Outline of lichens

Symbiosis of fungi with algae or cyanobacteria

Usnea filipendula – one of about 20,000 described species of lichen

The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to lichens.

Lichens are composite organisms made up of multiple species. They comprise a fungal partner, one or more photosynthetic partners, which can be either green algae or cyanobacteria, and, in at least 52 genera of lichens, a yeast.[1] In American English, "lichen" is pronounced the same as the verb "liken" (/ˈlaɪkən/). In British English, both this pronunciation and one rhyming with "kitchen" (/ˈlɪtʃən/) are used.[2]

## Descriptions of lichens

[edit]

Further information: Biological classification

A lichen can be described as all of the following:

* Life form – an entity that is alive.

* Composite organism – a symbiotic life form composed of multiple partners from different biological domains, families and kingdoms, and from different phyla, classes and divisions within those domains and kingdoms. In the case of lichens, a fungal partner (the mycobiont) combines with one or more photosynthetic partner(s) (the photobiont) as well as (in some cases) a yeast.

* Eukaryote (domain) – organisms with a cell nucleus within a nuclear envelope; both the mycobiont and any algal partners fall into this domain.[3]

* Fungi (kingdom) – the fungal partner and any yeast partner fall into this kingdom.[1]

* Ascomycota (phylum) and/or Basidiomycota (phylum)[4]

* For the biological classes and families these fungi belong to, see below.

* Chlorophyta (division) – if the photobiont is a green alga, it falls into this taxonomic division.[5]

* Trebouxiophyceae (class)

* Trebouxiaceae (family)[6]

* Ulvophyceae (class)

* Trentepohliaceae (family)[6]

* Prokaryote (domain) – organisms without a cell nucleus; any cyanobacterial partner falls into this domain.[3]

* Bacteria (domain)[7]

* Cyanobacteria (phylum)[7]

## Nature of lichens

[edit]

Schematic cross section of foliose lichen:
(a) The cortex is the outer layer of tightly woven fungal filaments (hyphae)
(b) This photobiont layer has photosynthesizing green algae
(c) Loosely packed hyphae in the medulla
(d) A tightly woven lower cortex
(e) Anchoring hyphae called rhizines, where the fungus attaches to the substrate

### Morphology

[edit]

* Lichen anatomy and physiology

* Apoplast – the symbiotic interface zone between the mycobiont and photobiont, outside the cell membranes or walls of both.[8]
* Haustorium (pl. haustoria) – a root-like structure which allows the fungal partner to extract nutrients from its photosynthetic partner(s).[9]

* Lichen morphology – a lichen's external appearance and structures are very different than those of its individual partners.[10]

* Ascocarp – the fruiting body of a lichen, which contains the asci.[11]

* Ascus (pl. asci) – a sexual, fungal spore-bearing structure, typically sac-like in shape.[12]
* Ascospore – a fungal spore, the product of meiosis, produced in an ascus.[13]

* Epispore – a transparent bag-like outer covering on some spores,[9] which helps to determine spore shape.[14]

* Cephalodium (pl. cephalodia) – a gall-like structure that contains cyanobacteria[15]
* Hypha (pl. hyphae) – a long, branching, thread-like structure composed of one or more fungal cells, which typically makes up a large part of lichens; hyphae are densely compacted in the cortex and more loosely interwoven in the medulla.[16]
* Pycnidium (pl. pycnidia) – a flask-shaped, asexual fruiting body possessed by some lichens.[17]

* Conidium (pl. conidia) – an asexual fungal spore produced in pycnidia by some lichens.[18]

* Rhizine – a root-like structure that anchors a lichen to the substrate on which it grows.[19]
* Soralium (pl. soralia) – a localized region or structure, typically a crack or pore, containing soredium.[20]

* Soredium (pl. soredia) – asexual reproductive propagules composed of loose clumps of fungal hyphae and photobiont cells, produced in soralia.[20]

* Thallus (pl. thalli) – the vegetative body of a lichen, made up of both mycobiont and photobiont components.[21]

* Cortex – the lichen's outer layer(s), made up of tightly woven fungal filaments.[22]
* Isidium (pl. isidia) – outgrowths of the thallus which contain photobiont cells and provide means of vegetative reproduction for some lichens.[23]
* Medulla – a loose layer of interwoven fungal hyphae within the thallus.[24]
* Podetium (pl. podetia) – an upright secondary thallus, which supports the fruiting bodies of Cladonia species.[25]

### Ecology

[edit]

Lichens with a cyanobacteria as the photosynthetic partner, like this Peltigera collina, can fix nitrogen.[26]

* Symbiosis in lichens – the relationship between the lichen partners can be complicated; while generally mutualistic, sometimes it is not. Recent research also shows other partners, including bacteria and "accessory" fungi, may be involved.[27]
* Asexual reproduction in lichens – many lichens reproduce asexually, using one or more of various methods which allow the dispersal of bundles of both fungal hyphae and photobionts.[28]
* Sexual reproduction in lichens – most lichens reproduce sexually using ascospores, which means they have to acquire their photobiont partners somehow after germinating.[29]
* Lichens and nitrogen cycling – some lichens (in particular those with cyanobacteria as a photobiont) can fix nitrogen.[26]
* Lichen biogeography – the study of the current distribution of extant lichens and the reasons for those distributions.[30]
* Lichen resynthesis – lichens can be artificially "recreated" by combining partners in a lab.[31]
* Lichens and pedogenesis – lichens contribute to the formation of soil by breaking down rock.[32]
* Biological soil crust – lichens are among the common dominant biota in biocrusts, one of the world's largest environmental community types in terms of area covered.[33]
* Photosynthesis in lichens

## Types of lichens

[edit]

### Lichen lists

[edit]

Main category: Lists of lichens

### Lichen taxonomical classifications

[edit]

Chaenotheca brunneola falls into Coniocybomycetes, a small fungal class which contains only a handful of lichen species.[34]

Lichen systematics – Although they are composite organisms, lichens have traditionally been classified on the basis of their fungal partner. These span eight different biological classes, 39 orders, 117 families, and around 1,000 genera.[34][35]

* Ascolichen – a lichen whose fungal partner is a member of the Ascomycota, one of the two main fungal divisions.[36]
* Basidiolichen – a lichen whose fungal partner is a member of the Basidiomycota, the other of the two main fungal divisions; these are far fewer in occurrence than ascolichens.[37]

#### Classes

[edit]

Main category: Lichen classes

Lichens fall into eight fungal classes and several subclasses:[38]

1. Agaricomycetes
1. Agaricomycetidae
2. Arthoniomycetes
3. Coniocybomycetes
4. Dothideomycetes
1. Dothideomycetidae
5. Eurotiomycetes
1. Chaetothyriomycetidae
6. Lecanoromycetes
1. Acarosporomycetidae
2. Lecanoromycetidae
3. Ostropomycetidae
7. Lichinomycetes
8. Sordariomycetes
1. Sordariomycetidae

#### Orders

[edit]

Lecidella elaeochroma is a member of Lecanorales, the fungal order which contains the greatest number of lichen species.[38]

Main category: Lichen orders

They are split across nearly 40 orders. Those which cannot be assigned to a particular order are assigned instead to "incertae sedis" within the appropriate class. These orders were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted,[38] with orders updated in 2021.[34]

1. Acarosporales
2. Agaricales
3. Arthoniales
4. Atheliales
5. Baeomycetales
6. Caliciales
7. Candelariales
8. Cantharellales
9. Capnodiales
10. Chaetothyriales
11. Collemopsidiales
12. Coniocybales
13. Corticiales
14. Eremithallales
15. Lecanorales
16. Lecideales
17. Lepidostromatales
18. Leprocaulales
19. Lichinales
20. Monoblastiales
21. Odontotrematales
22. Ostropales
23. Peltigerales
24. Pertusariales
25. Phaeomoniellales
26. Pleosporales
27. Pyrenulales
28. Rhizocarpales
29. Sarrameanales
30. Schaereriales[39][40]
31. Strigulales
32. Teloschistales
33. Thelenellales[39][40]
34. Thelocarpales
35. Trypetheliales
36. Umbilicariales
37. Verrucariales
38. Vezdaeales
39. Xylariales

#### Families

[edit]

Main category: Lichen families

They fall into 117 families. Those which cannot be assigned to a particular family are assigned instead to "incertae sedis" within the appropriate order. These were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted;[35] families were updated in 2021.[34]

1. Acarosporaceae
2. Agyriaceae
3. Andreiomycetaceae
4. Aphanopsidaceae
5. Arctomiaceae
6. Arthoniaceae
7. Arthrorhaphidaceae
8. Atheliaceae
9. Baeomycetaceae
10. Biatorellaceae
11. Brigantiaeaceae
12. Caliciaceae
13. Cameroniaceae
14. Candelariaceae
15. Carbonicolaceae
16. Catillariaceae
17. Celotheliaceae
18. Chrysotrichaceae
19. Cladoniaceae
20. Clavulinaceae
21. Coccocarpiaceae
22. Coccotremataceae
23. Coenogoniaceae
24. Collemataceae
25. Coniocybaceae
26. Corticiaceae
27. Cystocoleaceae
28. Dacampiaceae
29. Dactylosporaceae
30. Elixiaceae
31. Fuscideaceae[41]
32. Gloeoheppiaceae
33. Gomphillaceae
34. Graphidaceae
35. Gyalectaceae
36. Gypsoplacaceae
37. Haematommataceae
38. Harpidiaceae[42]
39. Helocarpaceae
40. Hygrophoraceae
41. Hymeneliaceae
42. Icmadophilaceae
43. Koerberiaceae
44. Lecanographaceae
45. Lecanoraceae
46. Lecideaceae
47. Lepidostromataceae
48. Leprocaulaceae
49. Letrouitiaceae
50. Lichinaceae
51. Lopadiaceae
52. Lyrommataceae
53. Malmideaceae
54. Massalongiaceae
55. Megalariaceae
56. Megalosporaceae
57. Megasporaceae
58. Melaspileaceae
59. Microtheliopsidaceae
60. Monoblastiaceae
61. Mycoporaceae
62. Nephromataceae
63. Ochrolechiaceae
64. Opegraphaceae
65. Ophioparmaceae
66. Pachyascaceae
67. Pannariaceae
68. Parmeliaceae
69. Peltigeraceae
70. Peltulaceae
71. Pertusariaceae
72. Phaneromycetaceae[41][43]
73. Phlyctidaceae
74. Physciaceae
75. Pilocarpaceae
76. Placynthiaceae
77. Porinaceae
78. Protothelenellaceae
79. Psilolechiaceae
80. Psoraceae
81. Pycnoraceae
82. Pyrenotrichaceae
83. Pyrenulaceae
84. Ramalinaceae
85. Ramboldiaceae
86. Redonographaceae[41]
87. Requienellaceae
88. Rhizocarpaceae
89. Roccellaceae
90. Roccellographaceae
91. Ropalosporaceae
92. Sagiolechiaceae
93. Sarrameanaceae
94. Schaereriaceae
95. Scoliciosporaceae
96. Sphaerophoraceae
97. Sporastatiaceae
98. Stereocaulaceae
99. Stictidaceae
100. Strangosporaceae
101. Strigulaceae
102. Teloschistaceae
103. Tenuitholiascaceae[44][45]
104. Tephromelataceae
105. Thelenellaceae
106. Thelocarpaceae
107. Thrombiaceae
108. Trapeliaceae
109. Trichosphaeriaceae[42]
110. Trypetheliaceae
111. Umbilicariaceae
112. Vahliellaceae
113. Varicellariaceae
114. Verrucariaceae
115. Vezdaeaceae
116. Xanthopyreniaceae
117. Xylographaceae

#### Genera

[edit]

Main category: Lichen genera

* List of common names of lichen genera

Extant lichens are found in more than 1000 genera. These were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted.[35]

1. Absconditella
2. Acantholichen
3. Acanthothecis
4. Acanthotrema
5. Acarospora
6. Acarosporina
7. Aciculopsora
8. Acolium
9. Acrocordia
10. Acroscyphus
11. Actinoplaca
12. Adelolecia
13. Aderkomyces
14. Aggregatorygma
15. Agonimia
16. Ahtiana
17. Ainoa
18. Albemarlea[46]
19. Alectoria
20. Allantoparmelia
21. Allocalicium
22. Allocetraria
23. Allographa[47]
24. Allophoron[42]
25. Alyxoria
26. Amandinea
27. Amazonomyces
28. Amazonotrema
29. Ameliella
30. Amphorothecium
31. Ampliotrema
32. Amundsenia
33. Amygdalaria
34. Amylora
35. Anamylopsora
36. Anaptychia
37. Ancistrosporella
38. Andreiomyces
39. Anema
40. Angiactis
41. Anisomeridium
42. Anomalographis
43. Anomomorpha
44. Antennulariella
45. Anthracocarpon
46. Anthracothecium
47. Anzia
48. Anzina
49. Apatoplaca
50. Aphanopsis
51. Aplanocalenia
52. Aptrootia
53. Aquacidia[48]
54. Architrypethelium
55. Arctocetraria
56. Arctomia
57. Arctoparmelia
58. Argopsis
59. Aridoplaca[49]
60. Arrhenia
61. Arthonia (list)
62. Arthopyrenia
63. Arthotheliopsis
64. Arthothelium
65. Arthrorhaphis
66. Asahinea
67. Aspicilia
68. Aspiciliella[50]
69. Aspiciliopsis
70. Aspidothelium
71. Aspilidea
72. Asteristion
73. Asteroporum
74. Asterothyrium
75. Astrochapsa
76. Astrothelium
77. Athallia
78. Athelopsis
79. Atla
80. Atrophysma[51]
81. Aulaxina
82. Auriculora
83. Australiaena
84. Australidea[52]
85. Austrella
86. Austrographa
87. Austrolecia
88. Austromelanelixia[53][54]
89. Austroparmeliella[55]
90. Austroparmelina
91. Austropeltum
92. Austroplaca
93. Austroroccella
94. Austrotrema
95. Awasthia
96. Awasthiella
97. Bacidia
98. Bacidina
99. Bacidiopsora
100. Bactrospora
101. Baculifera
102. Badimia
103. Badimiella
104. Baeomyces
105. Baflavia
106. Bagliettoa
107. Bahianora
108. Baidera[56]
109. Bapalmuia
110. Bartlettiella
111. Barubria
112. Bathelium
113. Bellemerea
114. Biatora
115. Biatorella
116. Biatoridium
117. Bibbya[57]
118. Bilimbia
119. Blastenia
120. Blastodesmia
121. Blennothallia
122. Bogoriella
123. Boreoplaca
124. Borinquenotrema
125. Botryolepraria
126. Bouvetiella
127. Brasilicia
128. Brianaria
129. Brigantiaea
130. Brodoa
131. Brownliella
132. Bryobilimbia
133. Bryocaulon
134. Bryodina
135. Bryogomphus
136. Bryonora
137. Bryoplaca
138. Bryoria
139. Bryostigma
140. Buellia (list)
141. Buelliastrum
142. Bulbothrix
143. Bunodophoron
144. Burrowsia[58]
145. Byssolecania
146. Byssoloma
147. Byssotrema
148. Caeruleum
149. Calathaspis
150. Calenia
151. Caleniopsis
152. Calicium
153. Callome
154. Calogaya
155. Calopadia
156. Calopadiopsis
157. Caloplaca (list)
158. Calotrichopsis
159. Calvitimela
160. Calycidium
161. Cameronia
162. Candelaria
163. Candelariella
164. Candelina
165. Canoparmelia
166. Caprettia
167. Carassea
168. Carbacanthographis
169. Carbonicola
170. Catapyrenium
171. Catarrhospora
172. Catarraphia
173. Catenarina
174. Catillaria
175. Catillochroma
176. Catinaria
177. Catolechia
178. Cecidonia
179. Celothelium
180. Cenozosia
181. Cephalophysis
182. Cerothallia
183. Cetradonia
184. Cetraria
185. Cetrariella
186. Cetrelia
187. Cetreliopsis
188. Chaenotheca
189. Chapsa
190. Charcotiana
191. Cheiromycina
192. Chiodecton
193. Chrismofulvea
194. Chromatochlamys
195. Chroodiscus
196. Chrysothrix
197. Cinnabaria[59]
198. Ciposia
199. Circinaria
200. Cladia
201. Cladidium
202. Cladocetraria[60]
203. Claurouxia
204. Cladonia (list)
205. Clandestinotrema
206. Clathroporina
207. Clauzadea
208. Clauzadeana
209. Clauzadella
210. Clavascidium
211. Cliostomum
212. Clypeopyrenis
213. Coccocarpia
214. Coccotrema
215. Coelopogon
216. Coenogonium
217. Collema
218. Collemopsidium
219. Combea
220. Compositrema
221. Compsocladium
222. Coniangium
223. Coniarthonia
224. Coniocarpon
225. Conotremopsis
226. Constrictolumina
227. Coppinsia
228. Coppinsidea[61]
229. Cora
230. Corella
231. Coronoplectrum
232. Cornicularia
233. Corticorygma
234. Coscinocladium
235. Cratiria
236. Creographa
237. Crespoa
238. Cresponea
239. Cresporhaphis[42]
240. Crocellina
241. Crocodia
242. Crocynia
243. Cruentotrema
244. Crustospathula
245. Crutarndina
246. Cryptodiscus
247. Crypthonia
248. Cryptophaea
249. Cryptothecia
250. Cryptothele
251. Culbersonia
252. Cyanoporina
253. Cyphelium
254. Cyphellostereum
255. Cystocoleus
256. Dacampia
257. Dactylina
258. Davidgallowaya
259. Degelia
260. Dendriscosticta
261. Dendrographa
262. Dermatiscum
263. Dermatocarpon
264. Dermiscellum
265. Diaphorographis
266. Dibaeis
267. Dichosporidium
268. Dictyocatenulata
269. Dictyographa
270. Dictyomeridium
271. Dictyonema
272. Digitothyrea
273. Dijigiella[62][63]
274. Dimelaena
275. Dimidiographa
276. Diorygma
277. Diploicia
278. Diploschistella
279. Diploschistes
280. Diplotomma
281. Dirinaria
282. Dirina
283. Dirinastrum
284. Diromma
285. Distopyrenis
286. Dolichocarpus
287. Dolichousnea[64][54]
288. Ducatina[65][66]
289. Dufourea
290. Dyplolabia
291. Echidnocymbium
292. Echinoplaca
293. Edrudia
294. Edwardiella
295. Eiglera
296. Eilifdahlia
297. Elixia
298. Elixjohnia[67][63]
299. Emmanuelia[68]
300. Emodomelanelia
301. Encephalographa
302. Enchylium
303. Endocarpon
304. Endocena
305. Endohyalina
306. Enterodictyon
307. Enterographa
308. Epilichen
309. Enigmotrema
310. Eopyrenula
311. Ephebe
312. Eremastrella
313. Eremithallus
314. Eremothecella
315. Erinacellus
316. Erioderma
317. Ertzia
318. Erythrodecton
319. Eschatogonia
320. Esslingeriana
321. Eugeniella
322. Eumitria[64][54]
323. Euopsis
324. Evernia
325. Everniopsis
326. Farnoldia
327. Fauriea
328. Feigeana
329. Felipes
330. Fellhanera
331. Fellhaneropsis
332. Ferraroa
333. Fibrillithecis
334. Filsoniana
335. Finkia
336. Fissurina
337. Flabelloporina[69]
338. Flakea
339. Flavobathelium
340. Flavocetraria
341. Flavoparmelia
342. Flavoplaca
343. Flavopunctelia
344. Fluctua
345. Follmannia
346. Follmanniella
347. Fominiella[70]
348. Fouragea
349. Franwilsia
350. Frigidopyrenia
351. Frutidella
352. Fulgidea
353. Fulvophyton
354. Fuscidea
355. Fuscoderma
356. Fuscopannaria
357. Gabura[42]
358. Gassicurtia
359. Gibbosporina
360. Gintarasia
361. Gintarasiella[71]
362. Glaucotrema
363. Gloeheppia
364. Glomerilla
365. Glomerulophoron
366. Glyphis
367. Glypholecia
368. Glyphopeltis
369. Glyphopsis
370. Gomphillus
371. Gondwania
372. Gorgadesia
373. Gossypiothallon
374. Gowardia
375. Granulopyrenis
376. Graphidastra
377. Graphis
378. Gregorella
379. Gudelia
380. Gyalecta
381. Gyalectaria
382. Gyalectidium
383. Gyalidea
384. Gyalideopsis
385. Gyalolechia
386. Gymnoderma
387. Gymnographa
388. Gymnographopsis
389. Gyrocollema
390. Gyrographa
391. Gyronactis
392. Gyrotrema
393. Haematomma
394. Halecania
395. Halegrapha
396. Halographis
397. Haloplaca
398. Hanstrassia[72]
399. Haplodina
400. Haploloma
401. Harpidium
402. Harusavskia[73]
403. Heiomasia
404. Helicobolomyces[74][75]
405. Helminthocarpon
406. Helocarpon
407. Hemithecium
408. Henrica
409. Heppia
410. Heppsora
411. Herpothallon
412. Hertella
413. Herteliana
414. Hertelidea
415. Heterocarpon
416. Heterocyphelium
417. Heterodermia
418. Heteromyces
419. Heteroplacidium
420. Himantormia
421. Hippocrepidea
422. Homothecium
423. Hormosphaeria
424. Hosseusia
425. Hosseusiella[76]
426. Huea
427. Hueidea
428. Huneckia
429. Hydropunctaria
430. Hymenelia
431. Hyperphyscia
432. Hypocenomyce
433. Hypoflavia
434. Hypogymnia
435. Hypotrachyna
436. Icmadophila
437. Igneoplaca
438. Ikaeria[77]
439. Immersaria
440. Imshaugia
441. Ingaderia
442. Ingvariella
443. Inoderma
444. Involucropyrenium
445. Ionaspis
446. Ioplaca
447. Isalonactis
448. Jamesiella
449. Japewia
450. Japewiella
451. Jarmania
452. Jasonhuria
453. Jenmania
454. Joergensenia
455. Josefpoeltia
456. Julella[42]
457. Kaernefeltia
458. Kaernefia
459. Kalbiana
460. Kalbionora[78][79]
461. Kalbographa
462. Kashiwadia
463. Kantvilasia
464. Klauskalbia[80]
465. Knightiella[42]
466. Koerberia
467. Koerberiella
468. Krogia
469. Kroswia
470. Kuettlingeria
471. Kurokawia[81]
472. Labyrintha
473. Lambiella
474. Lasallia
475. Lasioloma
476. Lathagrium
477. Lazarenkoella
478. Lecanactis
479. Lecania
480. Lecanographa
481. Lecanora (list)
482. Lecidea (list)
483. Lecidella
484. Lecidoma
485. Lecidopyrenopsis
486. Leciophysma
487. Leifidium
488. Leightoniella
489. Leimonis
490. Leioderma
491. Leiorreuma
492. Lemmopsis
493. Lempholemma
494. Lendemeriella
495. Lepidocollema
496. Lepidostroma
497. Lepra
498. Leprantha
499. Lepraria
500. Leprocaulon
501. Leprocollema
502. Leproplaca
503. Leptochidium
504. Leptogidium
505. Leptogium
506. Leptorhaphis
507. Leptotrema
508. Letharia
509. Lethariella
510. Letrouitia
511. Leucodecton
512. Leucodermia
513. Lichenomphalia
514. Lichina
515. Lichinella
516. Lichinodium
517. Lignoscripta
518. Lithoglypha
519. Lithographa
520. Lithogyalideopsis
521. Lithothelium
522. Llimonaea
523. Lobaria
524. Lobariella
525. Lobarina
526. Lobothallia
527. Loekoesia
528. Loflammia
529. Loflammiopsis
530. Logilvia
531. Lopacidia
532. Lopadium
533. Lopezaria
534. Loxospora
535. Loxosporopsis
536. Lueckingia
537. Lyromma
538. Magmopsis
539. Malcolmiella
540. Malmidea
541. Malmographina
542. Mangoldia
543. Marcelaria
544. Marchandiomphalina
545. Marchantiana
546. Marfloraea
547. Maronea
548. Maronella
549. Maronina[64][82]
550. Masonhalea
551. Massalongia
552. Mastodia
553. Mawsonia
554. Mazaediothecium
555. Mazosia
556. Megalaria
557. Megaloblastenia
558. Megalospora
559. Megalotremis
560. Megaspora
561. Melanelia
562. Melanelixia
563. Melanohalea
564. Melanolecia
565. Melanophloea
566. Melanotopelia
567. Melanotrema
568. Melarthonis
569. Melaspilea
570. Menegazzia (list)
571. Meridianelia
572. Metamelanea
573. Metus
574. Micarea
575. Microtheliopsis
576. Milospium
577. Miltidea
578. Minksia
579. Miriquidica
580. Mischoblastia
581. Mobergia
582. Monerolechia
583. Monoblastia
584. Montanelia
585. Moriola
586. Multiclavula
587. Multisporidea[83]
588. Mycobilimbia
589. Mycoblastus
590. Mycoporum
591. Myelochroa
592. Myeloconis
593. Myelorrhiza
594. Myriolecis
595. Myrionora
596. Myriospora
597. Myriostigma
598. Myochroidea
599. Nadvornikia
600. Nebularia
601. Neobrownliella[84]
602. Neocatapyrenium
603. Neophyllis
604. Neopsoromopsis
605. Neosergipea
606. Nephroma
607. Nephromopsis
608. Nevesia
609. Niebla
610. Nigrovothelium
611. Nipponoparmelia
612. Nitidochapsa
613. Nodobryoria
614. Normandina
615. Notocladonia
616. Notolecidea
617. Notoparmelia
618. Nyungwea
619. Obscuroplaca[85]
620. Ocellomma
621. Ocellularia (list)
622. Ochrolechia
623. Oevstedalia
624. Olegblumia
625. Omphalodium
626. Omphalora
627. Opegrapha
628. Opeltia[86]
629. Ophioparma
630. Orceolina
631. Orcularia
632. Orientophila
633. Oropogon
634. Orphniospora
635. Oxnerella
636. Pachnolepia
637. Pachyascus
638. Pachypeltis
639. Pachyphysis
640. Palicella
641. Pallidogramme
642. Pannaria
643. Pannoparmelia
644. Parabagliettoa
645. Paracollema
646. Paragyalideopsis[87][88]
647. Paraingaderia
648. Parainoa
649. Paraporpidia
650. Paraschismatomma
651. Parasiphula
652. Paratopeliopsis
653. Paratricharia
654. Parmelia
655. Parmeliella
656. Parmelina
657. Parmelinella
658. Parmeliopsis
659. Parmostictina
660. Parmotrema (list)
661. Parmotremopsis
662. Parvoplaca
663. Paulia
664. Peccania
665. Pectenia
666. Peltigera
667. Peltula
668. Peltularia
669. Pentagenella
670. Pertusaria (list)
671. Petractis
672. Phaeographis
673. Phaeographopsis
674. Phaeophyscia
675. Phaeorrhiza
676. Phloeopeccania
677. Phlyctis
678. Phoebus
679. Phylliscidium
680. Phyllisciella
681. Phylliscidiopsis
682. Phylliscum
683. Phyllobaeis
684. Phyllobathelium
685. Phylloblastia
686. Phyllocratera
687. Phyllogyalidea
688. Phyllopsora
689. Physcia
690. Physcidia
691. Physciella
692. Physconia
693. Physma
694. Piccolia
695. Pilophorus
696. Placidiopsis
697. Placidium
698. Placocarpus
699. Placolecis
700. Placomaronea
701. Placopsis
702. Placopyrenium
703. Placothelium
704. Placynthiella
705. Placynthiopsis
706. Placynthium
707. Platismatia
708. Platygramme
709. Platythecium
710. Plectocarpon
711. Pleopsidium
712. Pleurosticta
713. Pliariona
714. Podostictina
715. Podotara
716. Poeltiaria
717. Poeltidea
718. Poeltinula
719. Polistroma
720. Polyblastia
721. Polyblastidium
722. Polycauliona
723. Polychidium
724. Polymeridium
725. Polypyrenula
726. Polysporina
727. Porina
728. Porocyphus
729. Porpidia
730. Porpidinia[42]
731. Protoblastenia
732. Protomicarea
733. Protopannaria
734. Protoparmelia
735. Protoparmeliopsis
736. Protoroccella[42]
737. Protothelenella
738. Protousnea
739. Psammina
740. Psathyrophlyctis
741. Pseudarctomia
742. Pseudephebe
743. Pseudevernia
744. Pseudobaeomyces
745. Pseudocalopadia
746. Pseudochapsa
747. Pseudocyphellaria
748. Pseudohepatica
749. Pseudoheppia
750. Pseudolecanactis
751. Pseudoleptogium
752. Pseudopannaria
753. Pseudoparmelia
754. Pseudopaulia
755. Pseudopeltula
756. Pseudopyrenula
757. Pseudoramonia
758. Pseudosagedia
759. Pseudoschismatomma
760. Pseudothelomma
761. Pseudotopeliopsis
762. Psilolechia
763. Psiloparmelia
764. Psora
765. Psorinia
766. Psoroglaena
767. Psoroma
768. Psoromella
769. Psoromidium[42]
770. Psoronactis
771. Psorotheciopsis
772. Psorotichia
773. Psorula
774. Pterygiopsis
775. Ptychographa
776. Pulvinodecton
777. Pulvinora[89]
778. Punctelia
779. Punctonora
780. Puttea
781. Pycnora
782. Pycnothelia
783. Pycnotrema
784. Pyrenocarpon
785. Pyrenocollema
786. Pyrenodesmia
787. Pyrenopsis
788. Pyrenothrix
789. Pyrenowilmsia
790. Pyrenula (list)
791. Pyrgillus
792. Pyrrhospora
793. Pyxine
794. Racodium
795. Racoleus
796. Raesaeneniana
797. Ramalea
798. Ramalina
799. Ramalodium
800. Ramboldia
801. Ramonia
802. Redingeria
803. Redonia
804. Redonographa
805. Rehmanniella[90]
806. Reichlingia
807. Reimnitzia
808. Relicina
809. Remototrachyna
810. Requienella
811. Rhabdodiscus
812. Rhabdopsora
813. Rhaphidicyrtis
814. Rhexophiale
815. Rhizocarpon
816. Rhizolecia
817. Rhizoplaca
818. Ricasolia
819. Rimularia
820. Rinodina (list)
821. Rinodinella
822. Robergea
823. Roccella
824. Roccellographa
825. Roccellina
826. Roccellinastrum
827. Rockefellera[91]
828. Rolfidium
829. Rolueckia
830. Romjularia
831. Ropalospora
832. Rostania
833. Rubrotricha
834. Rufoplaca
835. Rusavskia
836. Sagedia
837. Sagema
838. Sagenidiopsis
839. Sagiolechia
840. Sanguinotrema
841. Santessonia
842. Sarcographa
843. Sarcographina
844. Sarcogyne
845. Sarcosagium
846. Sarea
847. Sarrameana
848. Savoronala
849. Schadonia
850. Schaereria
851. Schismatomma
852. Schistophoron
853. Schizodiscus
854. Schizopelte
855. Schizotrema
856. Schizoxylon
857. Sclerococcum
858. Sclerophora
859. Sclerophyton
860. Scleropyrenium
861. Scoliciosporum
862. Sculptolumina
863. Scutaria
864. Scytinium
865. Sedelnikovaea
866. Segestria
867. Seirophora
868. Semigyalecta
869. Semiomphalina
870. Septotrapelia
871. Servitia
872. Shackletonia
873. Sigridea
874. Simonyella
875. Sipmaniella
876. Siphula
877. Siphulastrum
878. Siphulella
879. Sipmania
880. Sirenophila
881. Snippocia[92][75]
882. Solenopsora
883. Solitaria
884. Solorina
885. Solorinaria
886. Sparria
887. Speerschneidera
888. Sphaerophorus
889. Sphaerophoropsis
890. Spheconisca
891. Sphinctrinopsis
892. Spilonema
893. Sporastatia
894. Sporodictyon
895. Sporodophoron
896. Sporopodiopsis
897. Sporopodium
898. Sporostigma
899. Sprucidea[93][82]
900. Squamarina
901. Squamella
902. Squamulea
903. Staurospora[94][95]
904. Staurolemma
905. Staurothele
906. Stegobolus
907. Steinera
908. Steineropsis
909. Steinia
910. Stellarangia
911. Stenhammarella
912. Stephanocyclos
913. Stereocaulon
914. Sticta
915. Stictis
916. Stigmatochroma
917. Stigmidium
918. Strangospora
919. Streimannia
920. Stirtonia
921. Stirtoniella
922. Strigula
923. Stromatella
924. Sulcaria
925. Sulcopyrenula
926. Sulzbacheromyces
927. Synalissa
928. Synarthonia
929. Synarthothelium
930. Syncesia
931. Szczawinskia
932. Tania
933. Tapellaria
934. Tapellariopsis
935. Tarasginia
936. Tarbertia
937. Tasmidella
938. Tassiloa
939. Tayloriellina
940. Teloschistes
941. Teloschistopsis
942. Tenuitholiascus[96][45]
943. Tephromela
944. Tetramelas
945. Teuvoa
946. Texosporium
947. Thallinocarpon
948. Thalloloma
949. Thamnochrolechia
950. Thamnolecania
951. Thamnolia
952. Thecaria
953. Thecographa
954. Thelenella
955. Thelenidia
956. Thelidiopsis
957. Thelignya
958. Thelliana
959. Thelocarpon
960. Thelomma
961. Thelopsis
962. Thelotrema
963. Thermutis
964. Thermutopsis
965. Tholurna
966. Thrombium
967. Thyrea
968. Thysanothecium
969. Tibellia
970. Timdalia
971. Tingiopsidium
972. Toensbergia
973. Toninia
974. Toniniopsis
975. Topelia
976. Topeliopsis
977. Tornabea
978. Trapelia
979. Trapeliopsis
980. Traponora
981. Tremolecia
982. Tremotylium[42]
983. Tricharia
984. Trichothelium
985. Trimmatothele
986. Trimmatothelopsis
987. Trinathotrema
988. Trizodia
989. Trypetheliopsis
990. Trypethelium
991. Tuckermanella
992. Tuckermanopsis
993. Tylophorella
994. Tylophoron
995. Tylophoropsis
996. Tylothallia
997. Umbilicaria
998. Upretia[97]
999. Usnea
1000. Usnocetraria
1001. Usnochroma
1002. Vahliella
1003. Vainionora
1004. Varicellaria
1005. Variospora
1006. Verrucaria (list)
1007. Verruculopsis
1008. Verseghya[98]
1009. Vezdaea
1010. Vigneronia
1011. Villophora
1012. Violella
1013. Viridothelium
1014. Vulpicida
1015. Wadeana
1016. Wahlenbergiella
1017. Watsoniomyces[99]
1018. Wawea
1019. Waynea
1020. Wetmoreana
1021. Willeya
1022. Wirthiotrema
1023. Xalocoa
1024. Xanthocarpia
1025. Xanthomendoza
1026. Xanthoparmelia (list)
1027. Xanthopeltis
1028. Xanthopsorella
1029. Xanthoria
1030. Xenolecia
1031. Xenus
1032. Xyleborus
1033. Xylographa
1034. Xyloschistes
1035. Xylopsora
1036. Yarrumia
1037. Yoshimuria
1038. Yoshimuriella
1039. Zahlbrucknerella
1040. Zeroviella
1041. Zwackhia

#### Species

[edit]

Main category: Lichen species

In 2009, taxonomists estimated that the total number of lichen species (including those yet undiscovered) might be as high as 28,000.[100] By 2016, 19,387 species of lichens had been described and widely accepted.[101]

### Lichens, by growth form

[edit]

Xanthoria parietina has the leafy-looking growth of a foliose lichen.[102]

Lichen growth forms – These vary depending on the species:

* Crustose – paint-like appearance that adheres tightly to the underlying substrate.[103]
* Areolate – crustose, but divided into rounded or polygonal pieces by means of cracks.[104]
* Leprose – powdery or granular appearance.[104]
* Calicioid – crustose growth with small fruiting bodies which resemble sewing pins.[105]
* Placodioid – crustose in the centre and lobed at the periphery.[104]
* Foliose – flattened, leafy appearance.[104]
* Fruticose – shrubby, bush-like or coral-like appearance.[104]
* Byssoid – wispy, with the appearance of teased wool.[106]
* Filamentous – thin, threadlike growth, often with a matted appearance.[107]
* Gelatinous – jelly-like interior, due to presence of cyanobacteria.[108]
* Squamulose – scaly, sometimes leafy appearance; can resemble a foliose lichen but usually has no outer cortex.[109]
* Cladoniform – squamulose, but with fruticose podetia.[110]

### Lichens, by substrate

[edit]

Saxicolous lichens are those which grow on stone.[111]

Lichens can be classified by the substrate on which they grow:

* Bryophilous lichen – on mosses or liverworts.[111]
* Hepaticolous lichen – on liverworts.[112]
* Muscicolous lichen – on mosses.[113]
* Corticolous lichen – on bark.[111]
* Ramicolous lichen – on twigs.[113]
* Foliicolous lichen – on plant leaves.[111]
* Epiphyllous lichen – on the upper surface of a leaf.[114]
* Hypophyllous lichen – on the lower surface of a leaf.[114]
* Lichenicolous lichen – on other lichens.[111]
* Lignicolous lichen – on wood stripped of bark.[111]
* Omnicolous lichen – on a variety of substrates.[113]
* Plasticolous lichen – on plastic.[115]
* Saxicolous lichen – on stone.[111]
* Endolithic lichen – within stone.[22]
* Terricolous lichen – on soil.[113]
* Vagrant lichen – loose, on no substrate.[116]

### Lichens, by region

[edit]

Namibia's vast deserts, which hold many species of lichen, remain largely unsurveyed.[117]

Main category: Lichens by continent

#### Africa

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of Africa

* Lichens of Namibia
* List of lichens of Madagascar
* List of lichens of Rwanda

#### Antarctica

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of the Antarctic

#### Asia

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of Asia

* List of lichens of Sri Lanka

#### Australia

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of Australia

* List of lichens of Western Australia

#### Europe

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of Europe

* List of lichens of Sweden

#### North America

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of North America

* List of lichens of Maryland
* List of lichens of Soldiers Delight – lichens of a nature reserve in Maryland
* List of lichen species of Montana
* Lichens of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.)

#### Oceania

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of Oceania

#### Pacific

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of the Pacific

#### South America

[edit]

Main category: Lichens of South America

## Photobiont

[edit]

The photobiont in most lichens is a green alga, particularly those from the genus Trebouxia.[6]

Photobiont – the photosynthetic partner in a lichen.[118]

* Cyanolichen – a lichen with a cyanobacteria photobiont.[119]
* List of lichen photobionts

## Lichen metabolites

[edit]

Further information: Secondary metabolite

Main category: Lichen products

Lichen product – organic products, known as secondary metabolites, produced by lichens; these provide a variety of protections for the lichen – from microbes, viruses, herbivores, radiation, oxidants and more.[120]

* List of lichen products

Chemical spot tests on the foliose lichen Punctelia borreri showing thallus (top) and medulla (bottom). The pinkish-red colour change of the medulla in the C and KC tests indicate the presence of gyrophoric acid, a chemical feature that helps to distinguish this lichen from similar species in the same genus.[121]

## Study of lichens

[edit]

Main category: Lichenologists

Lichenology – the study of lichens.[122]

* Acharius Medal – awarded for lifetime achievement in lichenology.[123]
* Evolution of lichens – lichenization of fungi has occurred multiple times, and several pathways towards acquiring photobionts have arisen.
* List of fossil lichens
* Exsiccata (plural exsiccatae) – a published set of preserved specimens, numbered and distributed with printed labels.[124]
* History of lichenology
* Lichenometry – a process where measuring the growth of a lichen colony over time can be used to estimate the minimum age of the substrate on which it is growing.[125]
* Spot test (lichen) – chemical tests used to aid in species identification.[126]

## Threats

[edit]

Main category: Lichenicolous fungi

* Lichenicolous fungus – parasitic fungus that uses lichens as a host.[127]

* List of lichenicolous fungi

* Lichens as bioindicators – lichens are sensitive to various pollutants and can be thus be used as bioindicators.[128]

* Lichens and air pollution – many lichens are sensitive to various forms of air pollution.[129]
* Lichens and climate change – the inability of algae to quickly evolve means that climate change may adversely impact lichens.[130]

## Lichens in culture

[edit]

Two baked loaves of Bryoria fremontii, an important traditional food for some First Nations people[131]

* Cultural depictions of lichens
* Trouble with Lichen – science fiction novel by John Wyndham in which lichens play a major role.[132]
* Edible lichen – some lichens have traditionally been used as food.[133]
* Ethnolichenology – a branch of ethnobotany that studies human usage of lichens.[134]

### Lichen organizations

[edit]

* American Bryological and Lichenological Society (ABLS)

* The Bryologist – peer-reviewed journal published by ABLS.

* Australasian Lichen Society

* Australasian Lichenology – official publication of the Australasian Lichen Society.

* British Lichen Society (BLS)

* The Lichenologist – peer-reviewed journal published by the BLS.

* Bryological and Lichenological Association for Central Europe (BLAM)

* Herzogia – peer-reviewed journal published by BLAM.

* Bryological and Lichenological Working Group (Bryologische en Lichenologische Werkgroep, BLWG)

* Buxbaumiella – peer-reviewed journal published by BLWG.

* Dutch Bryological and Lichenological Society

* Lindbergia – peer-reviewed journal co-published by the Dutch Bryological and Lichenological Society and the Nordic Bryological Society.

* Indian Lichenological Society
* International Association for Lichenology (IAL)
* Nordic Bryological Society

#### Independent lichenological journals

[edit]

* Asian Journal of Mycology – an international peer-reviewed journal published by Mae Fah Luang University in Thailand.
* Bibliotheca Lichenologica – scientific monographs on lichens and mosses.
* Hattoria – an international, peer-reviewed journal issued by Hattori Botanical Laboratory.
* International Journal of Mycology and Lichenology

## See also

[edit]

* Glossary of lichen terms

## Citations

[edit]

1. ^ a b Van Hoose 2021.
2. ^ Cambridge Dictionary.
3. ^ a b Favor 2005, p. 5.
4. ^ Laundon 1986, p. 3.
5. ^ Li et al. 2021, p. evab101.
6. ^ a b c Purvis 2000, p. 9.
7. ^ a b Laundon 1986, p. 2.
8. ^ Honegger 1998, p. 197.
9. ^ a b Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 758.
10. ^ Baron 1999, p. 14.
11. ^ Hawksworth, Sutton & Ainsworth 1983, p. 26.
12. ^ Silverstein, Silverstein & Silverstein 1996, p. 32.
13. ^ Smith et al. 2009, p. 22.
14. ^ Smith et al. 2009, p. 30.
15. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 756.
16. ^ Hale 1983, pp. 3, 6.
17. ^ Smith et al. 2009, p. 36.
18. ^ Smith et al. 2009, p. 24.
19. ^ Hawksworth, Sutton & Ainsworth 1983, p. 330.
20. ^ a b Smith et al. 2009, p. 38.
21. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 763.
22. ^ a b Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 757.
23. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 759.
24. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 760.
25. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 761.
26. ^ a b Henriksson & Simu 1971, p. 119.
27. ^ Smith et al. 2020, p. 134.
28. ^ Bowler & Rundel 1975, p. 328.
29. ^ Bowler & Rundel 1975, p. 326–327.
30. ^ Galloway 2012, p. 315.
31. ^ Zakeri et al. 2022, p. 80.
32. ^ Chen, Blume & Beyer 2000, p. 124.
33. ^ Green et al. 2018, p. 397.
34. ^ a b c d Wijayawardene et al. 2022.
35. ^ a b c Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 377–400.
36. ^ Bendre 2010, p. 131.
37. ^ Lepp 2014.
38. ^ a b c Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 371.
39. ^ a b Kraichak et al. 2018a.
40. ^ a b Kraichak et al. 2018b.
41. ^ a b c Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 162.
42. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2017, p. 58.
43. ^ Gamundí & Spinedi 1985, p. 112.
44. ^ Jiang et al. 2020, p. 11.
45. ^ a b Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 124.
46. ^ Lendemer, Harris & Ruiz 2016, p. 26.
47. ^ Lücking & Kalb 2018, p. 353.
48. ^ Aptroot, Sparrius & Alvarado 2018, p. 12.
49. ^ Wilk et al. 2021, p. 292.
50. ^ Zakeri, Divakar & Otte 2017, p. 170.
51. ^ Spribille et al. 2020, p. 85.
52. ^ Kantvilas, Wedin & Svensson 2021, p. 400.
53. ^ Divakar et al. 2017, p. 110.
54. ^ a b c Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 150.
55. ^ Ekman et al. 2014, p. 634.
56. ^ Diederich & Ertz 2020, p. 22.
57. ^ Kistenich et al. 2018, p. 871.
58. ^ Fryday et al. 2020, p. 473.
59. ^ Wilk et al. 2021, p. 293.
60. ^ Chesnokov et al. 2023, p. e24.
61. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2019, p. 295.
62. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 79.
63. ^ a b Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 156.
64. ^ a b c Divakar et al. 2017, p. 109.
65. ^ Ertz et al. 2017, p. 131.
66. ^ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 159.
67. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 86.
68. ^ Simon et al. 2020, p. 82.
69. ^ Sobreira et al. 2018, p. 67.
70. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 87.
71. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 90.
72. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 91.
73. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 96.
74. ^ Grube, Matzer & Hafellner 1995, p. 28.
75. ^ a b Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 89.
76. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 97.
77. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 105.
78. ^ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 98.
79. ^ Sodamuk et al. 2017, p. 15.
80. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2021, p. 372.
81. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2021, p. 375.
82. ^ a b Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 149.
83. ^ Kalb & Aptroot 2021, p. 5.
84. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2015, p. 328.
85. ^ Bungartz, Søchting & Arup 2021.
86. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 112.
87. ^ Etayo 2017, p. 335.
88. ^ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 160.
89. ^ Davydov et al. 2021, p. 245.
90. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 107.
91. ^ Lendemer, Stone & Tripp 2017, p. 459.
92. ^ Ertz et al. 2018, p. 170.
93. ^ Cáceres et al. 2017, p. 206.
94. ^ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 38.
95. ^ Grube 2018, p. 695.
96. ^ Jiang et al. 2020, p. 1.
97. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 24.
98. ^ Kondratyuk et al. 2016, p. 104.
99. ^ Díaz-Escandón et al. 2021, p. 501.
100. ^ Lücking et al. 2009, p. 411.
101. ^ Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 370.
102. ^ Dobson 2011, p. 470.
103. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 16.
104. ^ a b c d e The British Lichen Society 2022a.
105. ^ Temu et al. 2019, p. 1.
106. ^ Kantvilas 1996, p. 229.
107. ^ Dobson 2011, p. 26.
108. ^ Sanders 2001, p. 1033.
109. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 17.
110. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 18.
111. ^ a b c d e f g The British Lichen Society 2022b.
112. ^ Lendemer, Buck & Harris 2016, p. 441.
113. ^ a b c d Upreti & Rai 2013, p. 2.
114. ^ a b Lücking 2008, p. 4.
115. ^ Lücking 1998, p. 287.
116. ^ Rosentreter 1993, p. 333.
117. ^ Schultz, Zedda & Rambold 2009, p. 315.
118. ^ Purvis 2000, p. 5.
119. ^ Rikkinen 2015, p. 973.
120. ^ Goga et al. 2018, p. 1.
121. ^ Truong & Clerc 2003, p. 52.
122. ^ Merriam-Webster.
123. ^ International Association for Lichenology.
124. ^ Pfister 1985, p. 1.
125. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 84.
126. ^ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 103.
127. ^ Lawrey & Diederich 2003, p. 80.
128. ^ Nimis, Scheidegger & Wolseley 2002.
129. ^ Oliver 2011, p. 1.
130. ^ Field Museum 2022.
131. ^ Turner 1977, p. 461.
132. ^ Penguin Books.
133. ^ Ivanova & Ivanov 2009, p. 11.
134. ^ Vinayaka & Krishnamurthy 2012, p. 265.

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