Pashto phonology

Phonology of the Pashto language

This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Amongst the Iranian languages, the phonology of Pashto is of middle complexity,[quantify] but its morphology is very complex.[1]

## Consonants

[edit]

Consonant phonemes of Pashto[2] | Labial | Dental/
alveolar | Post-
alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Nasal |  | m |  | n |  |  |  | ɳ |  |  |  | ŋ |  |  |  |
Plosive | p | b | t | d |  |  | ʈ | ɖ |  |  | k | ɡ | (q)  |  |  |
Affricate |  |  | t͡s | d͡z | t͡ʃ | d͡ʒ |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Fricative | (f)  |  | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | ʂ | ʐ | x | ɣ |  |  | h |
Approximant |  |  |  | l |  |  | ɽ |  | j |  | w |  |  |  |
Rhotic |  |  |  | r |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

Retroflex Sounds in Pashto

ʐ - ږ [South Western Dialect]

غوږ

[ɣwaʐ] Ear

(Noun, Masculine, Singular, Direct Case)

* * *

ʂ - ښ [South Western Dialect]

ښکارېدۀ

[ʂkɑ.rɵ.ˈdə] was Visible

(Verb, 3rd Person, Singular, Masculine, Past Imperfective)

* * *

ɳ - ڼ

اتڼ

[a.ˈtaɳ] a Type of Dance

(Noun, Masculine, Singular, Direct Case)

* * *

ɽ - ړ

لړه

[ˈla.ɽa] Fog

(Noun, Feminine, Singular, Direct Case)

* * *

ɖ - ډ

ګاډی

[ˈɡɑ.ɖaɪ] Car, Vehicle

(Noun, Masculine, Singular, Direct Case)

* * *

ʈ - ټ

ګټه

[ˈɡa.ʈa] a Rock; Profit, Benefit

(Noun, Feminine, Singular, Direct Case)

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

Dental-Alveolar Affricates in Pashto

څ and ځ

t͡s and d͡z

* * *

څه [what]

/t͡sə/

* * *

منځ [middle]

/mand͡z/

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

The phonemes /q/, /f/ are only found in loanwords, and tend to be replaced by /k/, /p/ respectively. Some educated speakers may also have /ʔ, ʕ, ħ/ in Arabic loanwords.

* Voiceless stops and affricates /p, t, ʈ, t͡s, t͡ʃ, k/ are all unaspirated; they have slightly aspirated allophones prevocalically in a stressed syllable, almost like English.
* /ʂ, ʐ/ are heard as palatal fricatives [ç, ʝ] [3] in the Northwestern dialect.[4]
* /ɽ/ is a voiced retroflex flap most of the time, but tends to be a lateral flap [𝼈] at the beginning of a syllable or other prosodic unit, and a regular flap or approximant [ɻ] elsewhere.[5][6]

### Dialects

[edit]

See also: Pashto dialects

ښ in dialects

/x/ followed by /ç/ followed by /ʂ/ followed by /ʃ/

* * *

Example: ښار [city]

/xɑr/ followed by /çɑr/ followed by /ʂɑr/ followed by /ʃɑr/

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

ږ in dialects

/g/ followed by /ʝ/ followed by /ʐ/ followed by /ʒ/

* * *

Example: کېږي [to do - 3:SG:PRS:CONT]

/kegi/ followed by /keʝi/ followed by /keʐi/ followed by /keʒi/

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

Dialectal allophones represented by ښ and ږ. The retroflex variants [ʂ, ʐ] are used in the Southwest dialects whereas the post-alveolar variants [ʃ, ʒ] are used in Southeast Dialects. The palatal variants [ç, ʝ] are used in the Wardak and Central Ghilji dialects. In the North Eastern dialects ښ and ږ merge with the velar [x, g].

The dropping of /h/ in dialects

General

/ha.ˈlək/

* * *

Yusupazi

/a.ˈlək/

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

## Phonotactics

[edit]

Pashto syllable structure can be summarized as follows; parentheses enclose optional components:

* (C1 C2 (C3)) (S1) V (S2) (C4 (C5))

Pashto syllable structure consists of an optional syllable onset, consisting of one or two consonants; an obligatory syllable nucleus, consisting of a vowel optionally preceded by and/or followed by a semivowel; and an optional syllable coda, consisting of one or two consonants. The following restrictions apply:

* Onset
* First consonant (C1): Can be any consonant, including a liquid (/l, r/).
* Second consonant (C2): Can be any consonant.
* Third consonant (C3 ): Can be any consonant. (see #Consonant Clusters below)
* Nucleus
* Semivowel (S1)
* Vowel (V)
* Semivowel (S2)
* Coda
* First consonant (C4): Can be any consonant
* Second consonant (C5): Can be any consonant

### Consonant clusters

[edit]

Pashto has a lot of word-initial consonant clusters in all dialects; some hundred such clusters occurs. However, there is no consonant gemination.[7]

Consonant Clusters Examples

/ʂk/

ښکنځل

[to abuse]

/ʂkan.ˈd͡zəl/

* * *

/ʒb/

ژباړل

[to translate]

/ʒbɑ.ˈɽəl/

* * *

/zd/

زده

[learned]

/zda/

* * *

/ŋɡ/

ننګ

[honor]

/naŋɡ/

* * *

/lm/

لمونځ

[prayer]

/lmund͡z/

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

| Examples

|

Two Consonant Clusters | /tl/, /kl/, /bl/, /ɣl/, /lm/, /nm/, /lw/, /sw/, /br/, /tr/, /ɣr/, /pr/, /dr/, /wr/, /kɽ/, /mɽ/, /wɽ/ /xp/, /pʃ/, /pʂ/, /xr/, /zb/, /zɽ/, /ʒb/, /d͡zm/, /md͡z/, /t͡sk/, /sk/, /sp/, /ʃp/, /ʂk/, /xk/, /ʃk/, /kʃ/, /kx/, /kʂ/, /ml/, /gr/, /gm/ and /ʐm/ etc.
Three Consonant Clusters | /sxw/, /xwɽ/, /xwl/, /nɣw/ etc.

### Examples

[edit]

An edited[note 1] list from the book Pashto Phonology by M.K. Khan:[8]

| IPA  | Meaning  |

|
|
|

V  | /o/  | was [dialect]  | و
VC  | /as/  | horse  | اس
VCC  | /art/  | loose  | ارت
CV  | /tə/  | you  | ته
CVC  | /ɖer/  | many, very  | ډېر
CVCC  | /luŋd/  | wet  | لوند
CCV  | /mlɑ/  | back  | ملا
CCVC  | /klak/  | hard  | کلک
CCVCC  | /ʒwəŋd/  | life  | ژوند
CCCV  | /xwlə/  | mouth  | خوله
CCCVC  | /ŋdror/  | sister-in-law  | ندرور
CCCVCC  | /ʃxwand/  | chewing of food  | شخوند

## Vowels

[edit]

Most dialects in Pashto have seven vowels and seven diphthongs.[9]

| Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

Close | i |  | u
Mid | e | ə | o
Open | a |  | ɑ

* Tegey & Robson (1996) also include near-close vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/.[10]

### Prehistory

[edit]

There are many complexities on the development from Proto-Iranian into the modern Pashto vowel inventory (romanization will be used here):[11]

* *a > ā /ɑ/ in a stressed closed syllable (lā́s < *jásta- "hand")
* ā > o before w (owə́ < *haftá) or if there is u or w in the next syllable (pox < *paxwá-); sometimes also in adjectives (corb < *čarpá)

## Diphthongs

[edit]

| Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

Close |  |  | uɪ
Mid |  | əɪ | oɪ
Open | aɪ, aw |  | ɑi, ɑw

Elfenbein notes that the long diphthongs [ɑi, ɑw] are always stressed, whilst the short diphthongs may or may not be stressed.[12]

Diphthongs

ی - aɪ

ښوونځی

[xo.wən.ˈzaɪ]

school

* * *

ۍ - əɪ

سيلۍ

[si.ˈləɪ]

wind

* * *

او - aw

[aw]

and

* * *

ای - ɑɪ

چای

[t͡ʃɑɪ]

tea

* * *

او- ɑw

نياو

[njɑw]

justice

* * *

وی - oɪ

لوی

[loɪ]

big

* * *

وی - uɪ

دوی

[duɪ]

they

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

### Orthography of diphthongs

[edit]

| Initial | Medial | Final

|
|
|

aɪ | ای | َيـ | َی
əɪ |  |  | ۍ and ئ
oɪ | اوی | ويـ | وی
uɪ | اوی | ويـ | وی
aw | او | َو | َو
ɑi | آي | اي | ای
ɑw | آو | او | او

## Stress

[edit]

Pashto has phonemic variable stress,[13] unique amongst Iranian languages.[7]

For instance, in verbs to distinguish aspect:

Verb - Imperfective

(mostly Final Stress)

| Meaning  | Verb - Perfective

(Initial Stress)

| Meaning

|
|
|

kenɑstə́ləm  | I was sitting  | kénɑstələm  | I sat down
kenɑstə́m  | I was sitting  | kénɑstəm  | I sat down
ba kenə́m  | I shall be sitting  | ba kénəm  | I shall sit

کښېناستم - Stress to Distinguish Aspect

First pronunciation: imperfective aspect with final stress [ә́m], Second pronunciation: perfective aspect with initial stress on prefix [ké]

* * *

Problems playing this file? See media help.

### Basic word stress

[edit]

Stress is indicated by the IPA stress marker [ˈ].

In general, the last syllable is stressed if the word ends in a consonant and the penultimate syllable is stressed if the last syllable ends in a vowel.[14] !

Example  | IPA  | Meaning

|
|

رنځور  | /ran.ˈd͡zur/  | sick [adj. masc.]
رنځوره  | /ran.ˈd͡zur.a/  | sick [adj. fem.]
کورونه  | /ko.ˈru.na/  | houses [noun. masc. plural]
ښځو  | /ˈʂə.d͡zo/  | women [noun. fem. plural. oblique.]
لاندې  | /ˈlɑn.de/  | below [adverb, circumposition]

#### Masculine Words ending in "ə"

[edit]

These have final stress generally.[15]

Example  | IPA  | Meaning

|
|

تېره  | /te.ˈrə/  | sharp [adjective]
لېوه  | /le.ˈwə/  | wolf [noun]

#### Feminine Words ending in "o"

[edit]

These end in a stress /o/.[16][17]

Example  | IPA  | Meaning

|
|

بيزو  | /bi.ˈzo/  | monkey
پيشو  | /pi.ˈʃo/  | cat
ورشو  | /war.ˈʃo/  | meadow, pasture

#### Wordings ending in Aleph

[edit]

Words ending in IPA /ɑ/ i.e. ا are stressed in the last syllable.

Example  | IPA  | Meaning

|
|

اشنا  | /aʃ.ˈnɑ/  | familiar [masc. noun]
رڼا  | /ra.ˈɳɑ/  | light [fem. noun]

### Exceptions

[edit]

Pronunciation: jóṛa [well], joṛá [pair]; áspa [mare], aspá [spotted fever]

Recording of a native speaker demonstrating the differences in words caused by stress

* * *

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Word meanings also change upon stress.

Word  | IPA: following general stress pattern [penultimate syllable]  | Meaning 1  | IPA: following exception stress pattern  | Meaning 2

|
|
|
|

جوړه  | /ˈd͡ʒo.ɽa/  | well  | /d͡ʒo.ˈɽa/  | pair
اسپه  | /ˈas.pa/  | horse [mare]  | /as.ˈpa/  | spotted fever

## Intonation

[edit]

### Questions

[edit]

Pashto Intonation Examples

Question formed by using Interrogative Words

Where do you work ? - hat pattern intonation

* * *

Question formed by use of Intonation

They reap the wheat ? - rising intonation

* * *

Contrastive Focus Statement

No, I am younger than him - Low-High-Low

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

WH-Questions [who, where, when etc] follow a hat pattern of intonation: a rise in pitch followed by a fall in pitch.[18]

تاسو چېرته کار کوئ
[ tā́so ↗čérta kār kawə́ɪ↘ ]

Yes/No-Questions end in a high intonation: a rise in pitch.

غنم يې ورېبل ؟
[ ğanə́m ye wә́rebəl↗ ]

### Contrastive focus

[edit]

When a word is contrasted with another word it carries a low then high pitch accent, followed by a sharp fall in pitch accent.

نه له د نه کشر يم
[ na↘ lə ↗də nə kə́shər yə́m↘ ]

## Dialectal phonology

[edit]

### Consonants

[edit]

This diagram is based on Anna Boyle's division of the dialect variations on geographic regions:[19]

Dialect  | ښ | ږ | څ | ځ | ژ

|
|
|
|
|

South Western Dialects e.g. Kandahar, Herat etc.  | ʂ | ʐ | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ
South Eastern Dialects e.g. Kasai Tribe, Quetta Region etc.  | ʃ | ʒ | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ
Middle Dialects \- Waziri and Dzadrani  | ɕ in Waziri
ç in Dzadrani  | ʑ in Waziri
ʝ in Dzadrani  | t͡s | d͡z | ʒ
North Western Dialects e.g. Wardak, Central Ghilzai [20] | ç | ʝ | s | z | ʒ and z
North Eastern Dialects e.g. Yusapzai, Peshawar dialect etc.  | x | ɡ | s | z | d͡ʒ

#### Regional Variation

[edit]

This diagram however does not factor in the regional variations within the broad geographic areas. Compare the following consonant and vowel differences amongst regions categorised as Northern dialects:[20]

ښه يمه - in Northern Dialects

North Western

/çə ˈjə.ma/

* * *

North Eastern

/xə ˈjə.ma/

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

|  | Northern Dialects

|
|

| Meaning  | Wardak | Jalalabad | Bati Kot
دوی  | they  | deɪ  | ˈduwi  | ˈduwi
راکړه  | give [imperative of راکول]  | ˈrɑ.ka  | ˈrɑ.ka  | ˈrɑ.kɽa
پوهېدل  | to know [infinitive]  | pi.je.ˈdəl  | po.je.ˈdəl  | po.ji.ˈdəl
شپږ  | six  | ʃpaʝ  | ʃpag  | ʃpiʒ
وريځ  | cloud  | wər.ˈjed͡z  | wrez  | wə.ˈred͡z
ښځه  | woman  | ˈçə.d͡za  | ˈxə.za |
اوبه  | water  | o.ˈbə  | u.ˈbə  | o.ˈbə

Or the difference in vowels and diphthongs in North Eastern Pashto:

| Meaning  | Swat | Peshawar

|
|
|

ودرېږه  | stop [imperative of درېدل]  | 'wə.dre.ga  | ˈo.dre.ga
جنۍ  | girl  | d͡ʒi.ˈnəɪ  | d͡ʒi.ˈnɛ

#### Alveolo-palatal fricative

[edit]

Rozi Khan Burki claims that the Ormuri alveolo-palatal fricative /ɕ/ and /ʑ/ may also be present in Waziri.[21] But Pashto linguists such as Josef Elfenbein, Anna Boyle or Yousaf Khan Jazab have not noted this in Waziri Phonology.[22][23][24]

### Vowels

[edit]

#### Waziri vowels

[edit]

Waziri Vowels

/ˈpœr.ta/

* * *

/də.ˈpɔː.ra/

* * *

/bjɒː/

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

| Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

Unrounded | Rounded
Close | i |  |  | u
Mid | ɛ | ə | œ | ɔ
Near-Open | æ |  |  |
Open | a |  |  | ɒ

##### The Vowel Shift

[edit]

Corey Miller notes that the shift does not affect all words.[25]

In Waziri dialect the [ɑ] in Standard Pashto becomes [ɔː] in Northern Waziri and [ɒː] in Southern Waziri.[26]

| Meaning | Standard Pashto | N.Wazirwola | S. Wazirwola

|
|
|
|

ماسته  | yougurt | /mɑs.ˈtə/ | /mɔːs.ˈtə/ | /mɒːs.ˈtə/
پاڼه  | leaf | /pɑ.ˈɳa/  | /ˈpɔː.ɳjɛː/  | /ˈpɒː.ɳjɛː/

In Waziri dialect the stressed [o] in Standard Pashto becomes [œː] and [ɛː]. The [o] in Standard Pashto may also become [jɛ] or [wɛː]. [26]

| Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola

|
|
|

لور  | sickle | /lor/ | /lœːr/
وړه  | flour | /o.ˈɽə/  | /ɛː.ˈɽə/
اوږه  | shoulder  | /o.ˈɡa/  | /jɛ.ˈʒa/
اوس  | now  | /os/  | /wɛːs/

In Waziri dialect the stressed [u] in standard Pashto becomes [iː]. [27]

| Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola

|
|
|

موږ  | we | /muɡ/ | /miːʒ/
نوم  | navel | /num/  | /niːm/

When [u] in begins a word in standard Pashto can become [jiː] or [w[ɛ]]

| Meaning | Standard Pashto | Wazirwola

|
|
|

اوم  | raw | /um/ | /jiːm/
اوږه  | garlic | /ˈu.ɡa/  | /ˈjiː.ʒa/
اوده  | asleep  | /u.ˈdə/  | /wɜ.ˈdə/

Elfenbein also notes the presence of the near-open vowel [æ].[28]

#### Apridi vowels

[edit]

Apridi Vowel

/ˈpɵr.ta/

* * *

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Apridi has the additional close-mid central rounded vowel /ɵ/.[29]

#### Diphthongs in dialects

[edit]

The diphthongs varies according to dialect.[30]

Standard Pronunciation | Apridi | Yusupzai[31] | Waziri | Mohmand | Baniswola/Bannuchi[32] | Wanetsi

|
|
|
|
|
|

aɪ | ʌɪ
ʌː | e | aɪ |  | ɑ | a
ˈaɪ | ˈaɪ | ˈe |  | æɪ | ˈɑːi | ˈa
ˈəɪ | ˈije | ˈəɪ | ˈəɪ

ˈe[33]

|  | ˈije | ˈi
oɪ | waɪ | we | oːi
œːi |  | eːi |
uɪ |  | ui, wi | ˈojə |  | i |
aw |  | ao |  |  | ow, aːw |
ɑi |  | ɑe |  |  | ˈɑːi |
ɑw |  | ɑo |  |  | oːw |

Yousaf Khan Jazab notes that the diphthong /əɪ/ becomes /oi/ in the Khattak Dialect in the verbal suffix /ئ/,[34] but it remains as the diphthong /əɪ/ in the nominal/adjectival /ۍ/ example: مړۍ /ma.ˈɽəɪ/ "meal".[35]

### Nasalisation of vowels

[edit]

Nasalisation in Marwat Dialect

Egg - Marwat [Nasalised]

/ãŋɡ.ˈəɪ/

* * *

Egg - Yusapzai [Not nasalised]

/ha.ˈɡəɪ/

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

See also: Wanetsi § Nasalisation

As noted by Yousaf Khan Jazab, the Marwat dialect and the Bansiwola dialect have nasalised vowels also.[36] It is also noted in the Waṇetsi/Tarin dialect.

These are indicated by the diactric mark / ̃ /.

Standard Pronunciation | Marwat  |  | Meaning

|
|
|

بوی

buɪ

| بویں
buĩ |  | Smell

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ With some corrected IPA for words mentioned therein . Sources of correction: Kaye (1997), Zeeya Pashtoon (2009) and Qamosona.com

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 736.
2. ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 15.
3. ^ David (2014), p. 9.
4. ^ David (2014), p. 35.
5. ^ D.N. MacKenzie, 1990, "Pashto", in Bernard Comrie, ed, The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa, p. 103
6. ^ Herbert Penzl, 1965, A reader of Pashto, p 7
7. ^ a b Elfenbein (1997), p. 737.
8. ^ Khan, Muhammad Kamal (2020-04-08). Pashto Phonology: An Evaluation of the Relationship between Syllable Structure and Word Order. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 56–57\. ISBN 978-1-5275-4925-8.56-57&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2020-04-08&rft.isbn=978-1-5275-4925-8&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Kamal&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=GEfhDwAAQBAJ&q;=pashto&pg;=PA18&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Pashto+phonology" class="Z3988">
9. ^ David (2014), p. 11.
10. ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 17.
11. ^ Cheung, Johnny (2011). "Selected Pashto Problems II. Historical Phonology 1: On Vocalism and Etyma". Iran and the Caucasus. 15 (1–2): 169–205\. doi:10.1163/157338411X12870596615557.1–2&rft.pages=169-205&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/157338411X12870596615557&rft.aulast=Cheung&rft.aufirst=Johnny&rft_id=https://www.academia.edu/6502465&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Pashto+phonology" class="Z3988">
12. ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 751.
13. ^ Bečka, Jiří (1969). A Study in Pashto Stress. Academia.
14. ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 25.
15. ^ David, Anne Boyle (2015-06-16). Descriptive Grammar of Bangla (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 56 and 109. ISBN 978-1-5015-0083-1.
16. ^ Tegey & Robson (1996), p. 56.
17. ^ David (2014), p. 68.
18. ^ "Pashto Intonation Patterns". Interspeech 2017.
19. ^ David (2014), pp. 31–34.
20. ^ a b Coyle 2014.
21. ^ "Dying Languages: Special Focus on Ormuri". Pakistan Journal of Public Administration. 6. No. 2. December 2001. Archived from the original on September 3, 2012.
22. ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740–749.
23. ^ David (2014), pp. 37–40.
24. ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 69–70.
25. ^ Miller, Corey (2014-05-12). "The Waziri Chain Shift". Journal of Persianate Studies. 7 (1): 125. doi:10.1163/18747167-12341267. ISSN 1874-7167.
26. ^ a b Elfenbein (1997), p. 748.
27. ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 749.
28. ^ Elfenbein (1997), p. 746.
29. ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 740, 750–751.
30. ^ Elfenbein (1997), pp. 751–753.
31. ^ Rensch, Calvin Ross (1992). Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan: Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri. National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University. pp. 79–146.79-146&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Pakistan+Studies,+Quaid-i-Azam+University&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Rensch&rft.aufirst=Calvin+Ross&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=IR1iAAAAMAAJ&q;=sociolinguistic+survey+of+northern+pakistan&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Pashto+phonology" class="Z3988">
32. ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 64–65.
33. ^ Jazab (2020), p. 189.
34. ^ Jazab (2020), pp. 187–188.
35. ^ Jazab (2017), p. 65.
36. ^ Jazab (2017), pp. 60–61.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Coyle, Dennis (2014-01-01). Placing Wardak Among Pashto Varieties (MA). University of North Dakota.
* David, Anne Boyle (2014). Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and Its Dialects. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-1-61451-303-2.
* Elfenbein, Josef (1997). "Pashto Phonology". In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.). Phonologies of Asia and Africa: Including the Caucasus. Eisenbrauns. pp. 733–760\. ISBN 978-1-57506-019-4.733-760&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-019-4&rft.aulast=Elfenbein&rft.aufirst=Josef&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6jmziooEk0C&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Pashto+phonology" class="Z3988">
* Jazab, Yousaf Khan (2017). An Ethno-Linguistic Study of the Karlanri Varieties of Pashto. Pashto Academy, University of Peshawar. pp. 69–70\. ISBN 9789694181004. OCLC 1001287442.69-70&rft.pub=Pashto+Academy,+University+of+Peshawar&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info:oclcnum/1001287442&rft.isbn=9789694181004&rft.aulast=Jazab&rft.aufirst=Yousaf+Khan&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Pashto+phonology" class="Z3988">
* Jazab, Yousaf Khan (2020-09-19). "A Diphthong Related Issue in Pashto Script and Its Solution". Pashto. 49 (659). ISSN 0555-8158.
* Tegey, Habibullah; Robson, Barbara (1996). A Reference Grammar of Pashto (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.

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