlanding

## References

[edit]

### Notes

[edit]

1. ^ "Off-Road Vehicle Act". New Brunswick Acts and regulations. Attorney General, New Brunswick, Canada. June 27, 1985. Archived from the original (Web) on 2007-08-18. Retrieved 2007-10-17.
2. ^ "Dakar Rally". Retrieved 2024-11-08.
3. ^ "MIG-resisteret". migreg/norsk/kiriletz.html. Archived from the original on 17 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
4. ^ "The Antarctic Snow Cruiser & Other Lost Antarctic Vehicles". Antarctica Cruises. January 8, 2024.
5. ^ "Gone without a Trace: These Are the Forgotten SUVs". Car and Driver. 2018-03-05. Retrieved 2024-11-21.
6. ^ "Mud terrain vs all-terrain tires – pros, cons & comparison". offroadium.com. Retrieved 2017-04-17.
7. ^ "Operators manual" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-11-22.
8. ^ Rodney E. Slater (U.S. Transportation Secretary) (April 9, 1998). "Secretary Slater Proposes New Label; Warning of Rollover Danger for Sport Utility Vehicles". News Release. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original (Web) on 2007-02-13. Retrieved 2007-05-17.
9. ^ a b Jeffrey W. Runge, M.D. (Administrator, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) (February 26, 2003). "The Honorable Jeffrey W. Runge, M.D. Administrator National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation United States Senate". Testimony before the Committee on Commerce, Science, And Transportation, United States Senate. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original (Web) on April 22, 2003. Retrieved 2007-05-17.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
10. ^ "Forest Service Rule Revs Up Off-Road Vehicle Fight" (Web). Article. Environment News Service (ENS). July 8, 2004. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
11. ^ van Wagtendonk, Jan W. (2003). "Role of Science in Sustainable Management of Yosemite Wilderness" (PDF). USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003. USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
12. ^ Rice, Kathleen C. "National Collection of Imperiled Plants – Pholisma sonorae". Center for Plant Conservation. Retrieved 8 June 2012.
13. ^ "Mojave lizard may get protection; off-road vehicles are cited as threat". Los Angeles Times. 12 January 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
14. ^ "Officials seek to protect desert reptile". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved 2 May 2015.
15. ^ "Technical Notes" (PDF). Conserving Natural and Cultural Resources on Department of Defense Lands; Case Studies from the DoD Conservation Program (Page 13). US Department of Defense. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
16. ^ Kristine Sowl & Rick Poetter (April 16, 2004). "Impact Analysis of Off-Road Vehicle Use for Subsistence Purposes on Refuge: Lands and Resources Adjacent to the King Cove Access Project" (PDF). Izembek National Wildlife Refuge (page 6). US Fish and wildlife services Alaska. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
17. ^ "Recreation Management Goals and Strategies" (PDF). Capitol State Forest Recreation and Public Use Plan—Part II (Page 45). Washington State Department of Natural Resources. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-02-21. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
18. ^ "Chapter 11. Field Management Status". Land Management (11.5.2 Identified Concerns of the Parks Department). Central Pine Barrens Joint Planning and Policy Commission. Archived from the original (Web) on 2005-11-18. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
19. ^ "Codes of Ethics Advocated by Groups Outside of Ontario". Trail Ethics. Trent University. January 16, 2007. Archived from the original (Web) on 2019-02-17. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
20. ^ "The Impacts of Off-Road Vehicle Noise on Wildlife". Archived from the original on 2010-12-25. Retrieved 2009-01-19.
21. ^ "New Air Pollution Rules Target Off-Road Vehicles" (Web). Article. Environment News Service (ENS). September 17, 2002. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
22. ^ "Final Rule for Cleaner Large Industrial Spark-Ignition Engines, Recreational Marine Diesel Engines, and Recreational Vehicles". US Environmental Protection Agency. March 6, 2006. Archived from the original (Web) on October 21, 2002. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
23. ^ "24556 Demonstrate knowledge of the safe operation of a light utility vehicle (LUV)" (PDF). NZQA. 2019.
24. ^ "Standards for All Terrain Vehicles and Ban of Three-Wheeled All Terrain Vehicles; Proposed Rule". Consumer Product Safety Commission (Federal Register). 10 August 2006. Archived from the original on 13 January 2008. Retrieved 26 December 2007.
25. ^ "How Many Wheels Did The Original ATV Have? – ATV Trail Reviews". 24 August 2021. Retrieved 2022-02-22.

### Bibliography

[edit]

* Allen, Jim; Weber, James J. (2021). The Four-Wheeler's Bible: The Complete Guide to Off-Road and Overland Adventure Driving (3rd ed.). Beverly, MA, USA: Motorbooks. ISBN 9780760368053.

## External links

[edit]

Media related to Off-road vehicles at Wikimedia Commons

* v
* t
* e

Off-roading topics

Types of off-roading|

* Off-road racing
* Green laning
* Baja
* Beach racing
* BMX
* Desert racing
* Dirt track racing
* Dune bashing
* Enduro
* Formula Off Road
* Mud bogging
* Motocross
* Side car cross
* Observed trials
* Rallycross
* Rally raid
* Rock crawling
* Short course off-road racing

Off-road vehicles|

* All-terrain vehicle
* Buggy
* Baja Bug
* Dune buggy
* Cross-country rallying
* Group T1
* Group T2
* Group T3
* Group T4
* Group T5
* Quad
* RallyGP/2/3
* Crosskart
* Dirtbike
* Dual-sport motorcycle
* Enduro motorcycle
* Trials motorcycle
* Four-wheel drive
* Monster truck
* Off-road go-kart
* Rally support truck
* Rock crawler
* Sandrail
* Side-by-side
* Trophy truck
* Truggy

Off-road related|

* PowerNation

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* 2
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template