Paper

Material for writing, printing, etc.

For other uses, see Paper (disambiguation).

Paper

Paper products: book, toilet paper, ruled paper, carton, egg box

Material type| Thin material
Physical properties
Density (ρ)| From 10 gsm to 3000 gsm
Paper

"Paper" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters

Traditional Chinese| 紙
Simplified Chinese| 纸
| Transcriptions

Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin| zhǐ
IPA| [ʈʂɨ̀]

Shanghainese
Romanization| tsy5
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization| jí
Jyutping| zi2
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ| choá
Tâi-lô| tsuá

Paper is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically or chemically processing cellulose fibres derived from wood, rags, grasses, herbivore dung, or other vegetable sources in water. Once the water is drained through a fine mesh leaving the fibre evenly distributed on the surface, it can be pressed and dried.

The papermaking process developed in east Asia, probably China, at least as early as 105 CE,[1] by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BCE in China.[2]

Although paper was originally made in single sheets by hand, today it is mass-produced on large machines—some making reels 10 metres wide, running at 2,000 metres per minute and up to 600,000 tonnes a year.[not verified in body] It is a versatile material with many uses, including printing, painting, graphics, signage, design, packaging, decorating, writing, and cleaning. It may also be used as filter paper, wallpaper, book endpaper, conservation paper, laminated worktops, toilet tissue, currency, and security paper, or in a number of industrial and construction processes.

## History

[edit]

Main article: History of paper

Hemp wrapping paper, China, c. 100 BCE

The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper date to the 2nd century BCE in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch.[2]

It has been said that knowledge of papermaking was passed to the Islamic world after the Battle of Talas in 751 CE when two Chinese papermakers were captured as prisoners. Although the veracity of this story is uncertain, paper started to be made in Samarkand soon after.[3] In the 13th century, the knowledge and uses of paper spread from the Middle East to medieval Europe, where the first water-powered paper mills were built.[4] Because paper was introduced to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos.[5] In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German inventor Friedrich Gottlob Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.[6]

## Early sources of fibre

[edit]

See also: wood pulp, deinking, and pulpwood

Before the industrialisation of paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton.[7] A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774.[7] Today this method is called deinking. It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers.[7]

## Etymology

[edit]

Further information: Papyrus

The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πᾰ́πῡρος (pápūros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant.[8][9] Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper.[10] Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibre, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.[2]

## Papermaking

[edit]

Main article: Papermaking

### Chemical pulping

[edit]

Main articles: Kraft process, sulfite process, and soda pulping

To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibre. A cooking liquor is used to dissolve the lignin, which is then washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers (not to be confused with tree-free paper); this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres. Chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.

The microscopic structure of paper: Micrograph of paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10 μm in diameter.

There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and was the dominant method before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practised strategy; one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.

### Mechanical pulping

[edit]

There are two major mechanical pulps: thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam-heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, > 95%; however, lignin causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.

### De-inked pulp

[edit]

Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; by mixing it with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.

There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:

* Mill broke or internal mill waste – This incorporates any substandard or grade-change paper made within the paper mill itself, which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be re-pulped back into paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and is therefore often not classified as genuine reclaimed recycled fibre; however most paper mills have been reusing their own waste fibre for many years, long before recycling became popular.
* Preconsumer waste – This is offcut and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and envelope blank waste; it is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to landfill, and is a genuine recycled fibre source; it includes de-inked preconsumer waste (recycled material that has been printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as waste from printers and unsold publications).[11]
* Postconsumer waste – This is fibre from paper that has been used for its intended end use and includes office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of this material has been printed – either digitally or by more conventional means such as lithography or rotogravure – it will either be recycled as printed paper or go through a de-inking process first.

Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from the latter.

### Additives

[edit]

Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay,[12] which improve its characteristics for printing or writing.[13] Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.

### Producing paper

[edit]

Main articles: Paper machine and papermaking

Paper mill in Mänttä-Vilppula, Finland

The pulp is fed to a paper machine, where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying.

Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water. When making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.

Drying involves using air or heat to remove water from the paper sheets. In the earliest days of papermaking, this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 93 °C (200 °F) and are used in long sequences of more than forty cans where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than six percent moisture.

### Finishing

[edit]

Lower quality paper (used to print the book in 1991) with visible bits of wood

The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications.

Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.

The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. Continuous form paper (or continuous stationery) is cut to width with holes punched at the edges, and folded into stacks.

#### Paper grain

[edit]

All paper produced by paper machines such as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.

Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.[14]

## Applications

[edit]

Paper money from different countries

Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.

### Published, written, or informational items

[edit]

* For representing value: paper money, bank note, cheque, security (see security paper), voucher, ticket
* For storing information: book, notebook, graph paper, punched card, photographic paper
* For published materials, publications, and reading materials: books, newspapers, magazines, posters, pamphlets, maps, signs, labels, advertisements, billboards.
* For individual use: diary, notebooks, writing pads, memo pads journals, planners, note to remind oneself, etc.; for temporary personal use: scratch paper
* For business and professional use: copier paper, ledger paper, typing paper, computer printer paper. Specialized paper for forms and documents such as invoices, receipts, tickets, vouchers, bills, contracts, official forms, agreements.
* For communication: between individuals and/or groups of people: letter, post cards, airmail, telegrams, newsprint, card stock
* For organizing and sending documents: envelopes, file folders, packaging, pocket folders, partition folders.
* For artistic works and uses; drawing paper, pastels, water color paintings, sketch pads, charcoal drawings,
* For special printed items using more elegant forms of paper; stationery, parchment,

### Packaging and industrial uses

[edit]

* For packaging: corrugated box, paper bag, envelope, wrapping paper, paper string
* For cleaning: toilet paper, paper towels, facial tissue.
* For food utensils and containers: wax paper, paper plates and paper cups, beverage cartons, tea bags, condiments, food packaging, coffee filters, cupcake cups.
* For construction: papier-mâché, origami paper, paper planes, quilling, paper honeycomb, sandpaper, used as a core material in composite materials, paper engineering, construction paper, paper yarn, and paper clothing
* For other uses: emery paper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, electrical insulation paper (see also fishpaper), filter paper, wallpaper

It is estimated that paper-based storage solutions captured 0.33% of the total in 1986 and only 0.007% in 2007, even though in absolute terms the world's capacity to store information on paper increased from 8.7 to 19.4 petabytes.[15] It is estimated that in 1986 paper-based postal letters represented less than 0.05% of the world's telecommunication capacity, with sharply decreasing tendency after the massive introduction of digital technologies.[15]

Paper has a major role in the visual arts. It is used by itself to form two- and three-dimensional shapes and collages.[16][17] It has also evolved to being a structural material used in furniture design.[18] Watercolor paper has a long history of production and use.

## Types, thickness and weight

[edit]

Main articles: Paper size, Grammage, and Paper density

Card and paper stock for crafts use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.

The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch in the United States and in micrometres (μm) in the rest of the world.[19] Paper may be between 0.07 and 0.18 millimetres (0.0028 and 0.0071 in) thick.[20]

Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight is the weight of a ream (bundle of 500 sheets) of varying "basic sizes" before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8.5 in × 11 in (216 mm × 279 mm) paper weighs 5 pounds because it has been cut from larger sheets into four pieces.[21] In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, 28 lb, or 32 lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock.

In Europe and other regions using the ISO 216 paper-sizing system, the weight is expressed in grams per square metre (g/m2 or usually gsm) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 gsm and 120 gsm. Anything heavier than 160 gsm is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.

Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on customary units and is defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper.

The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not on a sheet's width and length. It was first adopted in Germany in 1922 and generally spread as nations adopted the metric system. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero), measuring one square metre (approx. 1189 × 841 mm). A1 is half the size of a sheet of A0 (i.e., 594 mm × 841 mm), such that two sheets of A1 placed side by side are equal to one sheet of A0. A2 is half the size of a sheet of A1, and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets).

The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m3 (16 lb/cu ft) for tissue paper to 1500 kg/m3 (94 lb/cu ft) for some specialty paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m3 (50 lb/cu ft).[22]

Paper may be classified into seven categories:[23]

* Printing papers of wide variety.
* Wrapping papers for the protection of goods and merchandise. This includes wax and kraft papers.
* Writing paper suitable for stationery requirements. This includes ledger, bank, and bond paper.
* Blotting papers containing little or no size.
* Drawing papers usually with rough surfaces used by artists and designers, including cartridge paper.
* Handmade papers including most decorative papers, Ingres papers, Japanese paper and tissues, all characterized by lack of grain direction.
* Specialty papers including cigarette paper, toilet tissue, and other industrial papers.

Some paper types include:

* Bank paper
* Banana paper
* Bond paper
* Book paper
* Coated paper: glossy and matte surface
* Construction paper/sugar paper
* Cotton paper
* Fish paper (vulcanized fibres for electrical insulation)
* Inkjet paper
* Kraft paper
* Laid paper
* Leather paper
* Mummy paper
* Oak tag paper
* Sandpaper
* Troublewit, specially pleated paper
* Tyvek paper
* Wallpaper
* Washi
* Waterproof paper
* Wax paper
* Wove paper
* Xuan paper

## Paper stability

[edit]

A book printed in 1920 on acidic paper, now disintegrating a hundred years later.

Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of alum, a variety of aluminium sulfate salt that is significantly acidic. Alum was added to paper to assist in sizing,[24] making it somewhat water resistant so that inks did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. Early papermakers did not realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product would be eventually detrimental.[25] The cellulose fibres that make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and the presence of alum eventually degrades the fibres until the acidic paper disintegrates in a process known as "slow fire". Documents written on rag paper are significantly more stable. The use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent, and the stability of these papers is less of an issue.

Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component in wood. In the presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to give yellow materials,[26] which is why newsprint and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential.

Paper made from wood pulp is not necessarily less durable than a rag paper. The aging behaviour of a paper is determined by its manufacture, not the original source of the fibres.[27] Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic acids.[28]

Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used, which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps. With almost twice the yield as chemical pulping, mechanical pulps is often cheaper. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers tend to use mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to use acid-free paper, made from fully bleached chemical pulps for hardback and trade paperback books.

## Environmental impact

[edit]

Main articles: Environmental impact of paper and Deforestation

The production and use of paper has a number of adverse effects on the environment.

Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in the past 40 years[clarification needed] leading to increase in deforestation, with 35% of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Most paper companies also plant trees to help regrow forests. Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp,[29] but is one of the most controversial issues.

Paper waste accounts for up to 40% of total waste produced in the United States each year, which adds up to 71.6 million tons of paper waste per year in the United States alone.[30] The average office worker in the US prints 31 pages every day.[31] Americans also use in the order of 16 billion paper cups per year.

Conventional bleaching of wood pulp using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds, including chlorinated dioxins.[32] Dioxins are recognized as a persistent environmental pollutant, regulated internationally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Dioxins are highly toxic, and health effects on humans include reproductive, developmental, immune and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, primarily meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissue of animals.[33]

The paper pulp and print industries emitted together about 1% of world greenhouse-gas emissions in 2010[34] and about 0.9% in 2012.[35]

## Current production and use

[edit]

In the 2022−2024 edition of the annual "Pulp and paper capacites survey", the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that Asia has superseded North America as the top pulp and paper producing continent. [36]

FAO figures for 2021 show the production of graphic papers continuing its decline from a mid-2000s peak to hover below 100 million tonnes a year. By contrast, the production of other papers and paperboard – which includes cardboard and sanitary products – has continued to soar, exceeding 320 million tonnes.[36]

FAO has documented the expanding production of cardboard in paper and paperboard, which has been increasing in response to the spread of e-commerce since the 2010s.[36] Data from FAO suggest that it has been even further boosted by COVID-19-related lockdowns.[37]

## Future

[edit]

Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging. Made out of paper, and known commercially as PaperFoam, the new packaging has mechanical properties very similar to those of some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper.[38]

With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as PFOA) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on zein (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags.[39]

Also, synthetics such as Tyvek and Teslin have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper.

## See also

[edit]

* Arches paper
* Buckypaper
* Continuous form paper (or "continuous stationery")
* Deinked pulp
* Environmental impact of paper
* Fibre crop
* Graphene oxide paper
* Lokta paper
* Mass deacidification
* Paper and ink testing
* Paper armour
* Paper chemicals
* Paper clip
* Paper craft
* Parchment paper, which emulates the texture of animal-based parchment
* Roll hardness tester
* Seed paper
* Stone paper

## Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Hogben, Lancelot. "Printing, Paper and Playing Cards". Bennett, Paul A. (ed.) Books and Printing: A Treasury for Typophiles. New York: The World Publishing Company, 1951. pp. 15–31. p. 17. & Mann, George. Print: A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History, Methods, and Applications of Printing and Paper Making. London: Grafton & Co., 1952. p. 77
2. ^ a b c Tsien 1985, p. 38
3. ^ Ward, James (2015). The Perfection of the Paper Clip: Curious Tales of Invention, Accidental Genius, and Stationery Obsession. Atria Books. ISBN 978-1476799865.
4. ^ Burns 1996, pp. 417f.
5. ^ Murray, Stuart A. P. The Library: An illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, 2009, p. 57.
6. ^ Burger, Peter (2007). Charles Fenerty and his paper invention. Toronto: Peter Burger. pp. 25–30. ISBN 978-0-9783318-1-8. OCLC 173248586. Archived from the original on 19 April 2009. Retrieved 19 May 2009.
7. ^ a b c Göttsching, Lothar; Gullichsen, Johan; Pakarinen, Heikki; Paulapuro, Hannu; Yhdistys, Suomen Paperi-Insinöörien; Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (2000). Recycling fiber and deinking. Finland: Fapet Oy. pp. 12–14. ISBN 978-952-5216-07-3. OCLC 247670296.
8. ^ πάπυρος Archived 16 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus
9. ^ "papyrus". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020.
10. ^ "papyrus". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d. Retrieved 20 November 2008.
11. ^ "Natural Resource Defense Council". Archived from the original on 24 February 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2008.
12. ^ Appropriate Technology. Intermediate Technology Publications. 1996.
13. ^ Thorn, Ian; Au, Che On (24 July 2009). Applications of Wet-End Paper Chemistry. Springer Science & Business Media. Bibcode:2009aowp.book.....T. ISBN 978-1-4020-6038-0.
14. ^ "ARCHIVED – Introduction – Detecting the Truth. Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery – Library and Archives Canada" Archived 2 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine in a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
15. ^ a b "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information" Archived 12 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine, especially Supporting online material Archived 18 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science, 332(6025), 60–65; free access to the article through here: martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html doi:10.1126/science.1200970
16. ^ "Lynette Schweigert". NEA. 5 November 2015. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
17. ^ "Herminia Albarrán Romero". NEA. 24 January 2013. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2018.
18. ^ Morris (August–September 2018). "Material Values, Paper". The Economist. p. 38.
19. ^ "Paper Thickness (Caliper) Chart". Case Paper. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2017.
20. ^ Elert, Glenn. "Thickness of a Piece of Paper". The Physics Factbook. Archived from the original on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 27 May 2017.
21. ^ McKenzie, Bruce G. (1989). The Hammerhill guide to desktop publishing in business. Hammerhill. p. 144\. ISBN 978-0-9615651-1-4. OCLC 851074844.
22. ^ "Density of paper and paperboard". PaperOnWeb. Archived from the original on 19 October 2007. Retrieved 31 October 2007.
23. ^ Johnson, Arthur (1978). The Thames and Hudson manual of bookbinding. London: Thames and Hudson. OCLC 959020143.
24. ^ Biermann, Christopher J/ (1993). Essentials of pulping and papermaking. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-097360-6. OCLC 813399142.
25. ^ Clark, James d'A. (1985). Pulp Technology and Treatment for Paper (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Miller Freeman Publications. ISBN 978-0-87930-164-4.
26. ^ Fabbri, Claudia; Bietti, Massimo; Lanzalunga, Osvaldo (2005). "Generation and Reactivity of Ketyl Radicals with Lignin Related Structures. On the Importance of the Ketyl Pathway in the Photoyellowing of Lignin Containing Pulps and Papers". J. Org. Chem. 2005 (70): 2720–2728. doi:10.1021/jo047826u. PMID 15787565.
27. ^ Erhardt, D.; Tumosa, C. (2005). "Chemical Degradation of Cellulose in Paper over 500 years". Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material. 26 (3): 155. doi:10.1515/rest.2005.26.3.151. S2CID 98291111.
28. ^ "The Deterioration and Preservation of Paper: Some Essential Facts". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 20 January 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2015. "Research by the Library of Congress has demonstrated that cellulose itself generates acids as it ages, including formic, acetic, lactic, and oxalic acids"
29. ^ Martin, Sam (2004). "Paper Chase". Ecology Communications, Inc. Archived from the original on 19 June 2007. Retrieved 21 September 2007.
30. ^ EPA (28 June 2006). "General Overview of What's in America's Trash". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 5 January 2012. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
31. ^ Groll, T. 2015 In vielen Büros wird unnötig viel ausgedruckt Archived 17 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Zeit Online, 20 June 2015.
32. ^ Effluents from Pulp Mills using Bleaching – PSL1. Health Canada DSS. 1991. ISBN 978-0-662-18734-9. Archived from the original on 5 July 2017. Retrieved 21 September 2007. Pdf Archived 12 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine
33. ^ "Dioxins and their effects on human health". World Health Organization. June 2014. Archived from the original on 27 April 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2015. "More than 90% of human exposure is through food"
34. ^ "World GHG Emissions Flow Chart 2010" (PDF). Ecofys. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
35. ^ "World GHG Emissions 2012". SANKEY DIAGRAMS. Ecofys. 22 February 2019. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
36. ^ a b c Sustainability by numbers: Forest products at FAO. Rome: FAO. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc7561en.
37. ^ "COVID-19 leads to changes in paper and paperboard production". www.fao.org. 3 September 2021. Archived from the original on 3 November 2023. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
38. ^ "PaperFoam Carbon Friendly Packaging". Archived from the original on 9 March 2006. Retrieved 3 April 2006.
39. ^ "Barrier compositions and articles produced with the compositions cross-reference to related application". Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2018.

## General references

[edit]

* Burns, Robert I. (1996). "Paper comes to the West, 800–1400". In Lindgren, Uta (ed.). Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation (4th ed.). Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag. pp. 413–422. ISBN 978-3-7861-1748-3.
* Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985). Needham, Joseph (ed.). Paper and Printing. Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Vol. V (part 1). Cambridge University Press.
* "Document Doubles" in ARCHIVED – Introduction – Detecting the Truth. Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery – Library and Archives Canada Archived 12 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada

## Further reading

[edit]

External videos

Discussion with Mark Kurlansky on Paper: Paging Through History, June 12, 2016, C-SPAN

* Kurlansky, Mark (2016). Paper: Paging Through History. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393239614.
* Monro, Alexander (2013). The Paper Trail: An Unexpected History of the World's Greatest Invention. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 9781846141898. OCLC 1040764924.
* "Paper Brightness, Whiteness & Shade: Definitions and Differences" by David Rogers (June 26, 2015)

## External links

[edit]

Look up paper in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paper.

* Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) official website
* The Arnold Yates Paper collection at University of Maryland Libraries
* "How is paper made?" at The Straight Dope, 22 November 2005
* Thirteen-minute video on modern paper production system, from Sappi

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* Construction
* Contact
* Copy
* Carbonless
* Correction
* Cotton (rag)
* Crêpe
* Display
* Dó
* Electrical insulation
* Filteration
* Genkō yōshi
* Glassine
* Graph
* Greaseproof
* Hemp
* India
* Inkjet
* Ingres
* Korean
* Kraft
* Butcher
* Laid
* Lokta
* Manila
* Mummy
* Newsprint
* Onionskin
* Origami
* Paperboard
* Parchment
* Photographic
* Plastic-coated
* Red rosin
* Rice
* Rolling
* Scritta
* Security
* Seed
* Stone
* Tar
* Thermal
* Tissue
* Tracing
* Transfer
* Tree-free
* Wallpaper
* Washi
* Wasli
* Waterproof
* Wax
* Wood-free
* Wove
* Writing
* Xuan

Materials|

* China clay
* Corrugated fiberboard
* Fiber crop
* Paper chemicals
* Papyrus
* Wood pulp

Specifications|

* Density
* Grammage
* Paper sizes
* Surface chemistry of paper
* Units of paper quantity
* Wet strength

Manufacture
and process|

* Bleaching of wood pulp
* Calender
* Conical refiner
* Deinking
* Elemental chlorine free
* Environmental impact of paper
* Handmade paper
* Hollander beater
* Kraft process
* Organosolv
* Paper machine
* Paper recycling
* Papermaking
* Soda pulping
* Sulfite process

Industry|

* Paper industry
* Canada
* Europe
* India
* Indonesia
* Japan
* United States
* Paper mill
* List

Uses|

* Lined paper
* Paper towels
* Papier-mâché
* Cardboard
* Clothing
* Tissues
* Notebooks
* Watercolor paper
* Paper money
* Beverage cartons

* Category
* Commons

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Paper products

Containers|

* Box
* Carton
* Cigarette pack
* Coffee cup sleeve
* Corrugated box
* Corrugated fiberboard
* Envelope
* Molded pulp
* Oyster pail
* Paper bag
* Paper cup
* Paperboard
* Shipping tube

Hygiene|

* Facial tissue
* Napkin
* Paper towel
* Toilet paper
* Wet wipe

Stationery|

* Continuous stationery
* Greeting card
* Index card
* Letter
* Manila folder
* Notebook
* Postage stamp
* Postcard
* Post-it note

Financial|

* Banknote
* Business card
* Coupon
* Passbook
* Visiting card

Decorations|

* Ingrain wallpaper
* Mat
* Wallpaper

Media|

* Book
* Magazine
* Newspaper
* Newsprint
* Pamphlet

Recreation|

* Confetti
* Paper craft
* Paper toys
* Playing card
* Quilling

Other|

* Drink coaster
* Filter paper
* Form
* Paper model
* Sandpaper
* Security paper

* v
* t
* e

Decorative arts and handicraft

* History

Textile|

* Banner-making
* Canvas work
* Crocheting
* Cross-stitch
* Embroidery
* Felting
* Friendship bracelet
* Knitting
* Lace-making
* Lucet
* Macrame
* Millinery
* Needlepoint
* Needlework
* Patchwork
* Quilting
* Ribbon embroidery
* Carpet
* Rug hooking
* Rug making
* Sewing
* Shoemaking
* Spinning (textiles)
* String art
* Tapestry
* Tatting
* Tie-dye
* Weaving

Paper|

* Altered book
* Bookbinding
* Calligraphy
* Cardmaking
* Cast paper
* Collage
* Decoupage
* Papier collé
* Photomontage
* Decal
* Iris folding
* Jianzhi
* Kamikiri
* Origami
* Kirigami
* Moneygami
* Embossing
* Marbling
* Papercraft
* Papercutting
* Chinese
* Jewish
* Slavic

* Papermaking
* Paper toys
* Papier-mâché
* Pop-up book
* Quilling
* Scrapbooking
* Stamping
* Wallpaper

Wood|

* Bentwood
* Cabinetry
* Carpentry
* Chip carving
* Ébéniste
* Fretwork
* Intarsia
* Marquetry
* Wood burning
* Wood carving
* Woodturning

Ceramic|

* Azulejo
* Bone china
* Earthenware
* Porcelain
* Pottery
* Stoneware
* Terracotta
* Tile

Glass|

* Cameo glass
* Chip work
* Enamelled glass
* Glass etching
* Glassware
* Mirror
* Stained glass

Metal|

* Andiron
* Chemical milling
* Enamel
* Engraving
* Etching
* Jewellery
* Goldsmith
* Silversmith
* Bronze and brass ornamental work
* Ironwork

Other|

* Assemblage
* Balloon modelling
* Beadwork
* Bone carving
* Doll making
* Dollhouse
* Egg decorating
* Engraved gems
* Faux painting
* Grotesque
* Gargoyle
* Hardstone carving
* Inro
* Lath art
* Lapidary
* Leatherworking
* Miniatures
* Micromosaic
* Mosaic
* Glass mosaic
* Netsuke
* Ornament
* Painting in Hälsingland
* Pargeting
* Pietra dura
* Private press
* Pressed flower craft
* Qing handicrafts
* Scrimshaw
* Straw marquetry
* Taxidermy
* Wall decal

* v
* t
* e

Labeling

Label construction|

* Adhesive
* Die cutting (web)
* Hologram
* In-mould labelling
* Label
* Paper
* Perforation
* Pressure-sensitive adhesive
* Plastic
* Printing
* Security hologram
* Release liner
* Security printing
* Security label
* Smart label
* Sticker

Content|

* Advertising
* Barcode
* Country of origin
* Cigarette warning label
* Ecolabel
* EU energy label
* Fair Packaging and Labeling Act
* List of food labeling regulations
* Mandatory labelling
* Nameplate
* Nutrition facts label
* Plain tobacco packaging
* Radio-frequency identification
* United Kingdom food information regulations
* UPC
* Warning label
* Wine label

Use|

* Advertising
* Authentication
* Automatic identification and data capture
* Label dispenser
* Label printer
* Packaging
* Track and trace

* v
* t
* e

Packaging

General
topics|

* Active packaging
* Child-resistant packaging
* Contract packager
* Edible packaging
* Modified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging
* Overpackaging
* Package delivery
* Package pilferage
* Package testing
* Package theft
* Packaging engineering
* Resealable packaging
* Reusable packaging
* Reuse of bottles
* Shelf life
* Shelf-ready packaging
* Shelf-stable
* Sustainable packaging
* Tamper-evident
* Tamper resistance
* Wrap rage

Product
packages|

* Alternative wine closure
* Ammunition box
* Banana box
* Beer bottle
* Box wine
* Case-ready meat
* Coffee bag
* Cosmetic packaging
* Currency packaging
* Disposable food packaging
* Drink can
* Egg carton
* Evidence packaging
* Field ration
* Flour sack
* Foam food container
* Food packaging
* Fuel container
* Gas cylinder
* Glass milk bottle
* Growler
* Juicebox
* Low plastic water bottle
* Luxury packaging
* Milk bag
* Optical disc packaging
* Oyster pail
* Popcorn bag
* Pharmaceutical packaging
* Plastic milk container
* Purdue Improved Crop Storage bags
* Sand bag
* Seasonal packaging
* Self-heating food packaging
* Screw cap (wine)
* Single-serve coffee container
* Spray paint
* Toothpaste pump dispenser
* Unit dose
* Water bottle
* Wine bottle

Containers|

* Aerosol spray dispenser
* Aluminium bottle
* Aluminum can
* Ampoule
* Antistatic bag
* Bag-in-box
* Bag
* Barrel
* Biodegradable bag
* Blister pack
* Boil-in-bag
* Bottle
* Box
* Bulk box
* Cage
* Case
* Carboy
* Carton
* Chub
* Clamshell
* Corrugated box design
* Crate
* Disposable cup
* Drum
* Endcap
* Envelope
* Euro container
* Flexible intermediate bulk container
* Flexible tank
* Folding carton
* Glass bottle
* Gunny sack
* Inhaler
* Insulated shipping container
* Intermediate bulk container
* Jar
* Jerrycan
* Jug
* Keg
* Mesh bag
* Multilayered packaging
* Multi-pack
* Packet (container)
* Padded envelope
* Pail
* Paper bag
* Paper sack
* Plastic bag
* Plastic bottle
* Retort pouch
* Salvage drum
* Sachet
* Water sachet
* Security bag
* Shipping container
* Shipping tube
* Skin pack
* Spray bottle
* Squround
* Stand-up pouch
* Steel and tin cans
* Tetra Brik
* Thermal bag
* Tub (container)
* Tube
* Unit load
* Vial
* Wooden box

Materials
and
components|

* Adhesive
* Aluminium foil
* Bail handle
* Bioplastic
* Biodegradable plastic
* BoPET
* Bubble wrap
* Bung
* Cellophane
* Closure
* Coated paper
* Coating
* Coextrusion
* Container glass
* Corrugated fiberboard
* Corrugated plastic
* Cushioning
* Desiccant
* Double seam
* Flip-top
* Foam peanut
* Gel pack
* Hot-melt adhesive
* Humidity indicator card
* Kraft paper
* Label
* Lid
* Linear low-density polyethylene
* Liquid packaging board
* Living hinge
* Low-density polyethylene
* Meat absorbent pad
* Metallised film
* Modified atmosphere
* Molded pulp
* Nonwoven fabric
* Overwrap
* Oxygen scavenger
* Package handle
* Packaging gas
* Pallet
* Paper
* Paper pallet
* Paperboard
* Plastic-coated paper
* Plastic film
* Plastic pallet
* Plastic wrap
* Polyester
* Polyethylene
* Polypropylene
* Pressure-sensitive tape
* Pump dispenser
* Screw cap
* Screw cap (wine)
* Security printing
* Security tape
* Shock detector
* Shock and vibration data logger
* Shrink wrap
* Slip sheet
* Staple (fastener)
* Strapping
* Stretch wrap
* Susceptor
* Tamper-evident band
* Tear tape
* Temperature data logger
* Time temperature indicator
* Tinplate
* Velostat

Processes|

* Aseptic processing
* Authentication
* Automatic identification and data capture
* Blow fill seal
* Blow molding
* Calendering
* Canning
* Coating
* Containerization
* Converting
* Corona treatment
* Curtain coating
* Die cutting
* Die forming (plastics)
* Electronic article surveillance
* Extrusion
* Extrusion coating
* Flame treatment
* Glass production
* Graphic design
* Hazard analysis and critical control points
* Hermetic seal
* Induction sealing
* Injection moulding
* Lamination
* Laser cutting
* Molding
* Package tracking
* Papermaking
* Plastic extrusion
* Plastic welding
* Printing
* Product development
* Production control
* Quality assurance
* Radio-frequency identification
* Roll slitting
* Shearing (manufacturing)
* Thermoforming
* Track and trace
* Ultrasonic welding
* Vacuum forming
* Vacuum packaging
* Verification and validation

Machinery|

* Barcode printer
* Barcode reader
* Bottling line
* Calender
* Can seamer
* Cap torque tester
* Cartoning machine
* Case sealer
* Check weigher
* Conveyor system
* Drum pump
* Extended core stretch wrapper
* Filler
* Heat gun
* Heat sealer
* Industrial robot
* Injection molding machine
* Label printer applicator
* Lineshaft roller conveyor
* Logistics automation
* Material-handling equipment
* Mechanical brake stretch wrapper
* Multihead weigher
* Orbital stretch wrapper
* Packaging machinery
* Pallet inverter
* Palletizer
* Rotary wheel blow molding systems
* Seed-counting machine
* Shrink tunnel
* Staple gun
* Tape dispenser
* Turntable stretch wrapper
* Vertical form fill sealing machine

Environment,
post-use|

* Biodegradation
* Can collecting
* Closed-loop box reuse
* Environmental engineering
* Glass recycling
* Industrial ecology
* Life-cycle assessment
* Litter
* Packaging waste
* Paper recycling
* PET bottle recycling
* Plastic recycling
* Recycling
* Reusable packaging
* Reverse logistics
* Source reduction
* Sustainable packaging
* Waste management

Category: Packaging

* v
* t
* e

Wood products

Lumber/
timber|

* Batten
* Beam
* Bressummer
* CLS
* Cruck
* Flitch beam
* Flooring
* Joist
* Lath
* Log building
* Log cabin
* Log house
* Molding
* Panelling
* Plank
* Plate
* Post
* Purlin
* Rafter
* Railroad ties
* Reclaimed
* Shingle
* Siding
* Sill
* Stud
* Timber truss
* Treenail
* Truss
* Utility pole

Engineered
wood|

* Cross-laminated timber
* Glued laminated timber
* veneer
* LVL
* parallel strand
* I-joist
* Fiberboard
* hardboard
* Masonite
* MDF
* Oriented strand board
* Oriented structural straw board
* Particle board
* Plywood
* Structural insulated panel
* Wood–plastic composite
* lumber

Fuelwood|

* Charcoal
* biochar
* Firelog
* Firewood
* Pellet fuel
* Wood fuel

Fibers|

* Cardboard
* Corrugated fiberboard
* Paper
* Paperboard
* Pulp
* Pulpwood
* Rayon

Derivatives|

* Birch-tar
* Cellulose
* nano
* Hemicellulose
* Cellulosic ethanol
* Dyes
* Lignin
* Liquid smoke
* Lye
* Methanol
* Pyroligneous acid
* Pine tar
* Pitch
* Sandalwood oil
* Tannin
* Wood gas

By-products|

* Barkdust
* Black liquor
* Ramial chipped wood
* Sawdust
* Tall oil
* Wood flour
* Wood wool
* Woodchips

Historical|

* Axe ties
* Bavin (wood)
* Billet (wood)
* Clapboard
* Dugout canoe
* Potash
* Sawdust brandy
* Split-rail fence
* Tanbark
* Timber framing
* Wooden masts

See also|

* Biomass
* Certified wood
* Destructive distillation
* Dry distillation
* Engineered bamboo
* Forestry
* Green building and wood
* List of woods
* Mulch
* Non-timber forest products
* Natural building
* Papermaking
* Reclaimed lumber
* Timber recycling
* Wood drying
* Wood preservation
* Wood processing
* Woodworking
* Yakisugi

* Category
* Commons
* WikiProject Forestry

* v
* t
* e

Writing and writing material

Enduring|

| Plant-based|

* Amate
* Trema micrantha
* Ficus aurea
* Bamboo and wooden slips
* Birch bark (Betula)
* Folding-book manuscript
* Streblus asper
* Broussonetia papyrifera
* Ola leaf (Corypha umbraculifera)
* Palm leaf (Borassus)
* Paper
* Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus)

|

Other materials|

* Animal skin
* Parchment
* Vellum
* Ink
* Metals
* Intaglio
* Stamping
* Oracle bone
* Photographic film
* Stone
* Geoglyph
* Petroglyph
* Tablets
* Clay tablet
* Slate
* Wax tablet
* Textile printing
* Silk text

Impermanent|

* Electronic paper
* Screen
* Skywriting

Carrier objects|

* Book
* Codex
* Notebook
* Electronic media
* Hu/Shaku (baton)
* Inscription
* Bas-relief
* Manuscript
* Palimpsest
* Microform
* Scroll
* Sign

Related topics|

* Writing systems
* History of writing
* List of writing systems
* Written language

* v
* t
* e

Sculpture

Types of sculpture|

* Architectural sculpture
* Assemblage
* Bas relief
* Bust
* Effigy
* Gas sculpture
* Earth art
* Environmental sculpture
* Figurine
* Installation art
* Kinetic sculpture
* Mobile
* Monumental
* Pedimental
* Soft sculpture
* Statue
* Stele

Styles of sculpture|

* Baroque
* Classical
* Detonography
* Jain sculpture
* Modern sculpture
* Relief
* Renaissance

Elements in sculpture|

* Mass
* Negative space
* Space
* Volume

Traditional materials|

* Wood
* Marble
* Limestone
* Granite
* Porphyry
* Diorite
* Jade
* Ivory
* Clay
* Terracotta
* Bronze
* Gold
* Silver
* Butter
* Soapstone

Modern materials|

* Steel
* Ice
* Jesmonite
* Acrylic
* Concrete
* Plastic
* Fiberglass
* Glass
* Aluminium
* Fabric
* Paper
* Found object

Notable sculptures|

* Great Sphinx of Giza (c. 2558–2532 BCE)
* Abu Simbel temples (c. 1264 BCE)
* Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon (438 BCE)
* Colossus of Rhodes (c. 292 BCE)
* Winged Victory of Samothrace (c. 2nd century BCE)
* Terracotta Army (246–210 BCE)
* Laocoön and His Sons (c. 200 BCE – 70 CE)
* Venus de Milo (130–100 BCE)
* Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius (175 CE)
* Buddhas of Bamiyan (507–554 CE)
* Chartes Cathedral (c. 1194–1250 CE)
* Konark Sun Temple (1250 CE)
* Moai, Easter Islands (1250–1500 CE)
* Pietà (1498–1499)
* David (1501–1504)
* Veiled Christ (1753)
* Kamagaya Great Buddha (1776)
* Nelson's Column (1843)
* Lion of Belfort (1880)
* Liberty Enlightening the World, Statue of Liberty (1886)
* The Gates of Hell (1890–1917)
* The Golden Virgin (1897)
* The Thinker (1904)
* Jules Verne's tomb (1907)
* Abraham Lincoln (1920)
* Mount Rushmore Shrine of Democracy (1927–1941)
* Christ the Redeemer (1927–1931)
* The Motherland Calls (1967)
* Fallen Astronaut (1971)
* Mother Ukraine (1981)
* Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue (2008)
* Statue of Unity (2018)

* Category
* Outline

* v
* t
* e

Data storage

Fundamental storage technologies|

* Semiconductor memory
* Magnetic storage
* Optical storage
* Paper data storage
* Uncommon storage technologies

Related technologies|

* Robotics
* File systems
* Data compression
* Encryption
* RAID

Network storage|

* Networked storage
* File server
* Network-attached storage
* Storage area network

* * *

* v
* t
* e

Magnetic storage media

* Wire (1898)
* Tape (1928)
* Drum (1932)
* Ferrite core (1949)
* Hard disk (1956)
* Stripe card (1956)
* MICR (1956)
* Thin film (1962)
* CRAM (1962)
* Twistor (~1968)
* Floppy disk (1969)
* Bubble (~1970)
* MRAM (1995)
* Racetrack (2008)

* v
* t
* e

Optical storage media

Blu-ray (2006)|

* BD-R (2006)
* BD-RE (2006)
* BD-R XL (2010)
* BD-RE XL (2010)

Professional Disc (2003)|

* PDD (2004)

DVD (1995)|

* DVD-R (1997)
* DVD-RW (1999)
* DVD+RW (2001)
* DVD+R (2002)
* DVD+R DL (2004)
* DVD-R DL (2005)

Compact disc (1982)|

* CD-R (1988)
* CD-i (1991)
* CD-RW (1997)

Discontinued|

* Microform (1870)
* Optical tape (20th century)
* Optical disc (20th century)
* LaserDisc (1978)
* WORM (1979)
* GD-ROM (1997)
* MIL-CD (1999)
* DataPlay (2002)
* UDO (2003)
* ProData (2003)
* UMD (2004)
* HD DVD (2006)

Magneto-optic Kerr effect (1877)|

* MO disc (1980s)
* MiniDisc (1992)
* MD Data (1993)
* Hi-MD (2004)

Optical Assist|

* Laser turntable (1986)
* Floptical (1991)
* Super DLT (1998)

* v
* t
* e

Paper data storage media

Antiquity|

* Writing on papyrus (c. 3000 BCE)
* Paper (105 CE)

Modern|

* Index card (1640s)
* Punched tape (mid-1800s)
* Punched card (1880s)
* Edge-notched card (1904)
* Optical mark recognition (1930s)
* Barcode (1948)

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
* NARA

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