Oriental Orthodox Churches

Branch of Eastern Christianity

Not to be confused with Eastern Orthodox Church.

Oriental Orthodox Churches

Clockwise from top:
Etchmiadzin Armenian Apostolic Cathedral;
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral;
Malankara Orthodox Catholicate Palace;
Holy Trinity Ethiopian Orthodox Cathedral;
Saint George Syriac Orthodox Cathedral;
Enda Mariam Eritrean Orthodox Cathedral.

Classification| Non-Chalcedonian
Orientation| Eastern Christianity
Theology| Oriental Orthodox theology
Polity| Episcopal
Structure| Communion
Autocephalous churches| Syriac Orthodox Church
Coptic Orthodox Church
Armenian Apostolic Church
Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Language| Coptic, Classical Syriac, Geʽez, Armenian, Malayalam, Koine Greek, local languages
Liturgy| Alexandrian, West Syriac and Armenian
Founder| Jesus Christ, according to sacred tradition
Members| 50 million
Other name(s)| Oriental Orthodoxy, Miaphysite churches, Oriental Orthodox Communion
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Oriental Orthodox churches

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* Coptic: British
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* Syriac: Malabar Independent

Autonomous churches

* Coptic: French Coptic Orthodox Church
* Armenian: Constantinople, Jerusalem
* Syriac: Jacobite Syrian Christian Church

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* History of Oriental Orthodoxy:

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* Anaphora & Rites:

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The Oriental Orthodox Churches are Eastern Christian churches adhering to Miaphysite Christology,[1] with approximately 50 million members worldwide.[2][3] The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to the Nicene Christian tradition. Oriental Orthodoxy is one of the oldest branches in Christianity.[4]

As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of countries and regions such as Armenia, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, the Levant, Iraq and the Malabar region of southern India. As autocephalous churches, their bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination. Their doctrines recognize the validity of only the first three ecumenical councils.[5][1]

The Oriental Orthodox communion is composed of six autocephalous national churches: the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria; the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch; the Armenian Apostolic Church comprising the autocephalous Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin in Armenia and the Catholicosate of Cilicia in the Levant and of diaspora; the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[6][4]

The Malabar Independent Syrian Church—based in India—and the British Orthodox Church in the UK are independent Oriental Orthodox churches, having formerly been part of one of the mainstream Oriental Orthodox churches.[7]

Oriental Orthodox Christians consider themselves to be the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, and its bishops as the successors of Christ's apostles. Three primary rites are practiced by the churches: the western-influenced Armenian Rite, the West Syriac Rite of the Syriac Church (including its Malankara Rite) and the Alexandrian Rite of the Copts, Ethiopians and Eritreans.

Oriental Orthodox Churches shared communion with the imperial Roman church before the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, and with the Church of the East until the Synod of Beth Lapat in AD 484,[8] separating primarily over differences in Christology.

The majority of Oriental Orthodox Christians live in Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Syria, Turkey and Armenia, with smaller Syriac communities in Western Asia decreasing due to persecution.[4][9][10][11] There are also many in other parts of the world, formed through diaspora, conversions, and missionary activity.

## Name and characteristics

[edit]

The name "Oriental Orthodox Churches" was formally adopted at the Conference of Addis Ababa in 1965. At the time there were five participating churches, the Eritrean Church not yet being autocephalous.[12]

Other names by which the churches have been known include Old Oriental, Ancient Oriental, Lesser Eastern, Anti-Chalcedonian, Non-Chalcedonian, Pre-Chalcedonian, Miaphysite or Monophysite.[13][12] The Catholic Church has referred to these churches as "the Ancient Churches of the East."[14]

The Oriental Orthodox Churches are in full communion with each other, but not with the Eastern Orthodox Church or any other churches. Like the Catholics or Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox Churches includes several self-governing churches. Slow dialogue towards restoring communion between the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox groups was renewed in the mid-20th century;[15][16] and dialogue is also underway between Oriental Orthodoxy and the Catholic Church, and others.[17] In 2017, for example, the mutual recognition of baptism was restored between the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Catholic Church.[18] Also baptism is mutually recognized between the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Catholic Church.[19][20]

The Oriental Orthodox Churches are generally considered to be more conservative with regard to social issues. All mainstream Oriental Orthodox Churches are members of the World Council of Churches.[21]

## History

[edit]

Main article: History of Oriental Orthodoxy

### 1st century–Chalcedon

[edit]

Early Christians established prominent churches throughout the Middle East and North Africa, most notably Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Constantinople. Other prominent sees were established in present-day Sudan and Ethiopia, according to John Chrysostom.[22] These churches, altogether, formed the state church of the Roman Empire by 381.

After Christological controversies denouncing Arianism and Nestorianism was proclaimed through the imperial Roman church from the ecumenical councils of Nicaea and Ephesus,[23][24][25][26] the churches comprising the state-sanctioned and recognized Roman church would then schism over Miaphysitism and Chalcedonianism. Amongst those accepting the Chalcedonian Definition at the Council of Chalcedon, those now-Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches believed that Christ is "one person in two natures."[27]

To the hierarchs who would lead Oriental Orthodoxy, the description of Christ as "one person in two natures" was tantamount to accepting the once-condemned Nestorianism, which expressed itself in a terminology incompatible with their understanding of Christology. Nestorianism was understood as seeing Christ in two separate natures—human and divine—each with different actions and experiences; in contrast Cyril of Alexandria advocated the formula "one nature of God the Incarnate Logos"[28] (or as others translate, "one Incarnate nature of the Word").[29]

### Post-Chalcedonian schism

[edit]

Following the Chalcedonian council, the majority of the early Church of Alexandria, Antioch, and Armenia rejected the terms of the council.[30][31] This would later cause the predominantly-Greek, Chalcedonian minority to establish the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, separate from the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[31] It would also lead to schisms in Antioch, resulting in the separate Syriac Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, and Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch.[32]

The Oriental Orthodox Churches were therefore often called "monophysite" by the imperial Roman Christians—although they continually reject this label—as it is associated with Eutychian monophysitism; they prefer the term "miaphysite."[33][34] The Oriental Orthodox would later be accused of Eutychian monophysitism by Evangelical Protestants proselytizing in predominantly Eastern and Oriental Orthodox regions.[35]

In the years following Chalcedon, the patriarchs of Constantinople intermittently remained in communion with the non-Chalcedonian patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch (see Henotikon), while Rome remained out of communion with the latter and in unstable communion with Constantinople. It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor, Justin I—who accepted Chalcedon—demanded that the church in the Roman Empire accept the council's decisions.[36]

### Under Islamic conquest

[edit]

During the early Muslim conquests, Egypt was conquered from the Eastern Romans/Byzantines. According to Coptic bishop John of Nikiû, the Muslims "despoiled the Egyptians of their possessions and dealt cruelly with them" whilst also noting Amr ibn al-As "took none of the property of the Churches, and he committed no act of spoilation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days."[37][38] Despite the conquest of Egypt and initial peace between Christians and Muslims, Egypt's Umayyad rulers taxed Christians at a higher rate than Muslims, driving merchants towards Islam and undermining the economic base of the Coptic Church.[39] Although the Coptic Orthodox Church did not disappear, the Umayyad tax policies made it difficult for the church to retain the Egyptian elites.[40]

Within Roman Syria and during the Muslim conquest of the Levant, John III of the Sedre and other Syriac Orthodox bishops were brought before Umayr ibn Sad al-Ansari to engage in an open debate regarding Christianity and represent the entire Christian community—including non-Syriac Orthodox communities, such as Greek Orthodox Syrians.[41]

Since the early Muslim conquests, Oriental Orthodox Christians have endured moments of peace and persecution between themselves and the Arab-Islamic communities governing the Middle East and North Africa. The Copts have endured persecution into the 21st century, with some facing abduction and forced conversion.[42][43] The Armenian and Syriac Orthodox churches also faced persecution and genocide, with the one Syriac scholar stating, "Oriental Christianity was literally decimated finally through the cruel representative of the Mongolian-Islamic fanaticism."[44][45]

### Attempted reunions

[edit]

Council of Florence, from the Nuremberg Chronicle by Hartmann Schedel

By 862, the Armenian Apostolic and Syriac Orthodox churches held the Council of Shirakavan with the Eastern Orthodox Church in efforts to seek Christian unity and clarify Christological positions.[46] By the 12th century, the Council of Hromkla was held between the Armenians and the Greeks, to finalize an attempted union with the Eastern Orthodox Church.[47][48]

In the 15th century, during the Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence, the Oriental Orthodox attempted to enter full communion with the Roman Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox.[49]

### 19th–early 20th centuries

[edit]

#### Attempted Western missions and schisms

[edit]

Joseph Rene Vilatte (center) with Stephen Kaminski (left) and Paolo Miraglia-Gulotti (right), bishops of the American Catholic Church

By the 19th century, French-born former Catholic Jules Ferrette was allegedly ordained into the episcopacy by Ignatius Peter IV of Antioch to establish an Oriental Orthodox mission in the West.[50][51]

Joseph Rene Vilatte was also ordained into the episcopacy by Malankara bishops Antonio Francisco Xavier Alvares, Athanasius Paulose Kadavil, and Gregorios of Parumala. Vilatte was named "Mar Timotheos, Metropolitan of North America", with the apparent blessings of Ignatius Peter IV.[52] There are claims that nobody has ever seen the original Syriac language form of Vilatte's credentials.[53]: 67 [54]: 159 According to Brandreth, no Syriac authority had authenticated the signatures depicted in a photostatic copy of a purported translation of the Syriac document.[55]: 34

By the early 20th century, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church re-established the Catholicos of the East. Syriac Orthodox Patriarch Ignatius Abded Mshiho II enthroned Murimattathil Paulose Ivanios as Baselios Paulose I, Catholicos of the East, on the Apostolic Throne of St. Thomas at St. Mary's Church in Niranam on 15 September 1912.[56] The Malankara Orthodox Syrian and Jacobite Syrian Church disputed ecclesiastical authority over the Indian subcontinent.[57]

In 1932, following controversies surrounding Ferrette and Vilatte, and clergy claiming apostolic succession through them, Ignatius Aphrem I of Antioch issued a notice which stated, amongst other things:[58]

* "[T]o all whom it may concern that there are in the United States of America and in some countries of Europe, particularly in England, a number of schismatic bodies which have come into existence after direct expulsion from official Christian communities and have devised for themselves a common creed and a system of jurisdiction of their invention."
* "To deceive Christians of the West being a chief objective of the schismatic bodies, they take advantage of their great distance from the East, and from time to time make public statements claiming without truth to derive their origin and apostolic succession from some Apostolic Church of the East, the attractive rites and ceremonies of which they adopt and with which they claim to have relationship."
* "[W]e deny any and every relationship with these schismatic bodies [...]. Furthermore, our Church forbids any and every relationship and, above all, all intercommunion with all and any of these schismatic sects and warns the public that their statements and pretentions as above all altogether without truth."

In 1943, a group of clergy descending from Ferrette and Vilatte held the Council of London, which repudiated Aphrem's decree.[58] These would merge into the Catholicate of the West, which by the end of 20th century became the British Orthodox Church.[59][60]

#### Ethiopian autocephaly and Oriental unity

[edit]

Haile Selassie of Ethiopia opening the Conference of the Heads of the Oriental Orthodox Churches at the Africa Hall, Addis Ababa

In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly by Coptic pope Cyril VI,[61] and by 1965, the Addis Ababa Conference was held between the autocephalous Oriental Orthodox churches. After the Addis Ababa Conference, the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches was established.[62]

### Late 20th–early 21st centuries

[edit]

Amongst the Oriental Orthodox, ecumenical dialogue increased with other Christians in the 20th century; and from several meetings between the authorities of the Holy See and Oriental Orthodoxy, reconciling declarations emerged in the common statement of Syriac patriarch Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and the Roman pope John Paul II in 1984:

> The confusions and schisms that occurred between their Churches in the later centuries, they realize today, in no way affect or touch the substance of their faith, since these arose only because of differences in terminology and culture and in the various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter. Accordingly, we find today no real basis for the sad divisions and schisms that subsequently arose between us concerning the doctrine of Incarnation. In words and life we confess the true doctrine concerning Christ our Lord, notwithstanding the differences in interpretation of such a doctrine which arose at the time of the Council of Chalcedon.[63]

However, despite the progress made in ecumenical dialogue, many Oriental Orthodox authorities like Pope Shenouda III remained skeptical about the Chalcedonian churches, continuing to view their Christology as Nestorian.[28]

In 1986, the Copts and Romans created a common formula expressing an official Christological agreement between one another.[64] In 1990, another Christological agreement was formulated between the Malankara Orthodox Syrians and Romans.[65] In 1996, another common declaration was declared by the Armenians and Romans.[66] The Oriental Orthodox have also signed similar Christological declarations with the Greek Orthodox churches of Alexandria, Antioch, and Romania; however, the remainder of mainstream Eastern Orthodoxy has either sought further clarification or rejected dialogue.[67]

In 1993, the Eritrean Church achieved its autocephaly after independence from Ethiopia.[68] Its autocephaly was granted by Shenouda III. By 2015, the British Orthodox Church departed from the Coptic Church as a non-canonically recognized church.[69]

By the first quarter of the 21st century, the Supreme Court of India ruled in favor of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church's legitimacy following centuries of administrative dispute amongst Malankara Christians.[57][70] As of 2025, administrative disagreements continued between the two churches. These disagreements extended between the Malankara Orthodox, the Coptic Orthodox, and the Catholicate of Cilicia.[71][72]

## Organization and leadership

[edit]

See also: List of Christian denominations § Independent Oriental Orthodox

Aswan Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Egypt Mor Hananyo Monastery, former headquarters of the Syriac Orthodox Church until 1932

The Oriental Orthodox Churches are a communion or fellowship of six autocephalous (that is, administratively completely independent) national churches.[13] The Oriental Orthodox Churches maintain an ancient apostolic succession and the historic episcopacy.[73] The various churches are governed by holy synods, with a primus inter pares bishop serving as primate. The primates hold titles such as patriarch, catholicos, and pope. The Alexandrian Patriarchate, the Antiochian Patriarchate along with Patriarchate of Rome, were some of the most prominent sees of the early Christian Church, and amongst contemporary Oriental Orthodoxy.

Oriental Orthodoxy does not have a magisterial leader like the Catholic Church, nor does the communion have a leader who can convene ecumenical synods or have collective honorary primacy like the Eastern Orthodox Church. Meanwhile its ecumenical dialogues and internal church relations are led by the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches, which acts as the permanent representative council of its member churches.[74]

Below is a list of the six autocephalous Oriental Orthodox churches forming the mainstream body of Oriental Orthodox Christianity, and their associated liturgical ritual families. Based on the definitions, the list is in the alphabetical order, with some of their constituent autonomous churches and exarchates listed as well. Amongst the Oriental Orthodox, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church's autocephaly has been primarily disputed by the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch and its autonomous Jacobite Syrian Church of India;[57][71][72] the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church is not a recognized member of the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches, the regional conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches in North America.[75]

* Alexandrian Rite
* Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
* French Coptic Orthodox Church
* Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
* Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
* West Syriac Rite
* Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch
* Malankara Rite
* Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church
* Jacobite Syrian Christian Church
* Armenian Rite
* Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church
* Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin
* Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople
* Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem
* Holy See of Cilicia

There are a number of churches considered non-canonical, but whose members and clergy may or may not be in communion with mainstream Oriental Orthodoxy. Examples include the Malabar Independent Syrian Church, the Celtic Orthodox Church, the Orthodox Church of the Gauls, the British Orthodox Church, and the Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church. These organizations have passed in and out of official recognition, but members rarely face excommunication when recognition is ended. The primates of these churches are typically referred to as episcopi vagantes or vagantes in short.

### Adherents

[edit]

Main article: Oriental Orthodoxy by country

Distribution of Oriental Orthodox Christians in the world by country:

Main religion (more than 75%)

Main religion (50–75%)

Important minority religion (20–50%)

Important minority religion (5–20%)

Minority religion (1–5%)

Tiny minority religion (below 1%), but has local autocephaly

According to the Encyclopedia of Religion, Oriental Orthodoxy is the Christian tradition "most important in terms of the number of faithful living in the Middle East", which, along with other Eastern Christian communions, represent an autochthonous Christian presence whose origins date further back than the birth and spread of Islam in the Middle East.[76]

As of 2011[update], it was the dominant religion in Armenia (94%) and ethnically Armenian unrecognized Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (95%).[77][78] However, almost the entire Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh fled in 2023 after an Azerbaijani offensive retook it.[79]

Oriental Orthodoxy is a prevailing religion in Ethiopia (43.1%), while Protestants account for 19.4% and Islam – 34.1%.[80] It is most widespread in two regions in Ethiopia: Amhara (82%) and Tigray (96%), as well as the capital city of Addis Ababa (75%). It is also one of two major religions in Eritrea (40%).[81]

It is a minority in Egypt (<20%),[82] Syria (2–3% out of the 10% of total Christians), Lebanon (10% of the 40% of Christians in Lebanon or 200,000 Armenians and members of the Church of the East) and Kerala, India (7% out of the 20% of total Christians in Kerala).[83] In terms of total number of members, the Ethiopian Church is the largest of all Oriental Orthodox churches, and is second among all Orthodox churches among Eastern and Oriental Churches (exceeded in number only by the Russian Orthodox Church).

Also of particular importance are the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople in Turkey and the Armenian Apostolic Church of Iran. These Oriental Orthodox churches represent the largest Christian minority in both of these predominantly Muslim countries, Turkey and Iran.[84][85]

## Theology

[edit]

Coptic icon of Madonna and Child

Main article: Oriental Orthodox theology

The Oriental Orthodox Churches are distinguished by their recognition of only the first three ecumenical councils during the period of the state church of the Roman Empire: the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and the Council of Ephesus in 431.

Oriental Orthodoxy shares much theology and many ecclesiastical traditions with the Eastern Orthodox Church; these include a similar doctrine of salvation and a tradition of collegiality between bishops, as well as reverence of the Theotokos and use of the Nicene Creed.[86][87] They also share the doctrine of ancestral sin and deification.

Baptism in a Syriac Orthodox church in India

The Oriental Orthodox accept the seven sacraments of baptism, chrismation, the Eucharist, penance and confession, anointing of the sick, holy orders, and marriage.[88]: 79 In Oriental Orthodoxy, the sacraments or mysterion "can be defined as the main task of the Church in which Christ dispenses Himself to the congregation." This understanding is viewed as a combination of Augustine of Hippo and Gregory of Nyssa's teachings.[88]: 79

In Oriental Orthodoxy, the sacrament of baptism is performed by both immersion and sprinkling;[88]: 82 the ordained are considered "participants in the one priesthood of Christ" and "When a man is selected to become a member of the diaconate, priesthood or bishopric, he officiates sacraments not on account of a priesthood intrinsic to him but rather as one who derives his functionality from his participation in the priesthood of Christ."[88]: 90 Oriental Orthodoxy accepts baptisms and ordinations from the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, and considers their understanding of sacramental character "the middle path forged by Basil the Great."[88]: 70–78

The primary theological difference between the two communions is the differing Christology. Oriental Orthodoxy rejects the Chalcedonian Definition, and instead adopts the miaphysite formula,[33][34] believing that the human and divine natures of Christ are united in one incarnate nature. Historically, the early prelates of the Oriental Orthodox Churches thought that Chalcedonianism implied a possible repudiation of the Trinity, or a concession to Nestorianism.

The break in communion between the imperial Roman and Oriental Orthodox churches did not occur suddenly, but rather gradually over two to three centuries following the Council of Chalcedon.[89] Eventually the two communions developed separate institutions, and the Oriental Orthodox did not participate in any of the later ecumenical councils.

### Christology

[edit]

Main articles: History of Oriental Orthodoxy § Chalcedonian Schism, and Non-Chalcedonianism

Ethiopian icon of the Crucifixion

The schism between Oriental Orthodoxy and the adherents of Chalcedonian Christianity was based on differences in Christology.[1] The First Council of Nicaea, in 325, declared that Jesus Christ is God, that is to say, "consubstantial" with the Father.[23][24] Later, the third ecumenical council, the Council of Ephesus, declared that Jesus Christ, though divine as well as human, is only one being, or person (hypostasis). Thus, the Council of Ephesus explicitly rejected Nestorianism, the Christological doctrine that Christ was two distinct persons, one divine (the Logos) and one human (Jesus), who happened to inhabit the same body.[25]

Twenty years after Ephesus, the Council of Chalcedon reaffirmed the view that Jesus Christ was a single person, but at the same time declared that this one person existed "in two complete natures", one human and one divine.[27][90]

At times, Chalcedonian Christians have referred to the Oriental Orthodox as being monophysites—that is to say, accusing them of following the teachings of Eutyches (c. 380 – c. 456), who argued that Jesus Christ was not human at all, but only divine. Monophysitism was condemned as heretical alongside Nestorianism, and to accuse a church of being monophysite is to accuse it of falling into the opposite extreme from Nestorianism. However, the Oriental Orthodox themselves reject this description as inaccurate, having officially condemned the teachings of both Nestorius and Eutyches. They define themselves as miaphysite instead,[33][34] holding that Christ has one nature, but this nature is both human and divine.[91]

### Worship

[edit]

Celebration of the Armenian Rite

Oriental Orthodox Christians—such as Copts, Syrians and Indians—use a breviary such as the Agpeya and Shehimo, respectively, to pray the canonical hours seven times a day while facing in the eastward direction towards Jerusalem, in anticipation of the Second Coming of Jesus; this Christian practice has its roots in Psalm 119:164, in which the prophet David prays to God seven times a day.[92][original research?]

Ritual purification plays a major role in worship across the autocephalous and autonomous Oriental Orthodox churches.[93][94] Before praying, they wash their hands and face in order to be clean before and to present their best to God; shoes are removed in order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God.[95][96] In this Christian tradition, it is customary for women to wear a Christian headcovering when praying.[97]

Although the Coptic,[98][99][100][101] Ethiopian,[102][103][104][105] and Eritrean Orthodox do not require or endorse these practices,[106][107] followers of these churches commonly abstain from pork, circumcise their males, and follow other cultural practices that are close to Old Testament practices.[108][109][110][111]

The Oriental Orthodox Churches also maintain differing compilations of the biblical canon including the Peshitta, Coptic and Orthodox Tewahedo canons, and the Armenian canon.

## Relationship to the Church of the East

[edit]

The Assyrian Church of the East is sometimes incorrectly described as an Oriental Orthodox church,[112][113][114] though its origins lie in disputes that predated the Council of Chalcedon and it follows a different Christology from Oriental Orthodoxy. The historical Church of the East was the church of Greater Iran and declared itself separate from the state church of the Roman Empire in 424–427, years before the Ecumenical Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. Theologically, the Church of the East was affiliated with the doctrine of Nestorianism, and thus rejected the Council of Ephesus, which declared Nestorianism heretical in 431. The Christology of the Oriental Orthodox Churches in fact developed as a reaction against Nestorian Christology, which emphasizes the distinctness of the human and divine natures of Christ.

## See also

[edit]

* Christianity portal
* Religion portal

* Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy
* List of Christian denominations
* Oriental Orthodoxy in North America

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c "Orthodox Christian Churches". The Pluralism Project. Harvard University. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
2. ^ Lamport, Mark A. (2018). Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 601\. ISBN 978-1-4422-7157-9. "Today these churches are also referred to as the Oriental Orthodox Churches and are made up of 50 million Christians."
3. ^ "Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 8 November 2017. "Oriental Orthodoxy has separate self-governing jurisdictions in Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, India, Armenia and Syria, and it accounts for roughly 20% of the worldwide Orthodox population."
4. ^ a b c "Orthodox churches (Oriental)". World Council of Churches.
5. ^ Hindson & Mitchell 2013, p. 108.
6. ^ "Dicastery For Promoting Christian Unity". christianunity.va. Dicastery For Promoting Christian Unity. Retrieved 2024-06-24.
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8. ^ Brock 1999, p. 282.
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12. ^ a b Boutros Ghali 1991, pp. 1845b–1846a.
13. ^ a b Keshishian 1994, pp. 103–108.
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18. ^ Bergoglio, Francis. "Apostolic Journey to Egypt: Courtesy visit to H.H. Pope Tawadros II (Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate, Cairo – 28 April 2017)". Vatican.
19. ^ Harden, Rachel (2007-05-16). "Agreed on baptism in Germany". Church Times. Archived from the original on 2022-06-25. Retrieved 2019-01-08.
20. ^ Fanning 1907.
21. ^ Roberson, Ronald G. (1995). Oriental Orthodox-Roman Catholic Interchurch Marriages: And Other Pastoral Relationships. USCCB Publishing. p. 81\. ISBN 978-1-55586-097-4.
22. ^ "The Establishment of the Ethiopian Church". Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
23. ^ a b "Arius and the Council of Nicaea". EWTN Global Catholic Television Network. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
24. ^ a b "The Creed". Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
25. ^ a b stjohn (2023-06-23). "Ecumenical Council of Ephesus". St. John Armenian Church. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
26. ^ "Theological Throw-Down". The Armenian Church. 2023-08-03. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
27. ^ a b "The Chalcedonian Creed". The Westminster Standard. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
28. ^ a b III, Shenouda (1999). "Nature of Christ" (PDF). copticchurch.net. St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
29. ^ Pusey, P. E. (Trans.). "From His Second Book Against the Words of Theodore". The Tertullian Project. Retrieved 30 November 2014. `{{cite web}}`: Missing `|author1=` (help)
30. ^ Jenkins, Phillip (2017-07-05). "More than 60 million Christians belong to churches that rejected the Chalcedonian Creed". The Christian Century. Retrieved 2025-06-06. "Chalcedon was widely rejected in those ancient Eastern churches that had the best claim to direct continuity from the apostolic age. In Egypt, Syria, and Armenia, hatred of Chalcedon sparked protests, riots, and even civil war. Dissident churches rejected the empire's official position, and these anti-Chalcedonian bodies claimed the support of large majorities of the population. The divisions fatally weakened the Roman Empire in the East, making possible the Muslim conquests of the seventh century."
31. ^ a b Haddon, Hazel (2012-03-24). "Egypt's other Christians". Ahram Online. Retrieved 2025-06-06. "In 451 AD, theological disagreements led the Egyptian Church to split from most of the other churches of the time. The Egyptian church, which went on to become the Coptic Orthodox Church and to represent the majority of Egyptian Christians, disagreed with the decisions of the Chalcedon church council."
32. ^ Louth, Andrew (2011), Whitby, Mary; Price, Richard (eds.), "Why Did the Syrians reject the Council of Chalcedon?", Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400-700, Translated Texts for Historians, Contexts, Liverpool University Press, pp. 107–116, ISBN 978-1-84631-177-2, retrieved 2025-06-06
33. ^ a b c Winkler 1997, p. 33-40.
34. ^ a b c Brock 2016, p. 45–52.
35. ^ "Egyptian church History". Evangelical Times. 2000-09-01. Retrieved 2025-06-06. "The eastern church, in turn, was further divided. Some followed the Council of Chalcedon's teaching, which declared that Christ enjoyed distinct divine and human natures. Others embraced the heterodoxy of the Monophysites, who claimed that Christ had only a single, divine nature, albeit clad with his human nature. The Egyptian churches embraced the latter error, rejecting Chalcedon and separating from the Byzantine churches. Gradually all churches, eastern and western, lost their focus on the Bible and the gospel. The biblical tradition of Athanasius gave way to liturgy, formalism and superstition. Those who were true Christians found themselves isolated and persecuted by both Roman and Byzantine churches."
36. ^ Kirsch 1910.
37. ^ Charles, Robert H (1913). The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text, Chapter CXV: paragraph 7.
38. ^ Charles, Robert H (1913). The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text, Chapter CXXI: paragraph 3.
39. ^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 93.
40. ^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Encounters and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 93.
41. ^ Ginkel, Jan J.; Berg, Hendrika Lena Murre-van den; Lint, Theo Maarten van (2005). Redefining Christian Identity: Cultural Interaction in the Middle East Since the Rise of Islam. Peeters Publishers. p. 98\. ISBN 978-90-429-1418-6.
42. ^ Saleeb, Demiana (2023-04-12). "A Timeless Struggle: Copts in Egypt". Geopolitical Monitor. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
43. ^ "Celebrating the Freedom of Religion". Voice of America. 2025-06-03. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
44. ^ "The Great Loss of the Armenian Clergy During the Armenian Genocide". horizonweekly.ca. 2020-04-15. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
45. ^ "A Short Overview of the Common History". Syriac Orthodox Archdiocese for the Eastern United States. Retrieved 2025-06-06. "Oriental Christianity was literally decimated finally through the cruel representative of the Mongolian-Islamic fanaticism."
46. ^ Kazaryan, Gevorg (2020-01-01). "ԳԵՎՈՐԳ ՂԱԶԱՐՅԱՆ ՇԻՐԱԿԱՎԱՆԻ ԺՈՂՈՎԻ ՊԱՏՄԱԿԱՆ ՆՇԱՆԱԿՈՒԹՅՈՒՆԸ". Երևան, Գիտություն.
47. ^ Karekin, I. (1999). "Ecumenical Trends in the Armenian Church". The Ecumenical Review. 51 (1): 31–39\. doi:10.1111/j.1758-6623.1999.tb00377.x. ISSN 1758-6623.
48. ^ "History of Armenia by Vahan Kurkjian • Chapter 38". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
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52. ^ Kiraz, George Anton (July 2004). "The Credentials of Mar Julius Alvares, Bishop of Ceylon, Goa and India Excluding Malabar" (PDF). Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 7 (2): 158. ISSN 1097-3702. Archived from the original on 2004-08-23. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
53. ^ Appolis, Émile (1963). "En marge de la Séparation: les associations culturelles schismatiques" [Margins of Separation: religious associations' schismatics]. Revue d'Histoire de l'Église de France (in French). 49 (146): 47–88\. doi:10.3406/rhef.1963.1719. ISSN 2109-9502.
54. ^ Kiraz, George Anton (July 2004). "The Credentials of Mar Julius Alvares, Bishop of Ceylon, Goa and India Excluding Malabar" (PDF). Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 7 (2): 158. ISSN 1097-3702. Archived from the original on 2004-08-23. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
55. ^ Brandreth, Henry R. T. (1987) [First published in 1947]. Episcopi vagantes and the Anglican Church. San Bernardino, California: Borgo Press. ISBN 978-0-89370-558-9.
56. ^ "About the church". Niranam St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Church. 2009. Archived from the original on 27 January 2010. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
57. ^ a b c "Why Kerala's Malankara Christian factions are in a centuries-old power struggle". India Today. 2024-12-05. Retrieved 2025-05-24.
58. ^ a b Anson, Peter F. (2006) [1964]. "Churches Claiming the Ferrette Succession". Bishops at Large. Independent Catholic Heritage. Apocryphile press. ISBN 0-9771461-8-9.
59. ^ Anson, Peter F. (2006) [1964]. "The Catholicate of the West (Catholic Apostolic Church), otherwise known as The United Orthodox Catholic Rite and The Celtic Catholic Church". Bishops at Large. Independent Catholic Heritage. Apocryphile press. ISBN 0-9771461-8-9.
60. ^ Clarke, Peter (2004). "Independent episcopal churches". Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements. Routledge. p. 301\. ISBN 978-1-134-49970-0. "As Mar Georgius (and with tites including Patriarch of Glastonbury, Apostolic Pontiff of Celtia, etc.), he was the leader of the Catholicate of the West, which became the Orthodox Church of the British Isles. Under Newman's nephew and successor, William Newman Norton, this Church was eventually brought under the legitimate jurisdiction of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Cairo in 1994. Following a common schismatic pattern in such Churches, some of its priests rejected this new alliance and split off to form the British Eparchy of the Celtic Orthodox Church, giving their allegiance to a French Primate. Both of these British Churches are tiny."
61. ^ "Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church | History, Beliefs & Practices". Britannica. 2025-04-16. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
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67. ^ Growth in Agreement II. Reports and Agreed Statements of Ecumenical Conversations at World Level 1982-1998, ed. Jeffrey Gros, FSC, Harding Meyer, William G. Rusch, WCC and Michigan. World Council of Churches. 2000.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: others (link)
68. ^ "The Eritrean Orthodox Church". CNEWA. Retrieved 2025-06-06. "In July 1993, with the support of the government, the Eritrean Orthodox appealed to Pope Shenouda III of the Coptic Orthodox Church for separation from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and autocephalous status. In early September 1993 Ethiopian Patriarch Paulos and Archbishop Philippos of Asmara sanctioned jointly the separation of their churches, while stating their desire to work closely together. On September 28, 1993, the Coptic Holy Synod responded favorably to Eritrea's request and authorized the training in Coptic monasteries of as many as ten future bishops for the Eritrean Church. In February 1994 the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches signed an agreement in Addis Ababa that reaffirmed the autocephalous status of both churches, and recognized a primacy of honor of the Coptic Church among the Oriental Orthodox churches in Africa. On June 19, 1994, Pope Shenouda ordained five new Eritrean bishops in Cairo."
69. ^ "Joint announcement from the Coptic Orthodox Church in the United Kingdom and the British Orthodox Church of the British Isles | The British Orthodox Church". britishorthodox.org. Retrieved 2025-06-07.
70. ^ Ameerudheen, T. A. (2017-11-19). "A century-old church dispute in Kerala flares up again as Supreme Court rejects plea on leadership". Scroll.in. Retrieved 2025-05-24.
71. ^ a b Chandran, Abhilash (2025-05-20). "Oriental Orthodox Churches intervene to mediate Malankara Church dispute". The New Indian Express. Retrieved 2025-05-24.
72. ^ a b "Not invited for peace talks: Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church". The Hindu. 2025-05-22. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2025-05-24.
73. ^ Krikorian 2010, pp. 45, 128, 181, 194, 206.
74. ^ "About SCOOCH". Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
75. ^ "Member Churches". Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
76. ^ "Christianity: Christianity in the Middle East". Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale. 2005. pp. 1672–1673.
77. ^ UN Security Council resolutions on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
78. ^ "Statement of the Co-Chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group". OSCE. Retrieved June 25, 2011.
79. ^ Gray, Sébastien (2023-10-04). "UN Reports Between 50-1,000 Armenians Remain Within Artsakh, 99% of Population Gone". Atlas News. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 2024-02-10.
80. ^ "Ethiopia – Religion". Britannica. Retrieved 2019-10-25.
81. ^ "Eritrea – Religion". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-10-25.
82. ^ "The World Factbook: Egypt". CIA. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
83. ^ "Church in India – Syrian Orthodox Church of India – Roman Catholic Church – Protestant Churches in India". Syriac Orthodox Church in India. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
84. ^ "Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey". Today's Zaman. 15 December 2008. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
85. ^ Golnaz Esfandiari (2004-12-23). "A Look At Iran's Christian Minority". Payvand. Retrieved 2012-03-21.
86. ^ St. Maurice and St. Verena Coptic Orthodox Church – Divine Liturgy on YouTube
87. ^ "The Transfiguration: Our Past and Our Future". Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles.
88. ^ a b c d e Youssef, Andrew (2022-11-19). Oriental Orthodoxy Unveiled. Agora University Press. ISBN 978-1-950831-39-5.
89. ^ "Chalcedonians". TheFreeDictionary. Retrieved June 11, 2016.
90. ^ "Council of Chalcedon". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2025-06-06.
91. ^ Davis 1990, p. 342.
92. ^ "Prayers of the Church". Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
93. ^ Ian Bradley (2 November 2012). Water: A Spiritual History. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-6767-5.
94. ^ H. Bulzacchelli, Richard (2006). Judged by the Law of Freedom: A History of the Faith-works Controversy, and a Resolution in the Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas. University Press of America. p. 19\. ISBN 9780761835011.
95. ^ Mary Cecil, 2nd Baroness Amherst of Hackney (1906). A Sketch of Egyptian History from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Methuen. p. 399\. "Prayers 7 times a day are enjoined, and the most strict among the Copts recite one of more of the Psalms of David each time they pray. They always wash their hands and faces before devotions, and turn to the East."`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
96. ^ Kosloski, Philip (16 October 2017). "Did you know Muslims pray in a similar way to some Christians?". Aleteia. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
97. ^ Duffner, Jordan Denari (13 February 2014). "Wait, I thought that was a Muslim thing?!". Commonweal. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
98. ^ Ibn Assal, Al Safy (1996). "The Collection Of Safey Ibn Al-Assal" (PDF). stmary-church.com. Retrieved 2025-07-19. In the new Testament, circumcision (of the flesh) is a custom/tradition not a commandment because it already has been replace with baptism. In the old testament circumcision had to be performed on the eighth day after birth to be legal, but in the new such is not required.
99. ^ Ibn Assal, Al Safy (1996). "The Collection Of Safey Ibn Al-Assal" (PDF). stmary-church.com. Retrieved 2025-07-19. About food, nothing is forbidden except those which were forbidden by the Apostles in the Book of Acts and their Cannons in which they said: “That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well. Fare ye well.”.
100. ^ "Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States - Q&A". suscopts.org. Retrieved 2025-07-18.
101. ^ Al-Makari, Athanasius (July 2002). معجم المصطلحات الكنسية (in Arabic). p. 29. Retrieved 23 July 2025. "إلا أنه قد جرت العادة عند الأقباطحتى اليوم أن يتم ختان الذكر قبل تعميده بغية منفعة صحية، وليس تتميمًا لشريعة دينية. وتذكر قوانين البابا كيرلس ابن لقلق (1235-1243 م) هذا الأمر"
102. ^ Bausi, Alessandro (2022). "The Confession of King Gälawdewos (r. 1540–1559): A Sixteenth-Century Ethiopian Monophysite Document against Jesuit Proselytism". ResearchGate. "And concerning circumcision, we are not circumcised as the Jews, because we know the words of Paul the spring of wisdom, who saith, 'Circumcision availeth not, and uncircumcision availeth not, but rather a new creature, which is, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ.' And again he saith to the men of Corinth, 'He that hath received circumcision, let him not receive uncircumcision.' All the books of the doctrine of Paul are in our hands, and teach us concerning circumcision and uncircumcision. But the circumcision that is practised amongst us is according to the custom of the country, like the tattooing of the face in Ethiopia and Nubia and the piercing of the ear amongst the Indians. And what we do (we do) not in observance of the Law of Moses, but according to the custom of men."
103. ^ Abir, Mordechai (28 October 2013). Ethiopia and the Red Sea: The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty and Muslim European Rivalry in the Region. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-28090-0.
104. ^ Bausi, Alessandro (2022). "The Confession of King Gälawdewos (r. 1540–1559): A Sixteenth-Century Ethiopian Monophysite Document against Jesuit Proselytism". ResearchGate. "And concerning the eating of swine's flesh we are not prohibited from it, as the Jews are, by observance of the Law. Him also who eats thereof we do not abhor, and him who eats not thereof we do not compel to eat, as our Father Paul wrote to the Church of Rome, saying, 'Let not him who eateth despise him who eateth not; and, God receiveth all'. The Kingdom of God is not eating and drinking, all is clean to the clean, but it is evil for a man to eat with offence. And Matthew the Evangelist saith, 'There is nothing that can defile the man except that which cometh forth from his mouth, but that which is in the belly goeth forth and is contained in the draught, and is cast out and poured forth; and (thus) He maketh all meats clean'."
105. ^ Daoud, Marcos (1959). The Liturgy of the Ethiopian Church. Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Kingston, Jamaica. p. 41\. ISBN 151886466X. "Henceforth, let us not be circumcised like the Jews. We know that He who had to fulfil the law and the prophets has already come." `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
106. ^ "Gizret - ግዝረት [Circumcision]". 9 January 2022.
107. ^ Pope Shenouda III (1985). On Priesthood. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
108. ^ Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 566\. ISBN 978-0-19-517055-9. "It emphasizes the dietary laws and rules of circumcision found in the Old Testament of the Bible, and in addition to the Christian Sunday Sabbath, Ethiopia Christians observe the traditional Jewish Saturday Sabbath, as do the Ethiopian Jews."
109. ^ Ian Bradley (2 November 2012). Water: A Spiritual History. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-6767-5.
110. ^ H. Bulzacchelli, Richard (2006). Judged by the Law of Freedom: A History of the Faith-works Controversy, and a Resolution in the Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas. University Press of America. p. 19\. ISBN 9780761835011. "The Ethiopian and Coptic Churches distinguishes between clean and unclean meats, observes days of ritual purification, and keeps a kind of dual Sabbath on both Saturday and Sunday."
111. ^ N. Stearns, Peter (2008). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World. Oxford University Press. p. 179\. ISBN 9780195176322. "Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries."
112. ^ Bryner, Erich (2004). "Die orthodoxen Kirchen von 1274 bis 1700" (PDF). www.eva-leipzig.de. Retrieved 2023-02-12. S. 114 ff: "Die Orientalischen Orthodoxen Kirchen" (miaphysitische und dyophysitische Kirchen)
113. ^ Johannes Oeldemann: Konfessionskunde, 2017, Kap. 2: Die Orthodoxe Kirche und die Orientalisch-Orthodoxen Kirchen enthält drei Unterkapitel: Die Orthodoxe Kirche, Die Assyrische Kirche des Ostens und Die Orientalisch-Orthodoxen Kirchen d.h. die Assyrische Kirche des Ostens gehört sowohl zu den Orientalisch-Orthodoxen Kirchen als auch nicht zu den Orientalisch-Orthodoxen Kirchen.
114. ^ artin Tamcke: Orientalische orthodoxe Nationalkirchen. In: Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG). 4. Auflage. Band 6, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 2003, Sp. 653

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Oriental Orthodox Churches

Eastern Christian communion of autocephalous churches from Armenia, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and parts of the Middle East, and India

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States with
limited recognition|

* Abkhazia
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Dependencies and
other territories|

* British Indian Ocean Territory
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* Category
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Oriental Orthodoxy in Europe

Sovereign states|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Armenia
* Austria
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
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*   * Italy
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States with limited
recognition|

* Abkhazia
* Kosovo
* Northern Cyprus
* South Ossetia
* Transnistria

Dependencies and
other entities|

* Åland
* Faroe Islands
* Gibraltar
* Guernsey
* Isle of Man
* Jersey
* Svalbard

* v
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* e

Patriarchs of Alexandria

Patriarchs prior to the
Chalcedonian schism
(43–451)|

* Mark I the Evangelist (founder)
* Anianus
* Avilius
* Kedronos
* Primus
* Justus
* Eumenius
* Markianos*
* Celadion
* Agrippinus
* Julian
* Demetrius I
* Heraclas
* Dionysius
* Maximus
* Theonas
* Peter I
* Achillas
* Alexander I
* Athanasius I
* Peter II
* Timothy I
* Theophilus I
* Cyril I
* Dioscorus I

Coptic Orthodox
Popes and Patriarchs
(451–present)|

* Timothy II
* Peter III
* Athanasius II
* John I
* John II
* Dioscorus II
* Timothy III
* Theodosius I
* Peter IV
* Damian
* Anastasius
* Andronicus
* Benjamin I
* Agathon
* John III
* Isaac
* Simeon I
* Alexander II
* Cosmas I
* Theodore I
* Michael I
* Mina I
* John IV
* Mark II
* James
* Simeon II
* Joseph I
* Michael II
* Cosmas II
* Shenouda I
* Michael III
* Gabriel I
* Cosmas III
* Macarius I
* Theophilus II
* Mina II
* Abraham
* Philotheos
* Zacharias
* Shenouda II
* Christodoulos
* Cyril II
* Michael IV
* Macarius II
* Gabriel II
* Michael V
* John V
* Mark III
* John VI
* Cyril III
* Athanasius III
* John VII
* Gabriel III
* John VII
* Theodosius III
* John VIII
* John IX
* Benjamin II
* Peter V
* Mark IV
* John X
* Gabriel IV
* Matthew I
* Gabriel V
* John XI
* Matthew II
* Gabriel VI
* Michael VI
* John XII
* John XIII
* Gabriel VII
* John XIV
* Gabriel VIII
* Mark V
* John XV
* Matthew III
* Mark VI
* Matthew IV
* John XVI
* Peter VI
* John XVII
* Mark VII
* John XVIII
* Mark VIII
* Peter VII
* Cyril IV
* Demetrius II
* Cyril V
* John XIX
* Macarius III
* Joseph II
* Cyril VI
* Shenouda III
* Tawadros II (current)

Greek Orthodox
Popes and Patriarchs
(451–present)|

* Proterius
* Timothy II
* Timothy III
* John I
* Peter III
* Athanasius II
* John II
* John III
* Dioscorus II
* Timothy IV
* Theodosius I
* Gaianus
* Paul
* Zoilus
* Apollinarius
* John IV
* Eulogius
* Theodore I
* John V
* George I
* Cyrus
* Peter IV
* Peter V
* Peter VI
* Cosmas I
* Politianus
* Eustatius
* Christopher I
* Sophronius I
* Michael I
* Michael II
* Christodoulos
* Eutychius
* Sophronius II
* Isaac
* Job
* Elias I
* Arsenius
* Theophilus II
* George II
* Leontius
* Alexander II
* John VI
* Cyril II
* Sabbas
* Sophronius III
* Elias II
* Eleutherius
* Mark III*
* Nicholas I
* Gregory I
* Nicholas II
* Athanasius III
* Gregory II
* Gregory III
* Niphon
* Mark IV
* Nicholas III
* Gregory IV
* Nicholas IV
* Athanasius IV
* Mark V
* Philotheus
* Mark VI
* Gregory V
* Joachim I
* Silvester
* Meletius I Pegas
* Cyril III
* Gerasimus I
* Metrophanes
* Nicephorus
* Joannicius
* Paisius
* Parthenius I
* Gerasimus II
* Samuel
* Cosmas II
* Cosmas III
* Matthew
* Cyprian
* Gerasimus III
* Parthenius II
* Theophilus III
* Hierotheus I
* Artemius
* Hierotheus II
* Callinicus
* Jacob
* Nicanor
* Nilus
* Sophronius IV
* Photius
* Meletius II
* Nicholas V
* Christopher II
* Nicholas VI
* Parthenius III
* Peter VII
* Theodore II (current)

Latin Catholic
(1276–1954)|

* Atanasio (Athanasius)
* Egidio da Ferrara (Giles)
* ?Humbert II, Dauphin of Vienne
* Juan (John)
* Guillaume de Chanac
* Arnaud Bernard du Pouget (Arnaldo Bernardi)
* uncanonical Jean de Cardaillac
* Pietro Amely di Brunac
* ? Johannes Walteri von Sinten
* uncanonical Simon of Cramaud
* Pietro Amely di Brunac
* Leonardo Dolfin
* Ugo Roberti
* Pietro Amaury di Lordat
* Lancelotus de Navarra
* Giovanni Contarini
* Pietro
* Vitalis di Mauléon
* Giovanni Vitelleschi
* Marco Condulmer
* Jean d'Harcourt
* Arnaldo Rogerii de Palas
* Pedro de Urrea
* Pedro González de Mendoza
* Diego Hurtado de Mendoza
* Alonso de Fonseca y Acevedo
* Bernardino Carafa
* Cesare Riario
* Guido Ascanio Sforza di Santa Fiora
* Ottaviano Maria Sforza
* Julius Gonzaga
* Cristoforo Guidalotti Ciocchi del Monte
* Jacques Cortès
* Tommaso
* Alessandro Riario
* Enrico Caetani
* Giovanni Battista Albani
* Camillo Caetani
* Séraphin Olivier-Razali
* Alessandro di Sangro
* Honoratus Caetani
* Federico Borromeo
* Allesandro Crescenzi
* Aloysius Bevilacqua
* Petrus Draghi Bartoli
* Gregorio Giuseppe Gaetani de Aragonia
* Carlo Ambrosio Mezzabarba
* Filippo Carlo Spada
* Girolamo Crispi
* Giuseppe Antonio Davanzati
* Lodovico Agnello Anastasi
* Francisco Mattei
* Augustus Foscolo
* Paolo Angelo Ballerini
* Domenico Marinangeli
* Paolo de Huyn
* Luca Ermenegildo Pasetto

Melkite Catholic
(1724–present)|

* Cyril VI Tanas
* Athanasius IV Jawhar
* Maximos II Hakim
* Theodosius V Dahan
* Athanasius IV Jawhar
* Cyril VII Siaj
* Agapius II Matar
* Ignatius IV Sarrouf
* Athanasius V Matar
* Macarius IV Tawil
* Ignatius V Qattan
* Maximos III Mazloum
* Clement Bahouth
* Gregory II Youssef-Sayur
* Peter IV Geraigiry
* Cyril VIII Geha
* Demetrius I Qadi
* Cyril IX Moghabghab
* Maximos IV Sayegh
* Maximos V Hakim
* Gregory III Laham
* Youssef I Absi

Coptic Catholic
(1824–present)|

* Maximos Jouwed
* Kyrillos Makarios
* Stéphanos I Sidarouss
* Stéphanos II Ghattas
* Antonios I Naguib
* Ibrahim Isaac Sidrak

* *Markianos is considered Mark II on the Greek side of the subsequent schism, hence this numbering of Mark III.
* Category
* Commons

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Patriarchates in Christianity

Traditional ecclesiastical jurisdictions of primates in Christianity, sorted according to earliest apostolic legacy and branched where multiple denominational claimants:
bold blue = Catholic Church, light blue = Eastern Orthodox Church (* unrecognized), bold/light green = Oriental Orthodoxy, italic blue = Nestorianism, bold italic blue = pre-schism

Early
Christianity
(Antiquity)
(30–325/476)|

| Pentarchy
(five
apostolic
sees)|

| Patriarch of Rome (1st cent.)|

* Holy See (since 1st cent.)

|

Patriarch of Constantinople
(451)|

* Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (since 330)
* Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople (1204–1964)
* Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople (since 1461)
* Autocephalous Turkish Orthodox Patriarchate (since 1924*)

Patriarch of Antioch
(1st cent.)|

* Patriarchate of Antioch (1st cent.–518)
* Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch (since 518)
* Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch (since 519)
* Maronite Patriarchate (since 685)
* Latin Patriarchate of Antioch (1099–1964)
* Syriac Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch (since 1668)
* Melkite Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch (since 1724)

* Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia (since 1058)
* Patriarchate of Cilicia (since 1740)

Patriarch of Alexandria
(1st cent.)|

* Patriarchate of Alexandria (1st cent.–451)
* Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria (since 451)
* Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria (since 451)
* Latin Patriarchate of Alexandria (1219–1964)
* Coptic Catholic Patriarchate of Alexandria (since 1824)

Patriarch of Jerusalem (451)|

* Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem (since 451)
* Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem (since 638)
* Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem (since 1099)

Other|

| Patriarch of Carthage (2nd cent.)|

* Patriarch of Carthage (2nd cent.–1076)

|

Patriarch of Seleucia-Ctesiphon
(280)|

* Patriarch of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (280–1552)
* Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Baghdad (since 1553)
* Patriarchs of the Church of the East (Eliya line) (1558–1830)
* Patriarchs of the Church of the East (Shimun line) (1692–1830)
* Assyrian Church of the East Patriarchate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (since 1830)
* Ancient Church of the East Patriarchate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (since 1968)

Patriarch of Armenia (301)|

* Catholicos of All Armenians (Patriarch of Etchmiadzin) (since 301)

* Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia (since 1058)
* Patriarchate of Cilicia (since 1740)

Middle Ages
(476–1517)|

* Patriarchate of Aquileia (568–1751)
* Patriarchate of Grado (725–1451)
* Patriarchate of Bulgaria (919*/927–1018)
* Patriarchate of Georgia (1010–1811)
* Patriarchate of Cyprus (1185*–1191)
* Primate of Bulgaria (1204–1235)
* Tarnovo Patriarchate of Bulgaria (1235–1394)
* Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Peć (1346*/1375–1463)
* Patriarchate of Venice (since 1451)
* Catholicate of Abkhazia (15.*/16. century–1814)

Early Modern era
(1517–1789) |

* Patriarchate of the West Indies (since 1524)
* Latin Patriarchate of Ethiopia (1555–1663)
* Patriarchate of the East Indies (since 1572)
* Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Peć (1557–1766)
* Patriarchate of Moscow (since 1589)
* Patriarchate of Lisbon (since 1716)

Late Modern era
(since 1789)|

* Patriarchate of Karlovci (1848–1920)
* Patriarchate of Georgia (since 1917*/1990)
* Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Peć (since 1920)
* Patriarchate of Romania (since 1925)
* Patriarchate of Croatia (*1942–1945)
* Patriarchate of Bulgaria (since 1953)
* Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarchate of Ethiopia (since 1959)
* Patriarchate of Kyiv (1992*–2018; since 2019*)
* Eritrean Orthodox Patriarchate of Eritrea (since 1994)

Related|

* Apostolic Throne
* Episcopal see

* Christianity portal

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Eastern Christianity

Cultural area of Christian traditions that developed since Early Christianity in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, North and East Africa, Asia Minor, South India, and parts of the Far East.

Main
divisions|

| Communions|

* Eastern Orthodox Church
* Oriental Orthodox Churches
* Eastern Catholic Churches
* Assyrian Church of the East
* Ancient Church of the East

|

Independent Churches/Communions|

* Old Believers
* Spiritual Christianity
* True Orthodox churches
* Tolstoyans

Protestantism|

* Eastern Protestantism

Christ Pantocrator (circa 1261) in Hagia Sophia

History|

* Christianization of Armenia
* Christianization of Georgia
* Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire
* Copts
* Proto-orthodoxy
* Ecumenical council
* Heresies
* Nestorianism
* Iconoclasm
* Paulicianism
* Bogomilism
* Church of the East
* China
* Sichuan
* India
* Mongols
* Oriental Orthodox Churches
* Council of Chalcedon
* Saint Thomas Christians/Malankara Church
* Arab Christians
* Antiochian Greek Christians
* Melkite
* Ghassanids
* Christianization of Bulgaria
* Christianization of Kievan Rus'
* Turkic Christians
* Eastern Orthodox Church
* East–West Schism
* Raskol
* Moscow–Constantinople schisms
* 15th–16th centuries schism
* 1996 schism
* 2018 schism

Scriptures|

* Canon
* Old Testament
* New Testament
* Deuterocanon
* Septuagint
* Peshitta

Theology|

* Hesychasm
* Icon
* Apophaticism
* Filioque clause
* Miaphysitism
* Dyophysitism
* Nestorianism
* Theosis
* Theoria
* Phronema
* Philokalia
* Praxis
* Theotokos
* Hypostasis
* Ousia
* Essence–energies distinction
* Metousiosis

Worship|

* Sign of the cross
* Divine Liturgy
* Iconography
* Asceticism
* Omophorion

* v
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* e

Ecumenical councils

First seven ecumenical councils|

* Nicaea I (325)
* Constantinople I (381)
* Ephesus (431)
* Chalcedon (451)
* Constantinople II (553)
* Constantinople III (680–681)
* Nicaea II (787)

Recognized by the
Catholic Church|

* First seven ecumenical councils
* Constantinople IV (869–870)
* Lateran I (1123)
* Lateran II (1139)
* Lateran III (1179)
* Lateran IV (1215)
* Lyon I (1245)
* Lyon II (1274)
* Vienne (1311–1312)
* Constance (1414–1418)
* Basel-Florence (Basel/Lausanne: 1431–1449;[a] Ferrara/Florence: 1438–1445)
* Lateran V (1512–1517)
* Trent (1545–1563)
* Vatican I (1869–1870)
* Vatican II (1962–1965)

Recognized by the
Eastern Orthodox Church|

* First seven ecumenical councils
* Constantinople IV (879–880)*
* Constantinople V (1341–1351)*

Recognized by the
Oriental Orthodox Church|

* Nicaea I (325)
* Constantinople I (381)
* Ephesus (431)
* Ephesus II (449)[citation needed]
* Ephesus III (475)[citation needed]

Recognized by the
Church of the East|

* Nicaea I (325)
* Constantinople I (381)
* Seleucia-Ctesiphon (410)[citation needed]
* Synod of Beth Lapat (484)[citation needed]

See also|

* Ancient church councils (pre-ecumenical) (50/155–314)
* Great Church (180–451)
* State church of the Roman Empire (380–451)
* Quinisext Council (692)
* Synod of Jassy (1642)
* Synod of Jerusalem (1672)
* Synod of Constantinople (1872)
* Conference of Addis Ababa (1965)
* Pan-Orthodox Council (2016)

* Ecumenical status disputed within the Eastern Orthodox Church.

1. ^ Even though the Council was moved to Ferrara in 1438 and later to Florence, some bishops refused to move and remained in a parallel Council at Basel.

* v
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Christianity

* Index
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Bible
(Scriptures)|

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Foundations|

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History
(timeline)
(spread)|

| Early
Christianity|

* Jesus
* in Christianity
* Chronology
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|

Great Church|

* Ante-Nicene period
* Late antiquity
* Constantine
* First seven ecumenical councils
* Nicaea I
* Ephesus
* Chalcedon
* State church of the Roman Empire
* Christian biblical canon

Middle Ages|

* Monasticism
* Papal States
* East–West Schism
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Age of Discovery

Modern era|

* Auto-da-fé
* Protestant Reformation
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* Thirty Years' War
* Enlightenment
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* Influences

Denominations
(list, members)|

| Western|

* Catholic
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* Lutheran
* Methodist
* Pentecostal
* Quakers
* Reformed
* Western Rite Orthodoxy

|

Eastern|

* Eastern Orthodox
* Church
* Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)
* Church of the East (Nestorian)
* Eastern Catholic

Restorationist|

* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Latter Day Saint movement
* Iglesia ni Cristo

Theology|

* Ablution
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Philosophy|

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|

Movements|

* Crusading movement
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Cooperation|

* Christendom
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* Nondenominationalism

Related|

* ... and Islam
* ... and other religions
* ... and violence
* ... as an ethnicity
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* Christianity portal
* Category

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Religion

Religious groups and denominations

| Western
and Middle
Eastern|

| Abrahamic|

| Judaism|

* Orthodox
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* Karaite
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* Humanistic
* list

|

Christianity|

* Catholicism
* Latin
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* Eastern Orthodoxy
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* Nestorianism
* Ancient
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* Proto-Protestantism
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* Protestantism
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* Quakerism
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* Esoteric
* The Christian Community
* Independent Catholicism
* Old Catholic
* Judaizers
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* Bible Students
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* Friends of Man
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Kitawala
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* Christadelphians
* Mormonism
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* Spiritual
* Swedenborgianism
* Tolstoyan
* Unitarianism
* list

Islam|

* Sunnism
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* Salafism
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* Shi'ism
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* Ali-Illahism
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* Alevism
* Ishikism
* Kurdish Alevism
* Ahmadi
* Mahdavism
* Quranism
* Milah Abraham
* Non-denominational
* list

Other|

* Bábism
* Azalism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Druze
* Mandaeism
* Rastafari
* Samaritanism

Iranian|

| Zoroastrian|

* Blagovery
* Ilm-e-Khshnoom
* Mazdaznan
* Zurvanism

|

Kurdish|

* Shabakism
* Yarsanism

Other|

* Assianism/Uatsdin
* Roshani
* Manichaeism
* Chinese Manichaeism
* Yazdânism
* Yazidism

Eastern|

| East Asian|

| Chinese|

* Chinese folk religion
* Confucianism
* Luoism
* Nuo
* Salvationist
* Xiantiandao
* Yiguandao
* Falun Gong
* Taoism
* Folk Taoism
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|

Japonic|

* Shinto
* list
* Shugendō
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Korean|

* Korean shamanism
* Cheondoism
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Vietnamese|

* Vietnamese folk religion
* Đạo Mẫu
* Caodaism
* Hoahaoism
* Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương

Indian|

| Hinduism|

* Vaishnavism
* Krishnaism
* Sri Vaishnavism
* Brahma Sampradaya
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* Pushtimarg
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* Ramanandi
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* Swaminarayan
* Shaivism
* Shaiva Siddhanta
* Ganapatya
* Kashmiri
* Kapalika
* Kaumaram
* Lingayatism
* Nath
* Balinese
* Shaktism
* Smartism
* Śrauta
* Sant Mat
* Neo-Hinduism
* list

|

Buddhism|

* Theravada
* Mahayana
* Chan/Zen/Thiền
* Amidism
* Nichiren
* Vajrayana
* Tibetan
* Neo-Buddhism
* list

Other|

* Ayyavazhi
* Kalash
* Jainism
* Digambara
* Śvetāmbara
* Sarnaism
* Kirat Mundhum
* Vedda religions
* Ravidassia
* Sikhism
* Khalsa
* Sects

Ethnic|

| Altaic|

* Turko-Mongolic
* Burkhanism
* Tengrism
* Vattisen Yaly
* Tungusic
* Evenki
* Manchu

|

Austroasiatic|

* Sarnaism

Austronesian|

* Batak Parmalim
* Dayak
* Kaharingan
* Indonesian
* Aliran Kepercayaan
* Kejawèn
* Kapitayan
* Karo Pemena
* Malaysian
* Traditional Sabahan religions
* Philippine Dayawism
* Tagalog
* Polynesian
* Hawaiian
* Māori
* Sumbese Marapu
* Sundanese Wiwitan

Native
American|

* Abenaki
* Alaskan
* Anishinaabe
* Ojibwe
* Midewiwin
* Wabunowin
* Apache
* Blackfoot
* Californian
* Kuksu
* Miwok
* Ohlone
* Pomo
* Chilote
* Choctaw
* Crow
* Ghost Dance/Sun Dance
* Guarani
* Haida
* Ho-Chunk
* Iroquois
* Cherokee
* Four Mothers Society
* Keetoowah Society
* Longhouse
* Mohawk
* Muscogee Creek
* Seneca
* Wyandot
* Jivaroan
* Kwakwakaʼwakw
* Lenape
* Mapuche
* Mesoamerican
* Aztec
* Maya
* Purépecha
* Muisca
* Native American Church
* Navajo
* Nuu-chah-nulth
* Pawnee
* Pueblo
* Acoma Pueblo
* Hopi
* Zuni
* Sioux
* Lakota
* Wocekiye
* Tsimshian
* Ute
* Washat Dreamers
* Yaqui

Tai and Miao|

* Ahom
* Hmongism
* Mo
* Satsana Phi

Tibeto-Burmese|

* Bon
* Burmese
* Benzhuism
* Bimoism
* Bathouism
* Bongthingism
* Dongba
* Donyi-Polo
* Gurung
* Heraka
* Kiratism
* Qiang
* Sanamahism

Traditional
African|

| North African|

* Berber
* Guanche church

|

Sub-Saharan
African|

* Akamba
* Akan
* Baluba
* Bantu
* Kongo
* Zulu
* Bushongo
* Dinka
* Dogon
* Efik
* Fon and Ewe
* Ik
* Lotuko
* Lozi
* Lugbara
* Maasai
* Mbuti
* Odinala
* San
* Serer
* Tumbuka
* Urhobo
* Waaqeffanna
* Yoruba
* Ifá

* Diasporic:
* Candomblé
* Bantu
* Jejé
* Ketu
* Comfa
* Convince
* Espiritismo
* Kumina
* Obeah
* Palo
* Quimbanda
* Santería
* Tambor de Mina
* Trinidad Orisha
* Umbanda
* Vodou
* Voodoo
* Winti

Other ethnic|

* Aboriginal Australian
* Inuit
* Papuan
* Siberian

New
religious
movements|

| Syncretic|

* Blagovery
* Brahmoism
* Chinese
* Falun Gong
* Coconut Religion
* Japanese
* Meivazhi
* Modekngei
* New Acropolis
* New Age
* New Thought
* Rajneesh
* Rastafari
* Sant Mat
* Radha Soami
* Spiritualism
* Subud
* Tensegrity
* Thelema
* Theosophy
* Neo-Theosophy
* Agni Yoga and Roerichism
* Transcendental Meditation
* Unitarian Universalism
* White Brotherhood

|

Modern
paganism|

* African
* Godianism
* Armenian
* Baltic
* Dievturība
* Romuva
* Caucasian
* Abkhaz
* Circassian
* Celtic
* Druidry
* Germanic
* Hellenism (modern religion)
* Neoshamanism
* Ossetian
* Polytheistic reconstructionism
* Italo-Roman
* Kemetism
* Romanian
* Slavic
* Authentism
* Uralic
* Estonian
* Finnish
* Hungarian
* Mari
* Erzya
* Sámi
* Udmurt
* Wicca
* Zalmoxianism
* list

De novo|

* Anthroposophy
* The Christian Community
* Discordianism
* Eckankar
* Fourth Way
* Goddess
* Jediism
* Satanism
* Scientology
* UFO religion
* Raëlism

Historical religions

* Prehistoric
* Paleolithic
* Ainu
* Armenian
* Baltic
* Latvian
* Lithuanian
* Old Prussian
* Basque
* Celtic
* Druidism
* Irish
* Cook Islands
* Dravidian
* Egyptian
* Atenism
* Etruscan
* Finnish
* Fuegian
* Selkʼnam
* Georgian
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Frankish
* Norse
* Greek
* Gnosticism
* Greco-Buddhism
* Hermeticism
* Mysteries
* Orphism
* Guanche
* Harappan
* Hittite
* Hungarian
* Hurrian
* Illinois
* Inca
* Jamaican Maroon
* Manichaeism
* Mazdakism
* Melanesian
* Mesopotamian
* Babylonian
* Sumerian
* Micronesian
* Nauruan indigenous religion
* Olmec
* Paleo-Balkan
* Albanian
* Dacian
* Illyrian
* Thracian
* Proto-Indo-Iranian
* Iranian
* Vedic
* Ancestral Pueblo
* Pueblo II
* Pueblo III
* Pueblo IV
* Rapa Nui
* Roman
* Cult of Magna Mater
* Gallo-Roman
* Imperial cult
* Mithraism
* Mysteries of Isis
* Natale di Roma
* Semitic
* Arabian
* Nabataean
* Babylonian
* Canaanite
* Punic
* Yahwism
* Scythian
* Slavic
* Somali
* Tongan
* Turkic
* Tengrism
* Urartu
* Vainakh
* Zapotec

Topics

| Aspects|

* Apostasy / Disaffiliation
* Behaviour
* Beliefs
* Call to prayer
* Laicism / Laity
* Covenant
* Conversion
* Deities
* Denomination
* Entheogens
* Faith
* God
* Goddess
* Meditation
* Monasticism
* Monk
* Novice
* Nun
* Mysticism
* Mythology
* Ordination
* Orthodoxy
* Orthopraxy
* Paganism
* Prayer
* Prophecy
* Religious experience
* Ritual
* Liturgy
* Purification
* Sacrifice
* Sacred space
* Bodies of water
* Groves
* Mountains
* Trees
* Soul
* Spirituality
* Supernatural
* Symbols
* Text
* Truth
* Water
* Worship
* Astral
* Fire
* Nature
* Place

|

Theism|

* Animism
* Deism
* Dualism
* Henotheism
* Monotheism
* Nontheism
* Pandeism
* Panentheism
* Pantheism
* Polytheism
* Transtheism

Religious
studies|

* Anthropology
* Cognitive science
* Comparative
* Demographics
* Ethnic
* Folk
* Indigenous
* Major
* World
* Evolutionary origin of religion
* Evolutionary psychology
* History
* Neurotheology
* Philosophy
* Psychology
* Sociology
* Soteriology
* Salvation
* Theology
* Theories about religion
* Women

Religion
and society

* Agriculture
* Business
* Clericalism / Clergy
* Monasticism
* Ordination
* Priest
* Conversion
* Assimilation
* Missionary
* Proselytism
* Disability
* Education
* Fanaticism
* Freedom
* Pluralism
* Syncretism
* Toleration
* Universalism
* Fundamentalism
* Growth
* Gender
* Happiness
* LGBTQ people
* Homosexuality
* Intersex people
* Transgender people
* Minorities
* National church
* National religiosity levels
* Politics
* Populations
* Religiocentrism
* Schism
* School
* Science
* Sexuality
* State
* Suicide
* Theocracy
* Vegetarianism
* Video games
* Violence
* Persecution
* Terrorism
* War
* Sectarian
* Wealth

Secularism
and irreligion

* Agnosticism
* Antireligion
* Atheism
* Criticism
* Deconstruction
* Objectivism
* Secular humanism
* Secular religion
* Secular theology
* Secularization
* Separation of church and state
* Unaffiliated

Overviews
and lists

* Abrahamic prophets
* Deification
* Deities
* Founders
* Index
* Mass gatherings
* Names of God
* New religious movements
* Organizations
* Outline
* Religions and spiritual traditions
* Scholars
* Timeline

Religion by country

| Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Cape Verde
* Central African Republic
* Chad
* Comoros
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Republic of the Congo
* Djibouti
* Egypt
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eritrea
* Eswatini
* Ethiopia
* Gabon
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Ivory Coast
* Kenya
* Lesotho
* Liberia
* Libya
* Madagascar
* Malawi
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Rwanda
* São Tomé and Príncipe
* Senegal
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Somalia
* South Africa
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Tunisia
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

|

Asia|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* China
* Cyprus
* Georgia
* Hong Kong
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Korea
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Macau
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Palestine
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Taiwan
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Timor-Leste
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Uzbekistan
* Vietnam
* Yemen

Europe|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Austria
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Czechia
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Italy
* Kosovo
* Latvia
* Liechtenstein
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* England
* Northern Ireland
* Scotland
* Wales

North America|

* Antigua and Barbuda
* Bahamas
* Barbados
* Belize
* Canada
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* El Salvador
* Grenada
* Guatemala
* Haiti
* Honduras
* Jamaica
* Mexico
* Nicaragua
* Panama
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Trinidad and Tobago
* United States

Oceania|

* Australia
* Fiji
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Micronesia
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu

South America|

* Argentina
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Chile
* Colombia
* Ecuador
* Guyana
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Suriname
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

* Category
* Portal

Authority control databases

National|

* United States
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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