Oligarchy

Form of government with small ruling class

Not to be confused with Oligopoly, a type of market structure which is controlled by a small number of firms.

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Oligarchy (from Ancient Greek ὀλιγαρχία (oligarkhía) 'rule by few'; from  ὀλίγος (olígos) 'few' and  ἄρχω (árkhō) 'to rule, command')[1][2][3] is a form of government in which power rests with a small number of people. Leaders of such regimes are often referred to as oligarchs, and generally are characterized by having a high amount of nobility or wealth.[4][5]

## Types

[edit]

### Minority rule

[edit]

Main article: Minoritarianism

The consolidation of power by a dominant minority, whether religious or ethnic, can be considered a form of oligarchy.[6] In these cases, oligarchic rule was often tied to the legacy of colonialism.[6]

In the early 20th century, Robert Michels expanded on this idea in his iron law of oligarchy, arguing that even democracies, like all large organizations, tend to become oligarchic due to the necessity of dividing labor, which ultimately results in a ruling class focused on maintaining its power.[7][8]

### Putative oligarchies

[edit]

Main article: Business oligarch

Business groups may be considered oligarchies if they meet the following criteria:

* They are the largest private owners in the country.
* They possess sufficient political power to influence their own interests.
* The owners control multiple businesses, coordinating activities across sectors.[9]

### Intellectual oligarchies

[edit]

George Bernard Shaw coined the concept of an intellectual oligarchy in his play Major Barbara (1907). In the play, Shaw criticizes the control of society by intellectual elites and expresses a desire for the empowerment of the common people:[10]

> I now want to give the common man weapons against the intellectual man. I love the common people. I want to arm them against the lawyer, the doctor, the priest, the literary man, the professor, the artist, and the politician, who, once in authority, is the most dangerous, disastrous, and tyrannical of all the fools, rascals, and impostors. I want a democratic power strong enough to force the intellectual oligarchy to use its genius for the general good or else perish.

## History

[edit]

Aristotle pioneered the use of the term as meaning rule by the rich, contrasting it with aristocracy, arguing that oligarchy was a corruption of aristocracy.[11]

### Athens

[edit]

See also: Athenian democracy and Athens in the 5th century BC

The Ancient Greek word oligarchia is used by historians of Ancient Greece to describe the position of the Eupatridae, the aristocratic elite, of the city-state of Athens.[12] However, in the mid-6th century BC, the tyrant Pisistratus dismantled this structure and replaced it with a semi-popular autocratic system. As Pisistratus was succeeded by his two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, the tyranny became increasingly more unpopular in Athens, especially among the aristocracy.[13]

In 510 BC, the influential and exiled Athenian aristocrat Cleisthenes, of the powerful Alcmaeonid clan, convinced King Cleomenes I of Sparta to invade Athens, in order to overthrow Hippias. Cleomenes installed Isagoras, Cleisthenes's rival, as an oligarch.[14] Over the next few years, Cleisthenes and Isagoras entered into a power struggle.[15] With Isagoras calling for the Spartans to return to the city in support of him, Cleisthenes mobilised the middle class and overthrew Isagoras in the 508–507 BC Athenian Revolution. Cleisthenes' reforms laid the foundation for Athenian democracy.[16]

Reaction against the Spartan hegemony also turned several oligarchies in the Peloponnese into democracies.[17] However, the elite soon came into conflict with the people, or demos, specifically in Aegina, Syracuse, and Naxos in the 500s and 490s BC.[18] Soon many city-states had settled into a fairly constant system of plutocracy (rule by the rich), with the demos being used periodically by the weaker party and otherwise being out of power.[19] Many nominally democratic Greek city-states, despite frequent revolt by the demos, remained firmly controlled by the wealthy elite, who spurned attempts to allow commoners into power.[20]

In 493 BC, a member of the middle class[a] named Themistocles became archon. This may not have led to any political change on its own, but Themistocles, to counter the threat of the rising Persians to the east, greatly increased the power of the Athenian navy, which allowed the lower classes, through their military might, to influence Athenian politics. The first of a group of Athenian populists,[25] Themistocles ruled Athens for over twenty years, and is best known as the victor of the Greco-Persian Wars.[26]

When Themistocles fell from power around 471 BC, the Areopagus, an aristocratic council which was formerly the most powerful body in Athens, began to gain more prominence, spearheaded by the conservative politician Cimon, a strategos who oversaw an aggressive expansionist policy for the Athenian Empire amid closer relations with Sparta. Cimon's failed attempt to provide military aid to Sparta caused him to lose the support of the Athenians, allowing the democratic faction to make a bid for power.[27] In 461 BC, politician Ephialtes, who supported radical democracy, proposed a law to limit the Areopagus' powers, which the ecclesia, or Assembly, passed unanimously.[28] The ancient boule, or Council of Five Hundred, which had also existed under the old oligarchy, but whose membership had been changed from being hereditary to being chosen by lot, took over its remaining functions.[29] Cimon was ostracized for ten years by Ephialtes and his supporters.[28]

Ephialtes was assassinated in 461 BC, possibly by the aristocrats.[30] In the aftermath of Ephialtes' death, power in Athens was consolidated by his protegé, Pericles, an influential Alcmaeonid, who had such an impact on Athens as a city-state that the entire fifth century in Athens is sometimes simply called the Age of Pericles.[29] Pericles led Athens for over thirty years, presiding over the Delian League during the First Peloponnesian War with Sparta.[31] After the Thirty Years' Peace was concluded with Sparta in 445 BC, Thucydides, son of Melesias (not to be confused with Thucydides the historian), a relative of Cimon and the new head of the conservative faction, attempted to gain power using the Ecclesia. Pericles' powerful oratory instead led to Thucydides' being ostracised.[32]

## By country

[edit]

Jeffrey A. Winters and Benjamin I. Page have described Colombia, Indonesia, Russia, Singapore and the United States as oligarchies.[33]

### The Philippines

[edit]

Main article: Monopolies in the Philippines (1965–1986)

During the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos from 1965 to 1986, several monopolies arose in the Philippines, primarily linked to the Marcos family and their close associates. Analysts have described this period, and even subsequent decades, as an era of oligarchy in the Philippines.[34][35][36][37]

President Rodrigo Duterte, elected in 2016, promised to dismantle the oligarchy during his presidency.[38][37] However, corporate oligarchy persisted throughout his tenure. While Duterte criticized prominent tycoons such as the Ayalas and Manny Pangilinan, corporate figures allied with Duterte, including Dennis Uy of Udenna Corporation, benefitted during his administration.[39]

### Russia

[edit]

Main article: Russian oligarchs

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent privatization of state-owned assets, a class of Russian business oligarchs emerged. These oligarchs gained control of significant portions of the economy, especially in the energy, metals, and natural resources sectors.[40] Many of these individuals maintained close ties with government officials, particularly the president, leading some to characterize modern Russia as an oligarchy intertwined with the state.[41]

In 1996, fearing the possible victory of the Communist Party, the oligarchs, especially the Seven Bankers, funded and substantially supported Boris Yeltsin's re-election campaign in that year's election, continuing to manipulate him and exert influence over his government over the next several years.[42] After Yeltsin's successor, Vladimir Putin, came to power in 1999, he cracked down on many oligarchs, arresting several for tax evasion and forcing others into exile.[43] By the end of the 2000s decade, however, Putin had created a new class of oligarchs consisting mainly of his own personal friends and colleagues, continuing to crack down on those who opposed him.[44] According to NPR, he "changed the guy sitting in [the] chairs, but he didn't change the chairs".[45]

### Iran

[edit]

Main articles: Khomeinism and Velayat-e-faqih

The Islamic Republic of Iran, established after the 1979 Iranian Revolution, is sometimes described as a clerical oligarchy. Its ruling system, known as Velayat-e-Faqih (Governance of the Jurists), places power in the hands of a small group of high-ranking Shia clerics, led by the Supreme Leader. This group holds significant influence over the country's legislative, military, and economic affairs, and critics argue that this system concentrates power in a religious elite, marginalizing other voices within society.[46][47] The Iranian government has also intensified its surveillance efforts to suppress dissent, particularly targeting women and human rights activists. The "Noor plan," implemented in April 2024, has led to increased policing and criminal prosecution against women defying mandatory hijab laws.[48]

### Ukraine

[edit]

Main article: Ukrainian oligarchs

Since Ukraine's independence in 1991, a powerful class of business elites, known as Ukrainian oligarchs, have played a significant role in the country's politics and economy. These oligarchs gained control of state assets during the rapid privatization that followed the collapse of the Soviet Union.[9] President Leonid Kuchma's multi-vector policy, which favored close relations with both the West and Russia, was seen as appeasing both groups' oligarchical business interests.[49] In 2021, Ukraine passed a law aimed at curbing oligarchic influence on politics and the economy.[8][50]

### United States

[edit]

Further information: Income inequality in the United States § Democracy and society, and Politics of the United States § Oligarchy

The Bosses of the Senate, corporate interests as giant money bags looming over senators

Several commentators and scholars have suggested that the United States demonstrates characteristics of an oligarchy, particularly in relation to the concentration of wealth and political influence among a small elite,[51][52][53][54][55][56] as exemplified by the list of top donors to political parties.[57][58][59]

Economist Simon Johnson argued that the rise of an American financial oligarchy became particularly prominent following the 2008 financial crisis.[60] This financial elite has been described as wielding significant power over both the economy and political decisions. Former President Jimmy Carter in 2015 characterized the United States as an "oligarchy with unlimited political bribery" following the 2010 Citizens United v. FEC Supreme Court decision, which removed limits on donations to political campaigns.[61]

In 2014, a study by political scientists Martin Gilens of Princeton University and Benjamin Page of Northwestern University argued that the United States' political system does not primarily reflect the preferences of its average citizens. Their analysis of policy outcomes between 1981 and 2002 suggested that wealthy individuals and business groups held substantial influence over political decisions, often sidelining the majority of Americans.[62] While the United States maintains democratic features such as regular elections, freedom of speech, and widespread suffrage, the study noted that policy decisions are disproportionately influenced by economic elites.[63] However, the study received criticism from other scholars, who argued that the influence of average citizens should not be discounted and that the conclusions about oligarchic tendencies were overstated.[64] Gilens and Page defended their research, reiterating that while they do not label the United States an outright oligarchy, they found substantial evidence of economic elites dominating certain areas of policy-making.[65]

In his presidential farewell address on January 15, 2025, outgoing U.S. President Joe Biden warned that an oligarchy was taking shape in America which threatened democracy, basic rights, and freedom, aided by a tech–industrial complex.[66][67] Businessman Elon Musk, a close collaborator of Donald Trump during his 2024 campaign and head of the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE), has been described as an oligarch due to his extensive influence on Trump during the first few months of his second presidency.[68][69][70][71][72][73] Musk contributed over $200 million into the 2024 election, creating a "super" PAC to promote Trump's campaign.[74][75][76] However, in June 2025, Musk feuded with Trump, leaving the DOGE and calling for his impeachment.[77][78][79]

## See also

[edit]

* Politics portal

* The Power Elite, a 1956 book by C. Wright Mills
* Inverted totalitarianism
* Minoritarianism
* Nepotism
* Netocracy
* Plutocracy
* Political family
* White Turks
* Oligarchical collectivism

## References

[edit]

### Footnotes

[edit]

1. ^ The social standing of Themistocles is a matter of dispute. Plutarch described his birth as "lowly",[21] and his family as "too obscure to further his reputation".[22] He is known to have not been a citizen at birth, as his mother was not Athenian;[23] however, his father was descended from an Athenian priestly family, the Lycomidae.[24]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ "ὀλίγος", Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
2. ^ "ἄρχω", Liddell/Scott.
3. ^ "ὀλιγαρχία". Liddell/Scott.
4. ^ Winters, Jeffrey A. (18 April 2011). Oligarchy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-49564-6.
5. ^ Bourguignon, François; Verdier, Thierry (2000). "Oligarchy, democracy, inequality and growth". Journal of Development Economics. 62 (2): 285–313\. doi:10.1016/S0304-3878(00)00086-9.
6. ^ a b Coleman, James; Rosberg, Carl (1966). Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa. Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 681–683. ISBN 978-0520002531.
7. ^ Michels, Robert; Paul, E.; Paul, C. (1915). Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy. Hearst's International Library Company. p. 401.
8. ^ a b Mulroy, Claire (10 March 2023). "This form of government leaves power in the hands of a few: Oligarchies explained". USA Today. Retrieved 21 April 2025.
9. ^ a b Chernenko, Demid (2018). "Capital structure and oligarch ownership" (PDF). Economic Change and Restructuring. 52 (4): 383–411\. doi:10.1007/S10644-018-9226-9. S2CID 56232563.
10. ^ Shaw, Bernard und Baziyan, Vitaly. 2-in-1: English-German. Major Barbara & Major in Barbara. New York, 2020, ISBN 979-8692881076
11. ^ Winters (2011) pp. 26–28. "Aristotle writes that 'oligarchy is when men of property have the government in their hands... wherever men rule by reason of their wealth, whether they be few or many, that is an oligarchy, and where the poor rule, that is a democracy'."
12. ^ Simonton 2017, p. 21.
13. ^ Rosivach, Vincent J. (1988). "The Tyrant in Athenian Democracy". Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica. 30 (3): 43–57\. doi:10.2307/20546964. JSTOR 20546964.
14. ^ Herodotus, Histories, 5.70
15. ^ Lewis, D. M. (1963). "Cleisthenes and Attica". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 12 (1): 25. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4434773.
16. ^ Hayek, Friedrich A. von (1960). The Constitution of Liberty. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 238–242\. ISBN 0-226-32084-7. OCLC 498999. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
17. ^ Simonton 2017, pp. 23–24.
18. ^ Simonton 2017, p. 27.
19. ^ Simonton 2017, p. 28.
20. ^ Alwine, Andrew (2018). "The Soul of Oligarchy". Tapa. 148 (2). Johns Hopkins University Press: 235–267\. doi:10.1353/apa.2018.0010. JSTOR 26695493. Retrieved 24 April 2025.
21. ^ Plutarch, Themistocles 2.1. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin, 1914.
22. ^ Plutarch, Themistocles 1.1. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin, 1914.
23. ^ Plutarch, Themistocles 1.2. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin, 1914.
24. ^ Plutarch, Themistocles 1.3. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin, 1914.
25. ^ Holland, Tom (2005). Persian Fire. Abacus. pp. 114–117\. ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1.
26. ^ Burn, Andrew Robert; Rhodes, P. J. (7 March 2016). "Themistocles, Athenian politician, c. 524–459 BCE". Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford Research. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6340. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. Retrieved 25 April 2025.
27. ^ Plutarch, Lives. Life of Cimon.(University of Calgary/Wikisource)
28. ^ a b Goušchin, Valerij (26 February 2019). "Plutarch on Cimon, Athenian Expeditions, and Ephialtes' Reform (Plut. Cim. 14–17)". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 59 (1): 38–56\. ISSN 2159-3159. Retrieved 25 April 2025.
29. ^ a b Abbott, Evelyn (1891). Pericles and the golden age of Athens. G. P. Putnam's sons. pp. 85–88. Retrieved 25 April 2025.
30. ^ Rollar, Duane W. (1989). "Who Murdered Ephialtes?". Historia. 38 (3). JSTOR: 257–266\. JSTOR 4436111. Retrieved 25 April 2025.
31. ^ Bagnall, Nigel (2006). The Inter-War Years 480-431 BC – The Peloponnesian War: Athens, Sparta and the Struggle for Greece. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 123.
32. ^ Plutarch, Pericles 11.2
33. ^ Winters, Jeffrey; Page, Benjamin (2009). "Oligarchy in the United States?". Perspectives on Politics. 7 (4) (published December 2009): 731–751\. doi:10.1017/S1537592709991770. S2CID 144432999. Retrieved 12 March 2022. "the concept of oligarchy can be fruitfully applied not only to places like Singapore, Colombia, Russia, and Indonesia."
34. ^ Hutchcroft, Paul D. (April 1991). "Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State the Politics of Patrimonial Plunder". World Politics. 43 (3): 414–450\. doi:10.2307/2010401. ISSN 1086-3338. JSTOR 2010401. S2CID 154855272.
35. ^ Mendoza, Ronald U.; Bulaong, Oscar Jr.; Mendoza, Gabrielle Ann S. (1 February 2022). "Cronyism, Oligarchy and Governance in the Philippines: 1970s vs 2020s". SSRN 4032259.
36. ^ Quimpo, Nathan Gilbert (2015), "Can the Philippines' wild oligarchy be tamed?", Routledge Handbook of Southeast Asian Democratization, Routledge, pp. 347–362, doi:10.4324/9781315674735-30, ISBN 978-1-315-67473-5, retrieved 15 May 2022
37. ^ a b "Explainer: The oligarchy in the Philippines is more than just one family or firm". Philstar.com. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
38. ^ Ruth Abbey Gita-Carlos. "Duterte takes pride in dismantling oligarchy". Philippine News Agency. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
39. ^ Esmael, Lisbet (29 June 2022). "Businesses under Duterte administration: Who gained, who got hurt?". CNN Philippines. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
40. ^ Scheidel, Walter (2017). The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century. Princeton University Press. pp. 51 & 222–223. ISBN 978-0691165028.
41. ^ "Russian oligarchs: What are they and how have they changed over time?". BBC. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
42. ^ Treisman, Daniel (November–December 2000). "Blaming Russia First". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 3 August 2004. Retrieved 13 May 2025.
43. ^ "European Court: Khodorkovsky's Rights Violated". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
44. ^ Aslund, Anders (13 August 2019). "Putin's Economic Policy and Its Consequences". Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190697761. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
45. ^ "What Americans can learn from the story of Russia's oligarchs". Jefferson Public Radio. 4 February 2025. Retrieved 8 May 2025.
46. ^ Kazemzadeh, Masoud (2020). Iran's Foreign Policy: Elite Factionalism, Ideology, the Nuclear Weapons Program, and the United States. New York: Routledge. pp. 1–19\. ISBN 978-0-367-49545-9.
47. ^ Amuzager, Jahangir (2014). The Islamic Republic of Iran: Reflections on an Emerging Economy. New York: Routledge. pp. 48–50, 88–89\. ISBN 978-1-85743-748-5.
48. ^ "Iran: Government continues systematic repression and escalates surveillance to crush dissent in the aftermath of protests, UN Fact-Finding Mission says". OHCHR. Retrieved 8 May 2025.
49. ^ Riabchuk, Mykola (2012). "Ukraine's 'muddling through': National identity and postcommunist transition". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 45 (3–4): 439–446\. doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2012.06.007.3–4&rft.pages=439-446&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.postcomstud.2012.06.007&rft.aulast=Riabchuk&rft.aufirst=Mykola&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Oligarchy" class="Z3988">
50. ^ "Zelensky's battle against oligarchs: What does the new law mean?". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
51. ^ Kroll, Andy (2 December 2010). "The New American Oligarchy". TomDispatch. Truthout. Archived from the original on 22 January 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
52. ^ Starr, Paul (24 August 2012). "America on the Brink of Oligarchy". The New Republic.
53. ^ Winters, Jeffrey A. (November–December 2011) [28 September 2011]. "Oligarchy and Democracy". The American Interest. 7 (2). Retrieved 17 August 2012.
54. ^ Herbert, Bob (19 July 1998). "The Donor Class". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
55. ^ Confessore, Nicholas; Cohen, Sarah; Yourish, Karen (10 October 2015). "The Families Funding the 2016 Presidential Election". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
56. ^ "Is the U.S. witnessing the rise of oligarchy?". Oxfam. 17 January 2025. Retrieved 22 July 2025.
57. ^ Lichtblau, Eric; Confessore, Nicholas (10 October 2015). "From Fracking to Finance, a Torrent of Campaign Cash – Top Donors List". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
58. ^ McCutcheon, Chuck (26 December 2014). "Why the 'donor class' matters, especially in the GOP presidential scrum". "The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
59. ^ Piketty, Thomas (2014). Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Belknap Press. ISBN 067443000X p. 514 "The risk of a drift towards oligarchy is real and gives little reason for optimism about where the United States is headed."
60. ^ Johnson, Simon (May 2009). "The Quiet Coup". The Atlantic. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
61. ^ Kreps, Daniel (31 July 2015). "Jimmy Carter: America Is Now an 'Oligarchy'". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
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63. ^ Prokop, A. (18 April 2014) "The new study about oligarchy that's blowing up the Internet, explained" Vox
64. ^ Bashir, Omar S. (1 October 2015). "Testing Inferences about American Politics: A Review of the "Oligarchy" Result". Research & Politics. 2 (4): 2053168015608896. doi:10.1177/2053168015608896. ISSN 2053-1680.
65. ^ Gilens, Martin; Page, Benjamin I. (7 December 2021). "Critics argued with our analysis of U.S. political inequality. Here are 5 ways they're wrong". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
66. ^ Watson, Kathryn (16 January 2025). "In final address, Biden warns of rise of "tech industrial complex" while outlining threats, challenges - CBS News". www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 16 January 2025.
67. ^ "Biden warns of dangers of oligarchy taking shape in US". BBC News. 16 January 2025. Retrieved 16 January 2025.
68. ^ Lunday, Chris (18 February 2025). "Germany's Habeck slams 'tech oligarch' Musk, calls for a European X". Politico Europe. Retrieved 20 February 2025.
69. ^ Inskeep, Steve (4 February 2025). "What Americans can learn from the story of Russia's oligarchs". NPR. Retrieved 14 February 2025.
70. ^ Kuper, Simon (28 October 2023). "From Putin to Musk: the making of a modern-day oligarch". Financial Times. Retrieved 4 February 2025.
71. ^ Merrin, William; Hoskins, Andrew. Sharded Media: Trump's Rage Against the Mainstream. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 83–108\. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-84786-8_5. ISBN 978-3-031-84786-8. Retrieved 21 April 2025.
72. ^ Pruszyinski, Katie (24 March 2025). "Trump 2.0 and the New American Oligarchy". Political Insight. 16 (1): 8–11\. doi:10.1177/20419058251332336a. Retrieved 21 April 2025.
73. ^ Naudé, Wim (22 March 2025). The Economic Decline of the West: Guns, Oil, and Oligarchs. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 55–96\. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-82299-5_3. ISBN 978-3-031-82298-8. Retrieved 21 April 2025.
74. ^ Boak, Josh (16 January 2025). "Biden warns the US risks becoming an 'oligarchy.' What does the term mean?". Associated Press. Retrieved 19 February 2025.
75. ^ Piper, Jessica (5 December 2024). "Elon Musk was behind mysterious pro-Trump super PAC that invoked Ruth Bader Ginsburg". Politico. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
76. ^ Kim, Whizy (25 November 2024). "Elon Musk and the age of shameless oligarchy". Vox. Retrieved 21 April 2025.
77. ^ Basu, Zachary (5 June 2025). "Musk calls for Trump's impeachment". Axios. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
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### Books

[edit]

* Simonton, Matthew (2017). Classical Greek Oligarchy: A Political History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691192055.
* Winters, Jeffrey A. (2011). Oligarchy. Northwestern University, Illinois: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107005280.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Aslund, Anders (2005), "Comparative Oligarchy: Russia, Ukraine and the United States", CASE Network Studies and Analyses No. 296 (PDF), Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, doi:10.2139/ssrn.1441910, S2CID 153769623
* Gordon, Daniel (2010). "Hiring Law Professors: Breaking the Back of an American Plutocratic Oligarchy". Widener Law Journal. 19: 1–29\. SSRN 1412783.
* Hollingsworth, Mark; Lansley, Stewart (2010). Londongrad: From Russia with Cash: The Inside Story of the Oligarchs. Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-0007356379.
* Hudson, Michael (2023). The Collapse of Antiquity: Greece and Rome as Civilization's Oligarchic Turning Point. Islet. ISBN 978-3949546129.
* J. M. Moore, ed. (1986). Aristotle and Xenophon on democracy and oligarchy. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520029095.
* Osnos, Evan, "Oligarch-in-Chief: The greed of the Trump Administration has galvanized America's ultra-rich – and their opponents", The New Yorker, 2 June 2025, pp. 32–39.
* Ostwald, M. (2000), Oligarchia: The Development of a Constitutional Form in Ancient Greece (Historia Einzelschirften; 144). Stuttgart: Steiner, ISBN 3515076808.
* Ramseyer, J. Mark; Rosenbluth, Frances McCall (1998). The Politics of Oligarchy: Institutional Choice in Imperial Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521636490.
* Tabachnick, David; Koivukoski, Toivu (2012). On Oligarchy: Ancient Lessons for Global Politics. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1442661165.
* Whibley, Leonard (1896). Greek oligarchies, their character and organisations. G. P. Putnam's Sons.

## External links

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High wealth

Concepts|

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People|

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Works|

* Republic (c. 375 BC)
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* Two Treatises of Government (1689)
* The Spirit of Law (1748)
* The Social Contract (1762)
* Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
* Rights of Man (1791)
* Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820)
* Democracy in America (1835–1840)
* The Communist Manifesto (1848)
* On Liberty (1859)
* The Revolt of the Masses (1929)
* The Road to Serfdom (1944)
* The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)
* The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
* A Theory of Justice (1971)
* The End of History and the Last Man (1992)

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* Authoritarianism
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* Political ethics
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* Centrism
* Right-wing politics
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* Separatism
* Social justice
* Statism
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* Category:Political philosophy

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Authoritarian and totalitarian forms of government

Forms|

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Ideologies|

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* Religious
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* Techno

See also|

* Democracy indices
* Deep state
* Inverted totalitarianism
* Personality
* Leadership style
* Left-wing
* Right-wing
* Social dominance orientation
* Statism
* Strongman
* List of totalitarian states

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST

National|

* Germany
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Other|

* IdRef
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* Yale LUX

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