Persecution of Uyghurs in China

"Xinjiang genocide" redirects here. For the 1750s genocide that also occurred in Xinjiang, see Dzungar genocide.

Persecution of Uyghurs in China

Part of the Xinjiang conflict

Detainees listening to speeches in a camp in Lop County, Xinjiang, April 2017

Xinjiang, highlighted red, shown within China

Location| Xinjiang, China
Date| 2014–present
Target| Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and other Turkic Muslims

Attack type

| Internment, forced abortion, forced sterilization, forced birth control, forced labor, torture, indoctrination, alleged rape (including gang rape)
Victims| est. ≥1 million detained
Perpetrator| Government of the People's Republic of China
Motive| Counterterrorism (official)
Sinicization, Islamophobia,[1] and suppression of political dissent
Part of a series on

Discrimination

Forms

* Institutional
* Reverse
* Structural
* Statistical
* Systemic
* Taste-based

Attributes

* Age
* Caste
* Class
* Disability
* Economic
* Genetic
* Hair texture
* Height
* Language
* Dialect
* Looks
* Mental disorder
* Nationality or citizenship
* Race / Ethnicity
* Reverse
* Skin color
* Scientific racism
* Rank
* Sex
* Reverse
* Sexual orientation
* Species
* Size
* Viewpoint

Social

* Arophobia
* Anti-albinism
* Acephobia
* Adultism
* Anti-altruistic
* Anti-autism
* Anti-homelessness
* Anti-drug addicts
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-intersex
* Anti-left handedness
* Anti-Masonry
* Aporophobia
* Audism
* Biphobia
* Clannism
* Elitism
* Ephebiphobia
* Health
* mental
* in poverty
* Fatphobia
* Gayphobia
* Gerontophobia
* Heterosexism
* HIV/AIDS stigma
* Hypergamy
* Homophobia
* In-group
* Leprosy stigma
* Lesbophobia
* Against men
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Misogynoir
* Nepotism
* Outgroup
* Perpetual foreigner
* Pregnancy
* Sectarianism
* Supremacism
* Aryanism
* Black
* Hutu
* Chauvinism
* Han
* Female
* Human
* Nordicism
* Male
* Ultranationalism
* White
* Transphobia
* Non-binary
* Transmisogyny
* Trans men
* Vegaphobia
* Xenophobia

Religious

* Religious exemption
* Persecution of non-believers
* Atheism
* Blasphemy law
* Religious censorship
* In Islam
* Apostasy
* Religious police
* Jizya
* Religious persecution
* In China
* Exclusivism

* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Persecution
* Catholicism
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Coptic Christianity
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* LDS or Mormon
* Protestantism
* Tewahedo Orthodoxy
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Ahmadiyya
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Sunnism
* minority Muslim
* Judaism
* Persecution
* Neopaganism
* Rastafari
* Serers
* Sikhism
* Yazidism
* Zoroastrianism

Race or ethnicity

* Afghan
* Pashtun
* Hazara
* African
* Fulani
* Igbo
* Serers
* Albanian
* Arab
* Armenian
* Asian
* France
* South Africa
* United States
* Assyrian
* Austrian
* Azerbaijani
* Black people
* African Americans
* China
* South Africa
* Bengali
* Catalan
* Chechen
* Chinese
* Han people
* Colombian
* Croat
* Dutch
* English
* Estonian
* Filipino
* French
* Finnish
* Georgian
* German
* Greek
* Haitian
* Hazara
* Hungarian
* Indian
* Indonesian
* Indigenous people
* Australia
* Canada
* United States
* Iranian
* Irish
* Italian
* Japanese
* Jewish
* Eliminationist
* New
* Religious
* Anti-Yiddish
* Zionist
* Korean
* Kurdish
* Lithuanian
* Malay
* Māori
* Mexican
* Middle Eastern
* Mongolian
* Montenegrin
* Nigerian
* Pakistani
* Palestinians
* Pashtun
* Polish
* Portuguese
* Quebec
* Romani
* Romanian
* Russian
* Scottish
* Serb
* Slavic
* Somali
* Spanish
* Taiwanese
* Tatar
* Thai
* Tibetan
* Turkish
* Ukrainian
* Uyghur
* Venezuelan
* Vietnamese
* Welsh
* White people

Manifestations

* Algorithmic bias
* Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric
* SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups
* Blood libel
* Bullying
* Cancel culture
* Capital punishment for homosexuality
* Carnism
* Compulsory sterilization
* Corrective rape
* Counter-jihad
* Cultural genocide
* Defamation
* Democide
* Dog whistle
* Domicide
* Economic
* Education
* Academic
* In curricula
* Sexism
* Eliminationism
* Eliminationist antisemitism
* Employment
* Enemy of the people
* Environmental racism
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnocide
* Excellence
* Gender-based dress codes
* Cosmetics policy
* High heel policy
* Forced conversion
* Freak show
* Gay bashing
* Gendercide
* Transgender genocide
* Genital modification and mutilation
* Circumcision
* Female genital mutilation
* Intersex medical interventions
* Genocide
* examples
* Glass ceiling
* Hate crime
* Disability hate crime
* Violence against LGBTQ people
* Violence against transgender people
* Hate group
* Hate speech
* Institutional discrimination
* Institutional racism
* Homeless dumping
* Housing
* Hypergamy
* Age disparity
* Indian rolling
* International inequality
* Kill Haole Day
* Lavender scare
* LGBTQ+
* grooming conspiracy theory
* Linguicide
* Lynching
* Media bias
* Minority stress
* Moral exclusion
* Mortgage
* Native American mascots
* Braves
* Blackhawks
* Chiefs
* Occupational
* Apartheid
* Inequality
* Injustice
* Segregation
* Opposition to immigration
* Paper genocide
* Persecution
* Pogrom
* Political
* Political repression
* Ideological repression
* Purge
* Racialization
* Religious persecution
* Religious terrorism
* Religious violence
* Religious war
* Scapegoating
* Selective enforcement
* Selective prosecution
* Sentencing disparity
* Sexual harassment
* Sex-selective abortion
* Slut-shaming
* Structural abuse
* Structural discrimination
* Structural evil
* Structural inequality
* Structural violence
* Untermensch
* Trans bashing
* Victimisation
* Violence against women
* White flight
* White genocide conspiracy theory
* Wife selling
* Witch hunt

Policies

* Algorithmic wage discrimination
* Age of candidacy
* Apartheid
* in South Africa
* in Israel
* Blood purity
* Blood quantum
* Breadwinner model
* Conscription and sexism
* Disabilities
* Catholic
* Jewish
* Disparate impact
* Fagging
* Gender pay gap
* Gender roles
* Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act
* Gerontocracy
* Gerrymandering
* Ghetto benches
* Internment
* Jewish quota
* Opposition to LGBTQ rights
* MSM blood donation restrictions
* No kid zone
* Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
* One-drop rule
* Racial quota
* Racial steering
* Redlining
* Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
* Segregation
* age
* racial
* Jim Crow laws
* Nuremberg Laws
* Segregation academy
* religious
* sexual
* in Islam
* Social exclusion
* Sodomy law
* State atheism
* State religion
* Ugly law
* Voter suppression
* White Australia policy

Countermeasures

* Affirmative action
* Anti-discrimination law
* Anti-racism
* Audit study
* Autism rights movement
* Gender-blind
* Blind audition
* Constitutional colorblindness
* Cross-sex friendship
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural pluralism
* Diversity, equity, and inclusion
* Diversity training
* Empowerment
* Fat acceptance movement
* Feminism
* Fighting Discrimination
* Golden Rule
* Hate speech laws by country
* Human rights
* Intersex human rights
* Korenizatsiia
* LGBTQ rights
* Mad pride
* Music in the movement against apartheid
* Racial integration
* Reappropriation
* Rock Against Sexism
* Self-determination
* Social integration
* Stop Murder Music
* Toleration
* Transgender rights movement
* Universal suffrage
* Women's rights

Related topics

* Allophilia
* Amatonormativity
* Bias
* Capital punishment for homosexuality
* Cisnormativity
* Civil liberties
* Criminalization of homosexuality
* Dehumanization
* Diseases of despair
* Ethnic penalty
* Figleaf
* Heteronormativity
* Historical eugenics
* Internalized oppression
* Intersectionality
* Masculism
* Oikophobia
* Oppression
* Police brutality
* Polyculturalism
* Power distance
* Prejudice
* Prisoner abuse
* Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
* Racism by country
* Racial color blindness
* Religious intolerance
* Second-generation gender bias
* Snobbery
* Social equity
* Social exclusion
* Social model of disability
* Social privilege
* Christian
* male
* white
* Social stigma
* Speciesism
* Stereotype
* The talk

* v
* t
* e

History of the People's Republic of China

1949–1976: Mao era

* Revolution
* Land Reform Movement
* Proclamation
* Korean War
* Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries
* Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
* First five-year plan
* Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
* Bandung Conference
* Sufan movement
* Hundred Flowers Campaign
* Anti-Rightist Campaign
* Canton Fair

* * *

* Great Leap Forward
* Great Chinese Famine
* Anti-Right Deviation Struggle
* Two Bombs, One Satellite
* Seven Thousand Cadres Conference
* Socialist Education Movement
* Third Front
* Cultural Revolution
* Abolition of the presidency
* UN representation
* Richard Nixon visit

1976–1989: Hua & Deng era

* Gang of Four
* Boluan Fanzheng
* 1978 Truth Criterion Controversy
* New Enlightenment
* Reform and opening up
* Special economic zones
* China–United States relations
* Three Communiqués
* Four Modernizations
* Sino-Vietnamese War
* Beijing Spring

* * *

* Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign
* Sino-British Joint Declaration
* Campaign against spiritual pollution
* Bourgeois liberalization
* Opposition
* 863 Program
* 1986 Chinese student demonstrations
* Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration
* 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre

1989–2002: Jiang era

* Shanghai Stock Exchange
* Pudong New District
* Deng's southern tour
* 1992 consensus
* One country, two systems
* Handover of Hong Kong
* Handover of Macau
* 1998 floods
* US bombing of the Belgrade embassy
* Persecution of Falun Gong

* * *

* China Western Development
* Hainan Island incident
* APEC China 2001
* Accession to the WTO
* Forum on China–Africa Cooperation
* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

2002–2012: Hu era

* 2002–2004 SARS outbreak
* Shenzhou 5
* Visit of Lien Chan
* South–North Water Transfer Project
* Qinghai–Tibet railway
* 2008 Sichuan earthquake
* Three Links with Taiwan
* 2008 Summer Olympics
* Expo 2010
* BRICS
* Three Gorges Dam
* West–East Gas Pipeline
* High-speed rail

2012–present: Xi era

* Anti-corruption campaign
* Chang'e 3
* Supercomputing
* Meeting with Ma Ying-Jeou
* Xiong'an
* Persecution of Uyghurs
* Xinjiang internment camps
* China–United States trade war
* Tiangong space station
* 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests
* 2020 Hong Kong national security law
* COVID-19 pandemic
* Zero-COVID
* 2020–2021 reform spree
* 2022 Winter Olympics
* 2022 COVID-19 protests in China
* Artificial Intelligence Cold War

* * *

* Belt and Road Initiative
* APEC China 2014
* 2016 G20 Hangzhou summit
* 9th BRICS summit
* China International Import Expo

* Constitution
* Beijing
* Shanghai

* Culture
* Economy
* Education
* Geography
* Politics

China portal

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on the

History of Xinjiang

Prehistoric and ancient period

* Afanasievo culture
* Tarim mummies (Xiaohe Cemetery)
* Yanbulaq culture
* Subeshi culture
* Tocharians
* Shirenzigou culture
* Kingdom of Khotan
* Yuezhi
* Wusun
* Xiongnu
* Shule Kingdom
* Loulan Kingdom
* Kucha
* Karasahr
* Jushi Kingdom
* Shanshan
* Western Regions
* (Han Protectorate; Chief Officials)
* Former Liang
* Former Qin
* Later Liang
* Western Liang
* Gaochang
* Rouran
* First Turkic Khaganate
* Western Turkic Khaganate
* Eastern Turkic Khaganate
* Second Turkic Khaganate

Medieval and early modern period

* Tang Protectorates (West; Beiting)
* Tibetan Empire
* Uyghur Khaganate
* Kara-Khanid Khanate
* Kingdom of Qocho
* Qara Khitai
* Mongol Empire (Yuan; Chagatai Khanate)
* Moghulistan (Turpan; Yarkent)
* Ming ruled Kara Del
* Dzungar Khanate
* Kumul Khanate
* Yettishar
* Qing rule
* (Dzungar genocide
* Dungan Revolt
* Qing reconquest)

Modern period

* Xinjiang Province, Republic of China
* (Xinjiang clique
* 1st East Turkestan Republic
* 2nd East Turkestan Republic)
* Xinjiang Province, People's Republic of China
* Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region
* (Production and Construction Corps
* Xinjiang conflict
* Xinjiang internment camps / Persecution of Uyghurs in China)

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on

Uyghurs

* Timeline
* History
* Xinjiang
* East Turkestan
* Flag
* Nationalism
* Literature
* List of Uyghurs

Uyghur language

* Alphabets
* Dialects
* Arabic alphabet
* Cyrillic alphabet
* Latin alphabet
* Grammar
* New Script
* Phonology

Uyghur culture

* Dervishi
* Doppa Cultural Festival
* Etles silk
* The Girl from Dabancheng
* Lift Your Veil
* Meshrep
* Muqam
* Qurtulush Yolida
* Tianshan Snow Lotus Group
* Uyghurlar

Uyghur cuisine

* Chorba
* Cut cake
* Dapanji
* Joshpara
* Laghman
* Manti
* Naan
* Samsa
* Sangza
* Tandyr nan
* Youtazi

Persecution of Uyghurs in China

* China Cables
* Civil Servant-Family Pair Up
* Concerns and controversies at the 2022 Winter Olympics
* Strike Hard Campaign
* Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act
* Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act
* Uyghur Tribunal
* Xinjiang internment camps

Uyghurs outside of Xinjiang

* Beijing
* Kazakhstan
* Kyrgyzstan
* Pakistan
* Turkey
* United States

Uyghur organizations

* East Turkistan Government in Exile
* East Turkistan National Awakening Movement
* Uyghur American Association
* Uyghur Human Rights Project
* World Uyghur Congress

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on
Islam in China

History

|  By dynasty

* Tang
* Song
* Yuan
* Ming
* Qing

Rebellions and revolts

* Jahriyya revolt
* Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873)
* First Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
* Second Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
* Afaqi Khoja revolts

Post-dynastic China

* 1912–present
* Second Sino-Japanese War
* Concerns and controversies at the 2022 Winter Olympics
* Islamophobia
* Migration to Xinjiang
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China
* Xinjiang internment camps

Major figures

* Afaq Khoja
* Du Wenxiu
* Hu Dahai
* Hu Songshan
* Kasim Tuet
* Liu Zhi
* Ma Anliang
* Ma Bufang
* Ma Buqing
* Ma Fuxiang
* Ma Gui
* Ma Hualong
* Ma Laichi
* Ma Mingxin
* Ma Qixi
* Ma Wanfu
* Ma Yize
* Ma Zhu
* Shams al-Din
* Su fei-erh
* Yeheidie'erding
* Yusuf Ma Dexin
* Wang Daiyu
* Zhang Chengzhi
* Zheng He

Culture

* Architecture
* Cuisine (Uyghur)
* Han Kitab
* Mosques
* Shrines
* Sini script
* Sufi orders
* Uyghurs
* Uyghur Arabic
* Xiao'erjing

* Islamic Association of China

* Cities
* Regions

* Hong Kong
* Kashgar
* Linxia
* Macau
* Ningxia
* Sichuan
* Xinjiang
* Xunhua

Groups

* Ahmadis
* Bonans
* Dongxiang
* Hui
* Ili Turks
* Kazakhs
* Kyrgyz
* Salar
* Tajiks
* Tatars
* Tibetans
* Utsuls
* Uyghurs
* Uzbeks

Islam portal •  China portal

* v
* t
* e

Politics of China

Leadership

Leadership generations
Succession of power

* Hu–Wen Administration (2002–2012)
* Xi–Li Administration (2012–2017)
* Xi's general secretaryship (since 2012)
* 4th Leadership Core: Xi Jinping
* 20th Party Politburo: Xi Jinping
* 14th State Council: Li Qiang
* Current state leaders
* Current provincial leaders

Party and state leaders
Orders of precedence

* Paramount leader: Xi Jinping

First lady: Peng Liyuan

* Communist Party leader: Xi Jinping
* State representative: Xi Jinping
* Head of government: Li Qiang
* Congress Chairman: Zhao Leji
* Conference Chairman: Wang Huning
* Commander-in-chief: Xi Jinping
* Politburo Standing Committee longest-serving members

Related systems

* Unified power
* Democratic centralism
* Collective leadership
* Organization Department
* Elections
* Civil service

* Constitution
* Law

* Constitution

Previous constitutions

* 1954
* 1975
* 1978

* "People's democratic dictatorship" (Article 1)

* Democratic centralism (Article 3)
* Constitutional oath of office (Article 27)
* Protection of human rights (Article 33)
* Freedom of religion (Article 36)
* Highest state organ of power (Article 57)

* * *

* Chinese legal system
* Civil law tradition
* Socialist law tradition
* Laws
* Legislation Law
* List of statutes

* * *

* General Principles of the Civil Law (to 2020)
* Civil Code (from 2021)
* Marriage Law
* Labour law
* Labour Law
* Labour Contract Law
* Property law
* Property Law
* Intellectual property law
* Patent law

* * *

* Administrative law
* Administrative Procedure Law

* * *

* Criminal law
* Capital punishment
* Capital offences
* Death sentence with reprieve

Communist Party

History

* Principal leaders

Constitution and ideology

*     * Admission Oath (Article 6)
* Socialism with Chinese characteristics

* Communism
* Marxism–Leninism
* Mao Zedong Thought
* Deng Xiaoping Theory

Primary stage of socialism
Four Cardinal Principles
* Three Represents
* Scientific Outlook on Development

Harmonious Socialist Society

* Xi Jinping Thought

Chinese Dream
* Democracy
* Whole-process people's democracy

Organization

*     * National Party Congress (20th)
* Central Committee (20th)

General Secretary (list)

Xi Jinping
* Central Politburo (20th)

Standing Committee (20th)

* Central Secretariat (20th)
* First-ranked secretary: Cai Qi
* Central Military Commission

Chairman: Xi Jinping

Vice Chairmen:

Zhang Youxia, He Weidong
* National Security Commission

Chairman: Xi Jinping

Vice-Chairman:

Li Qiang, Zhao Leji, Cai Qi

Office Chief: Cai Qi

* Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission

Director: Xi Jinping

Deputy Directors:

Li Qiang, Wang Huning, Cai Qi

Secretary-General: Wang Huning

* Financial & Economic Affairs Commission

Director: Xi Jinping

Deputy Director: Li Qiang

Office Chief: He Lifeng

* General Office

Director: Cai Qi
* Office of the General Secretary

Director: Han Shiming
* Central Guard Bureau
* Central Guard Unit
* Office of the Central Secrecy Commission
* Organization Department

Head: Shi Taifeng
* Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (20th)
* Standing Committee (20th)

Secretary: Li Xi
* Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission

Secretary: Zhang Shengmin
* Central Leading Group for Inspection Work

Leader: Li Xi

* * *

* Provincial committee
* Standing committee

Secretary
Deputy secretaries
* Party group

National People's Congress (14th)

* Elections
* Democracy
* System of people's congress
* Standing Committee (14th)
* Council of Chairpersons

Chairman: Zhao Leji

Vice-Chairpersons

Top-ranked: Li Hongzhong
Secretary-General: Liu Qi
* Special Committees
1. Ethnic Affairs
2. Constitution and Law
3. Supervisory and Judicial Affairs
4. Financial and Economic Affairs
5. Education, Science, Culture and Public Health
6. Foreign Affairs
7. Overseas Chinese Affairs
8. Environmental Protection and Resources Conservation
9. Agriculture and Rural Affairs
10. Social Development Affairs
* Presidium

State representative

*     * President (list): Xi Jinping

* Presidential Office

Chief: Han Shiming
* Vice President: Han Zheng

Executive organ

*     * State Council (Central People's Government)
* Li Qiang Cabinet

Premier (list): Li Qiang

Vice-Premiers (list)

* Ding Xuexiang
* He Lifeng
* Zhang Guoqing
* Liu Guozhong

State Councilors

* Wang Xiaohong
* Wu Zhenglong
* Shen Yiqin

Secretary-General: Wu Zhenglong

* Cabinet-level departments
* National Development & Reform Commission
* Central bank
* National Audit Office
* General Office

Secretary-General
Deputy Secretaries-General
* State-owned Assets Supervision & Administration Commission
* most Central Enterprises

Military organ

*     * Central Military Commission (CMC)

Chairman (supreme commander):

Xi Jinping
Vice Chairmen:

* Zhang Youxia
* He Weidong

Members:

* Liu Zhenli
* Miao Hua
* Zhang Shengmin

Departments:
1. General Office

Director: Zhong Shaojun
2. Joint Staff Dept.

Chief: Liu Zhenli
3. Political Work Dept.

Director: Miao Hua
4. Logistic Support Dept.

Director: Zhang Lin
5. Equipment Development Dept.

Director: Xu Xueqiang
6. Training and Administration Dept.

Director: Wang Peng
7. National Defense Mobilization Dept.

Director: Liu Faqing
8. Discipline Inspection Commission

Secretary: Zhang Shengmin
9. Politics and Legal Affairs Commission
10. Science and Technology Commission
11. Strategic Planning Office
12. Reform & Organizational Structure Office
13. Int'l Military Cooperation Office
14. Audit Office
15. Offices Administration Agency
National armed forces:

People's Liberation Army

Theater commands
People's Armed Police

1st Mobile Contingent
2nd Mobile Contingent
China Coast Guard
Militia
* State Council

National Defense Mobilization Commission

Chairman: Li Qiang

Ministry of National Defense

Minister: Dong Jun

Ministry of Veterans Affairs
State Administration for Sci., Tech. & Industry for National Defense

Military history
* Armed conflicts
* Military modernization
* Military reform since 2015
* CMC Leading Group for Military Reform

Leader: Xi Jinping

Supervisory organ

*     * National Supervisory Commission

Director: Liu Jinguo

* * *

* Corruption in China
* Anti-corruption campaign since 2012

* * *

* Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)

* * *

* Commission Against Corruption (Macau)

Judicial organs

*     * Supreme People's Court

President: Zhang Jun

People's Courts Judicial Police
* Supreme People's Procuratorate

Procurator-General: Ying Yong

People's Procuratorates Judicial Police

* * *

* Judiciary of Hong Kong
* Court of Final Appeal
* Department of Justice
* Prosecutions Division
* Law enforcement in Hong Kong
* Disciplined Services
* Security Bureau
* Hong Kong Police Force

* * *

* Judiciary of Macau
* Court of Final Appeal
* Public Prosecutions Office
* Secretariat for Security
* Macau Security Force
* Unitary Police Services [zh]
* Public Security Police
* Judiciary Police [zh]

United front

* System of multi-party cooperation and political consultation
* Political Consultative Conference
* National Committee (14th)

Chairman: Wang Huning

Vice-Chairpersons

Top-ranked: Shi Taifeng
Secretary-General: Wang Dongfeng
* Political parties:

CCP (ruling)

United Front Work Department

Head: Li Ganjie
Democratic parties

* RCCK
* CDL
* CNDCA
* CAPD
* CPWDP
* CZGP
* JS
* TDSL

Historical parties:

* KMT
* CDSP
* YCP

* Federation of Industry and Commerce
* People's organizations

* Law enforcement

* CCP Central Politics and Law Commission

Secretary: Chen Wenqing

* Enforced disappearance
* Ministry of Public Security

Minister: Wang Xiaohong

Public Security Organs People's Police
* State Immigration Administration
* Local public security bureaus
* Ministry of State Security

Minister: Chen Yixin

State Security Organs People's Police
* Ministry of Justice

Minister: He Rong

Judicial Administrative Organs People's Police
People's Armed Police

1st Mobile Contingent
2nd Mobile Contingent
China Coast Guard
* Bureau of Prison Administration [zh]
* Office for Safeguarding National Security

* * *

* Urban Management (chengguan)

Propaganda

* Central Leading Group for Propaganda, Ideology and Culture

Leader: Cai Qi

Deputy Leaders: Li Shulei, Shen Yiqin

* Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization

Director: Cai Qi

Deputy Director: Li Shulei

* Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party

Head: Li Shulei

* General Administration of Press and Publication
* China Film Administration
* State Council Information Office
* China Daily
* Ministry of Culture and Tourism
* National Radio and Television Administration
* China Media Group
* China Central Television
* China Global Television Network
* China National Radio
* China Radio International
* Xinhua News Agency
* Reference News
* China News Service
* People's Daily
* Global Times
* China Today

* * *

* Censorship in China
* Great Cannon
* Great Firewall
* Overseas censorship
* Radio jamming
* Media of China
* Internal media
* International communication centers
* Publishing industry in China

* * *

* Internet in China
* Internet censorship
* Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission

Director: Cai Qi

* Cyberspace Administration of China

Director: Zhuang Rongwen

* Hong Kong
* Macau

* Central Leading Group on Hong Kong and Macau Affairs

Leader: Ding Xuexiang
* HK & Macau Affairs Office

Director: Xia Baolong
* Hong Kong Liaison Office
* Macau Liaison Office
* One country, two systems
* Special administrative regions

* * *

* Hong Kong Basic Law
* Chief Executive: John Lee Ka-chiu
* Hong Kong SAR Government
* Politics of Hong Kong
* Pro-Beijing camp
* Pro-democracy camp
* Independence movement
* Mainland & HK CEPA

* * *

* Macao Basic Law
* Chief Executive: Ho Iat-seng
* Macau SAR Government
* Politics of Macau
* Mainland & Macau CEPA

Cross-strait relations

* Cross-strait relations
* Chinese Civil War
* One China
* Political status of Taiwan
* Republic of China on Taiwan
* Taiwan Area
* "Taiwan Province", PRC
* Taiwan independence movement
* Anti-Secession Law
* Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement
* Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement
* Chinese unification

* * *

* Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs

Leader: Xi Jinping
Deputy Leader: Wang Huning
* Taiwan Affairs Office

Director: Song Tao
* Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits

Foreign relations

* Central Foreign Affairs Commission

Director: Xi Jinping
Deputy Director: Li Qiang
Secretary-General: Wang Yi
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Minister: Wang Yi
Spokespersons
Diplomatic missions

* * *

* Diplomatic missions of China / in China

* * *

* Foreign aid from China / to China
* International Development Cooperation Agency
* Ministry of Commerce
* Exim Bank of China
* China Development Bank
* Belt and Road Initiative
* Silk Road Fund
* Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
* BRICS
* New Development Bank

* * *

* Ministry of National Defense
* International Military Cooperation Office

* * *

* NPC Foreign Affairs Committee
* CCP International Department
* State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs
* Overseas Chinese Affairs Office

* * *

* Chinese nationality law
* Chinese passports (Hong Kong; Macau)
* Visa requirements for Chinese citizens (Hong Kong, Macau)
* Visa policy of China (Hong Kong; Macau)
* National Immigration Administration

* * *

* Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
* Panda diplomacy
* Beijing Consensus
* Community of Common Destiny

* * *

* China and the United Nations
* China and the World Trade Organization
* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

* * *

* China–Africa relations
* China–Arab relations
* China–Caribbean relations
* China–European Union relations
* China–Latin America relations
* China–Pacific relations
* China–Russia relations
* China–United States relations

Related topics

* Administrative divisions
* Chinese information operations
* Ethnic minorities
* Family planning
* Hukou system
* Human rights in China
* Chinese intelligence activity abroad

China portal

* Other countries

* v
* t
* e

Since 2014, the government of the People's Republic of China has committed a series of ongoing human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslim minorities in Xinjiang which has often been characterized as persecution or as genocide. There have been reports of mass arbitrary arrests and detention, torture, mass surveillance, cultural and religious persecution, family separation, forced labor, sexual violence, and violations of reproductive rights.

In 2014, the administration of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) General Secretary Xi Jinping launched the Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism, which involved surveillance and restrictions in Xinjiang.[2] Beginning in 2017, under Xinjiang CCP Secretary Chen Quanguo,[3] the government incarcerated over an estimated one million Uyghurs without legal process in internment camps officially described as "vocational education and training centers", in the largest mass internment of an ethnic-religious minority group since World War II.[4][5] China began to wind down the camps in 2019, and Amnesty International states that detainees have been increasingly transferred to the penal system.

In addition to mass detention, government policies have included forced labor and factory work,[6][7] suppression of Uyghur religious practices,[8] political indoctrination,[9] forced sterilization,[10] forced contraception,[11][12] and forced abortion.[13][14] An estimated 16,000 mosques have been razed or damaged,[3] and hundreds of thousands of children have been forcibly separated from their parents and sent to boarding schools.[15][16] Chinese government statistics reported that from 2015 to 2018, birth rates in the mostly Uyghur regions of Hotan and Kashgar fell by more than 60%.[10] In the same period, the birth rate of the whole country decreased by 9.7%.[17] Chinese authorities according to CNN acknowledged that birth rates dropped by almost a third in 2018 in Xinjiang, but denied reports of forced sterilization.[18] Birth rates in Xinjiang fell a further 24% in 2019, compared to a nationwide decrease of 4.2%.[10]

The Chinese government denies having committed human rights abuses in Xinjiang.[4][19] International reactions have varied, with its actions being described as the forced assimilation of Xinjiang, as ethnocide or cultural genocide,[20][21] or as genocide. Those accusing China of genocide point to intentional acts they say violate Article II of the Genocide Convention,[22][23][24] which prohibits "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part," a "racial or religious group" including "causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group" and "measures intended to prevent births within the group".[25]

In 2020, 39 UN member states issued statements to the United Nations Human Rights Council criticizing China's policies, while 45 countries supported China's "deradicalization measures" and opposed "the politicization of human rights issues and double standards".[26] In December 2020, a case brought to the International Criminal Court was dismissed because the crimes alleged appeared to have been "committed solely by nationals of China within the territory of China, a State which is not a party to the Statute", meaning the ICC could not investigate them.[27] In January 2021, the United States Department of State declared China's actions as genocide,[28][29] and legislatures in several countries have passed non-binding motions doing the same, including the House of Commons of Canada,[30] the Dutch parliament,[31] the House of Commons of the United Kingdom,[32] the Seimas of Lithuania,[33] and the French National Assembly.[34] Other parliaments, such as those in New Zealand,[35] Belgium,[36] and the Czech Republic condemned the Chinese government's treatment of Uyghurs as "severe human rights abuses" or crimes against humanity.[37] In a 2022 assessment by the UN Human Rights Office, the United Nations (UN) stated that China's policies and actions in the Xinjiang region may constitute crimes against humanity, though it did not use the term genocide.[38][39]

## Background

[edit]

See also: Islam in China, History of Xinjiang, and East Turkestan independence movement

A Uyghur man from Kashgar, a city in Xinjiang, China.

### Uyghur identity

[edit]

Main article: Uyghurs

See also: Racism in China

Uyghurs are a Turkic ethnic group native to Xinjiang. They are distinct from the Han Chinese, the predominant ethnic group in China.[40] Uyghurs are the second-largest predominantly Muslim ethnicity in China, after the Hui, and Sunni Islam is an important aspect of Uyghur identity.[40] The Uyghur language has around 10 million speakers and is shared with other minority groups in the region.[41]

### Xinjiang conflict

[edit]

Main article: Xinjiang conflict

Both Uyghurs and the predominantly Han government lay claim to Xinjiang.[42] This prompted an ethnic conflict featuring resistance and sporadic violence as Uyghurs sought greater autonomy.[43] Sinologists Anna Hayes and Michael Clarke have described Xinjiang as undergoing a process of transition as the Chinese government attempted to transform it from a frontier region to an "integral" province of a unitary Chinese state.[44]

#### Imperial China

[edit]

Further information: Protectorate of the Western Regions, Protectorate General to Pacify the West, and Xinjiang under Qing rule

Historically, certain Chinese dynasties exerted control over parts of modern-day Xinjiang.[45] The region fully came under Chinese rule as a result of the westward expansion of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty during the 1700s, which also saw the conquests of Tibet and Mongolia.[46] Xinjiang was a peripheral part of the Qing empire and briefly regained independence during the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877).[47] The Uyghur population participated in the Dzungar genocide, resulting in the Qianlong emperor granting them permission to resettle in the former territories of Dzungaria.[48][49]

#### Republican Era (1912–1949)

[edit]

The region was semi-autonomous during the Republic of China's Warlord Era (1916–1928), with parts controlled by the Kumul Khanate, the Ma clique and later the warlord Jin Shuren.[50][page needed] In 1933, the breakaway First East Turkestan Republic was established in the Kumul Rebellion,[51] but was conquered the following year by warlord Sheng Shicai with the help of the Soviet Union.[52] In 1944, the Ili Rebellion led to the establishment of the Second East Turkestan Republic, which was dependent on the Soviet Union until it was absorbed into the People's Republic of China in 1949.[53]

#### People's Republic of China (1949–present)

[edit]

Present day map of Xinjiang and its internal and external borders

From the 1950s to the 1970s, the Chinese government sponsored a mass migration of Han Chinese to Xinjiang and introduced policies designed to suppress cultural identity and religion in the region.[54] During this period, Uyghur independence organizations emerged with some support from the Soviet Union, with the East Turkestan People's Party being the largest in 1968.[55] During the 1970s, the Soviets supported the United Revolutionary Front of East Turkestan (URFET) against the Han Chinese.[56]

During the 1980s under Deng Xiaoping, the PRC pursued a new policy of cultural liberalization in Xinjiang and adopted a flexible language policy nationally.[57] Despite a positive response among party officials and minority groups, the Chinese government viewed this policy as unsuccessful and from the mid-1980s its official pluralistic language policy became increasingly subordinate to a covert policy of minority assimilation motivated by geopolitical concerns.[58] Consequently, and in Xinjiang particularly, multilingualism and cultural pluralism were restricted to favor a "monolingual, monocultural model", which in turn helped to embed and strengthen an oppositional Uyghur identity.[59] Attempts by the Chinese state to encourage economic development in the region by exploiting natural resources led to ethnic tension and discontent within Xinjiang over the region's lack of autonomy.[60] In April 1990, a violent uprising in Barin, near Kashgar, was suppressed by the People's Liberation Army (PLA), involving a large number of deaths.[60][3][61] Writing in 1998, political scientist Barry Sautman considered policies designed to reduce inequality between Han Chinese and ethnic minorities in Xinjiang unsuccessful at eliminating conflicts because they were shaped by the "paternalistic and hierarchical approach to ethnic relations adopted by the Chinese government".[62]

In February 1997, a police roundup and execution of suspected "separatists" during Ramadan led to large demonstrations, which led to a PLA crackdown on protesters resulting in at least nine deaths in what became known as the Ghulja incident.[63][64][65] The Ürümqi bus bombings later that month killed nine people and injured 68, with Uyghur exile groups claiming responsibility.[66] In March 1997, a bus bomb killed two people, with responsibility claimed by Uyghur separatists and the Turkey-based "Organisation for East Turkistan Freedom".[67]

The July 2009 Ürümqi riots, which resulted in over one hundred deaths, broke out in response to the Shaoguan incident, a violent dispute between Uyghur and Han Chinese factory workers.[68] Following the riots, Uyghur terrorists killed dozens of Han Chinese in coordinated attacks from 2009 to 2016.[69][70] These included the September 2009 Xinjiang unrest,[71] the 2011 Hotan attack,[72] the 2014 Kunming attack,[73] the April 2014 Ürümqi attack,[74] and the May 2014 Ürümqi attack.[75] The attacks were conducted by Uyghur separatists, with some orchestrated by the Turkistan Islamic Party (a UN-designated terrorist organization, formerly called the East Turkistan Islamic Movement).[76]

## Government policies

[edit]

Xinjiang police job advertisements by year Number of "re-education" related government procurement bids in Xinjiang

### Initial "Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism"

[edit]

Main article: Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism

During the run-up to the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the Chinese state began to emphasize weiwen (stability maintenance) which led to an intensification of repression across the country. Some within the Party warned that increased action to combat instability which might not even exist could lead to a spiral of repression and unrest.[3]

In April 2010, after the July 2009 Ürümqi riots, Zhang Chunxian replaced the former CCP secretary Wang Lequan, who had been behind religious policies in Xinjiang for 14 years.[77] Following the unrest, party theorists began to call for implementing a more monocultural society with a single "state-race" which would allow China to become "a new type of superpower".

Policies to further this goal were first implemented by Zhang Chunxian. Following an attack in Yunnan Province, Xi Jinping told the politburo "We should unite the people to build a copper and iron wall against terrorism", and "Make terrorists like rats scurrying across the street, with everybody shouting, 'Beat them!'" In April 2014, Xi traveled to Xinjiang and told police in Kashgar that "We must be as harsh as them, and show absolutely no mercy." A suicide bombing occurred in Ürümqi on the last day of his visit.[3]

In 2014, a secret meeting of CCP leadership was held in Beijing to find a solution to the problem, which would become known as the Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism.[3] In May 2014, China publicly launched the campaign in Xinjiang in response to growing tensions between the Han Chinese and the Uyghur populations of Xinjiang.[78][79] In announcing the campaign, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping stated that "practice has proved that our party's ruling strategy in Xinjiang is correct and must be maintained in the long run".[80]

In 2016, there was a brief window of opportunity for Uyghurs with passports to leave China; many did so but had to leave relatives and children without passports behind. Many of these families have not been reunited.[81]

Following guidance from Beijing, CCP leadership in Xinjiang commenced a "People's War" against the "Three Evil Forces" of separatism, terrorism, and extremism. They deployed two hundred thousand party cadres to Xinjiang and launched the Civil Servant-Family Pair Up program. Xi was dissatisfied with the initial results of the People's War and replaced Zhang Chunxian with Chen Quanguo in 2016. Following his appointment Chen oversaw the recruitment of tens of thousands of additional police officers and the division of society into three categories: trusted, average, and untrustworthy. He instructed his subordinates to "Take this crackdown as the top project", and "to preempt the enemy, to strike at the outset".[3]

### Regulations since 2017

[edit]

Further information: Xinjiang internment camps

Following a meeting with Xi in Beijing, Chen Quanguo held a rally in Ürümqi with ten thousand troops, helicopters, and armored vehicles. As they paraded, he announced a "smashing, obliterating offensive," and declared that they would "bury the corpses of terrorists and terror gangs in the vast sea of the People's War." He ordered them to "Round up everyone who should be rounded up," and by April 2017 mass arrests had begun.[3] New bans and regulations were implemented on 1 April 2017. Abnormally long beards and the wearing of veils in public were both banned. Not watching state-run television or listening to radio broadcasts, refusing to abide by family planning policies, or refusing to allow one's children to attend state-run schools were all prohibited.[82]

In 2017, China's Ministry of Public Security began to procure race-based monitoring systems which could reportedly identify whether or not an individual was Uyghur. Despite its questionable accuracy, this allowed a "Uyghur alarm" to be added to surveillance systems. Enhanced border controls were also implemented with guilt being presumed in the absence of evidence Zhu Hailun, Communist Party secretary of Kashgar, signed off on a bulletin in 2017 that presumed guilt in persons from Xinjing who had travelled abroad. According to Zhu, "If suspected terrorism cannot be ruled out, then a border control should be implemented to insure the person's arrest".[3]

In 2017, 73% of foreign journalists in China reported being restricted or prohibited from reporting in Xinjiang, up from 42% in 2016.[83]

Alleged "re-education" efforts began in 2014 and were expanded in 2017.[84][85] Chen ordered that the camps "be managed like the military and defended like a prison".[3] At this time, internment camps were built for the housing of students of the "re-education" programs, most of whom were Uyghurs. The Chinese government did not acknowledge their existence until 2018 and called them "vocational education and training centers".[84][86] From 2019, the government began referring to them as "vocational training centers". The camps tripled in size from 2018 to 2019 despite the Chinese government stating that most of the detainees had been released.[84]

The use of these centers appears to have ended in 2019 following international pressure.[87] Academic Kerry Brown attributes their closures beginning in late 2019 to the expense required to operate them.[88] Although no comprehensive independent surveys of such centers have been performed as of October 2022, spot checks by journalists have found such sites converted or abandoned.[87] In 2022, a Washington Post reporter checked a dozen sites previously identified as re-education centers and found "[m]ost of them appeared to be empty or converted, with several sites labeled as coronavirus quarantine facilities, teachers' schools and vocational schools."[87]

### Propaganda campaign

[edit]

The Chinese government has engaged in a propaganda campaign to defend its actions in Xinjiang.[89] China initially denied the existence of the Xinjiang internment camps and attempted to cover up their existence.[90] In 2018, after widespread reporting forced it to admit that the Xinjiang internment camps exist, the Chinese government initiated a campaign to portray the camps as humane and to deny that human rights abuses occurred in Xinjiang.[91] In 2020 and 2021, the propaganda campaign expanded due to rising international backlash against government policies,[92] with the Chinese government worrying that it no longer had control of the narrative.[90]

Chinese authorities have responded to allegations of abuse by Uyghur women by mounting character attacks. This included the disclosure of confidential medical and personal information in an attempt to slander witnesses and undermine their testimony.[93] The goal of these attacks appeared to be to silence further criticism, rather than to refute specific claims made by critics.[94] Presentations given by Xinjiang's publicity department and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to dispel allegations of abuse are closed to foreign journalists and feature pre-recorded questions as well as pre-recorded monologues from people in Xinjiang, including relatives of witnesses.[93]

Chinese government propaganda attacks have also targeted international journalists covering human rights abuses in Xinjiang.[95][96][97] After providing coverage critical of Chinese government abuses in Xinjiang, BBC News reporter John Sudworth was subjected to a campaign of propaganda and harassment by Chinese state-affiliated and CCP-affiliated media.[95][98][99] The public attacks resulted in Sudworth and his wife Yvonne Murray, who reports for Raidió Teilifís Éireann, fleeing China for Taiwan fearing for their safety.[98][100]

The Chinese government has used social media as a part of its propaganda campaign.[101][102] The government purchased Facebook advertisements to spread propaganda designed to incite doubt on the existence and scope of human rights violations occurring within Xinjiang.[103][104][105] Douyin presents its users with Chinese state propaganda pertaining to the human rights abuses in Xinjiang.[102][106][107] Between July 2019 and early August 2019, CCP-owned tabloid the Global Times paid Twitter to promote tweets that denied that the Chinese government was committing human rights abuses in Xinjiang; Twitter later banned advertising from state-controlled media outlets on August 19 after removing large numbers of pro-Beijing bots from the social network.[108][109]

In April 2021, the Chinese government released 5 propaganda videos titled, "Xinjiang is a Wonderful Land", and released a musical titled "The Wings of Songs" which portrayed Xinjiang as harmonious and peaceful.[110][111][112] The Wings of Songs portrays "a rural idyll of ethnic cohesion devoid of repression, mass surveillance" and without Islam.[113]

In June 2021, ProPublica documented a Chinese government-backed propaganda campaign on Twitter and YouTube involving more than 5000 videos analysed. The videos showed Uyghurs in Xinjiang denying abuses and scolding foreign officials and multinational corporations who had questioned China's human rights record in the province. Some of the videos' accounts were removed on YouTube as part of YouTube's efforts to combat spam and influence operations.[114]

In October 2022, the Australian Strategic Policy Institute documented a number of CCP-backed Uyghur influencers in Xinjiang posting propaganda videos on Chinese and Western social media which pushed back against abuse allegations. Some of the influencers' accounts were suspended on Twitter for alleged inauthenticity.[115]

On 30 October 2023, the Chinese embassy in France posted a photo on X comparing the buildings in Xinjiang, which were standing intact, with buildings in Gaza that had been destroyed in the Gaza war.[116] East Turkestan Government in Exile leader Salih Hudayar and Uyghur lawyer Rayhan Asat criticized the photo as propaganda and argued that China's crackdown was more pervasive than the situation in Gaza.[116][117]

#### Counter-terrorism justification

[edit]

China has used the global "war on terror" of the 2000s to frame "separatist" and ethnic unrest as acts of Islamist terrorism to legitimize its policies in Xinjiang.[118] Scholars such as Sean Roberts and David Tobin have described Islamophobia and fear of terrorism as discourses that have been used within China to justify repressive policies targeting Uyghurs, arguing that violence against Uyghurs should be seen in the context of Chinese colonialism, rather than exclusively as a part of an anti-terrorism campaign.[119] According to academic David Tobin, since 2012, "Chinese education about Uyghurs tends to frame Uyghur identities as racialised, culturally external existential threats to be defeated by state violence or teaching them to be Chinese."[120]

Arienne Dwyer has written that the US war on terror gave China an opportunity to characterise and "conflate" Uyghur nationalism with terrorism, particularity through the use of state-run media. Dwyer argues that the influence of fundamentalist forms of Islam such as Salafism within Xinjiang is overstated by China as it is tempered by Uyghur Sufism.[57]

In December 2015, the Associated Press reported that China had effectively expelled Ursula Gauthier, a French journalist, "for questioning the official line equating ethnic violence in the western Muslim region with global terrorism".[121] Gauthier, who was the first foreign journalist forced to leave China since 2012, was subject to what the AP described as an "abusive and intimidating campaign" by Chinese state media that accused her of "having hurt the feelings of the Chinese people" and that a Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman accused her of emboldening terrorism.[121]

In August 2018, the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination decried the "broad definition of terrorism and vague references to extremism" used by Chinese legislation, noting that there were numerous reports of detention of large numbers of ethnic Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities on the "pretext of countering terrorism".[122]

In 2019, the editorial board of The Wall Street Journal, Sam Brownback, and Nathan Sales each said that the Chinese government consistently misused "counterterrorism" as a pretext for cultural suppression and human rights abuses.[123][124]

In 2021, Shirzat Bawudun, the former head of the Xinjiang department of justice, and Sattar Sawut, the former head of the Xinjiang education department, were sentenced to death with two years reprieve on terrorism and separatism charges.[125][126] Three other educators and two textbook editors were given lesser sentences.[127]

## Human rights abuses

[edit]

Further information: Human rights in China § Uyghurs

### Inside internment camps

[edit]

Main article: Xinjiang internment camps

#### Mass detention

[edit]

Especially since 2016, internment camps have been a part of the Chinese government's strategy to govern Xinjiang[128] through the detention of ethnic minorities en masse.[129] According to Adrian Zenz, a researcher on the camps, the mass internments peaked in 2018 and have abated since then, with officials shifting focus towards forced labor programs.[130] In September 2023, Amnesty International said that they were "witnessing more and more arbitrary detention", but that detained individuals were being moved from the camps into Chinese "formal prisons".[131] As of April 2024[update], the Uyghur Human Rights Project estimated that China had imprisoned 449,000 Uyghurs or about one in 17.[132]

In 2021, CNN published an interview with a former Xinjiang police officer who said that when the police planned to raid a Uyghur village, they would sometimes arrange for the entire village to gather for a meeting with their chief so that the police could show up and arrest everyone. On other occasions the police would go door-to-door with rifles and pull all the residents from their homes overnight. Once the police had arrested people, they would interrogate and beat every man, woman, and child over age 14 until they kneeled on the floor and cried.[133]

Researchers and organizations have made various estimates of the number of Xinjiang internment camp detainees. In 2018, United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination vice chairperson Gay McDougall indicated that around 1 million Uyghurs were being held in internment camps.[134] While McDougall did not cite sources for her statement, it was consistent with a report submitted to the committee by the Network of Chinese Human Rights Defenders.[134] Other estimates submitted to the committee were more careful, with Human Rights Watch estimating at least tens of thousands and Amnesty International estimating tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of detainees.[134]

In March 2019, Adrian Zenz told the United Nations that 1.5 million Uyghurs had been detained in camps, saying that the number accounted for the increases in the size and scope of detention in the region and public reporting on the stories of Uyghur exiles with family in internment camps.[135] In July 2019, Zenz wrote in a paper published by the Journal of Political Risk that 1.5 million Uyghurs had been extrajudicially detained, which he described as being "an equivalent to just under one in six adult members of a Turkic and predominantly Muslim minority group in Xinjiang."[136] In November 2019, Zenz estimated that the number of internment camps in Xinjiang had surpassed 1,000.[137] In July 2020, Zenz wrote in Foreign Policy that his estimate had increased since November 2019, estimating that a total of 1.8 million Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities had been extrajudicially detained in what he described as "the largest incarceration of an ethnoreligious minority since the Holocaust", arguing that the Chinese Government was engaging in policies in violation of the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.[138] In September 2020, a Chinese government white paper stated that an average of 1.29 million workers went through "vocational training" per year between 2014 and 2019, though it does not specify how many of the people received the training in camps or how many times they went through training. Adrian Zenz stated that this "gives us a possible scope of coercive labor" occurring in Xinjiang.[139]

According to a 2020 study by Joanne Smith Finley, "political re-education involves coercive Sinicization, deaths in the camps through malnutrition, unsanitary conditions, withheld medical care, and violence (beatings); rape of male and female prisoners; and, since the end of 2018, transfers of the most recalcitrant prisoners – usually young, religious males – to high-security prisons in Xinjiang or inner China. Other camp 'graduates' have been sent into securitized forced labour. Those who remain outside the camps have been terrified into religious and cultural self-censorship through the threat of internment."[4]

#### Deaths

[edit]

There have been numerous reports since 2018 of Uyghurs dying in detention, and of former detainees dying as a result of injuries sustained in custody. Human Rights Watch stated that as of April 2021 there had been at least 177 such deaths, and that the Chinese government often refused to acknowledge them.[140] Other deaths have reportedly occurred through starvation and refusal to provide medical care.[4] According to the Newlines Institute for Strategy and Policy, Uyghur religious figures are more likely to die or disappear in custody than other detainees.[141]

There have been several reports of mass deaths of prisoners in the internment camps.[142][143] In 2019 Radio Free Asia, a United States government-funded broadcaster, reported that a Chinese police officer who previously served as a camp administrative assistant had confirmed that 150 Uyghurs had died at the No. 1 internment camp in Kuqa County.[144] Former detainee Mihrigul Tursun claimed that nine women had died in one camp during the three months she was held there, which she attributed to the poor conditions they were held in.[145]

American researcher Ethan Gutmann estimated in December 2020 that 5 to 10 percent of detainees had died each year in the camps.[146] Russian-American scholar Gene Bunin[147] created the Xinjiang Victims Database which had documented 12,050 victims in April 2021,[148] and 225 deaths for those serving official prison sentences as of November 2023.[149] The database drew ridicule online after it included photos of Hong Kong actors Andy Lau and Chow Yun-fat in a list of police officers allegedly responsible for the crackdowns.[150][151][152]

In 2021, a former Xinjiang police officer told Sky News that imprisoned Uyghurs were frequently beaten to death by interrogators during his service.[153]

#### Torture

[edit]

Mihrigul Tursun, a former detainee of the Xinjiang internment camps

Rights groups and others have reported that Uyghurs living in Xinjiang have been subject to torture by authorities.[154][155][156] A former Chinese police detective, exiled in Europe, revealed to CNN in 2021 details of the systematic torture of Uyghurs in detention camps in Xinjiang, acts in which he had participated, and the fear of his own arrest had he dissented while in China.[133][157][failed verification]

Mihrigul Tursun, a young Uyghur mother, said that she was "tortured and subjected to other brutal conditions."[158] In 2018, Tursun gave an interview[159][160] during which she described her experience while at the camps; she was drugged, interrogated for days without sleep, subjected to intrusive medical examinations, and strapped in a chair and received electric shocks. It was her third time being sent to a camp since 2015. Tursun told reporters that she remembered interrogators tell her "Being a Uighur is a crime."[158] Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Hua Chunying stated that Tursun was taken into custody by police on "suspicion of inciting ethnic hatred and discrimination" for a period lasting 20 days and denied that Tursun was ever detained in an internment camp.[160][161][162]

Another past detainee, Kayrat Samarkand, described wearing "what they called 'iron clothes,' a suit made of metal that weighed over 50 pounds [23 kg]... It forced my arms and legs into an outstretched position. I couldn't move at all, and my back was in terrible pain...They made people wear this thing to break their spirits. After 12 hours, I became so soft, quiet and lawful."[163]

Waterboarding is reportedly among the forms of torture which have been used as part of the indoctrination process.[164]

#### Compulsory sterilizations and contraception

[edit]

In 2019, reports of forced sterilization in Xinjiang began to surface.[165][166][167] Zumrat Dwut, a Uyghur woman, says that she was forcibly sterilized by tubal ligation during her time in a camp before her husband was able to get her out through requests to Pakistani diplomats.[18][168] The Xinjiang regional government denies that she was forcibly sterilized.[18] Sayragul Sauytbay, an ethnic Kazakh teacher who later fled China, said that rape and torture were commonplace and that authorities forced detainees to take a medicine that left some individuals sterile or cognitively impaired.[169]

In 2020, the Associated Press interviewed seven former detainees from internment camps who said they had been forced to take birth control pills or injected with fluids without explanation, which caused women to stop getting periods. The AP suggested the fluid may have been the hormonal medication Depo-Provera, which is commonly used in Xinjiang hospitals for birth control.[10]

In April 2021, exiled Uyghur doctor Gülgine reported that forced sterilization of ethnic Uyghurs persisted since the 1980s.[170] Since 2014, there was an indication for a sharp increase in sterilization of Uyghur women to ensure that Uyghurs would remain a minority in the region.[170] Gülgine said "On some days there were about 80 surgeries to carry out forced sterilizations". She presented intrauterine devices (IUDs) and remarked that "these devices were inserted into women's wombs" to forcibly cause infertility.[170]

#### Indoctrination

[edit]

Former detainee Kayrat Samarkand described his camp routine in an article for NPR in 2018: "In addition to living in cramped quarters, he says inmates had to sing songs praising Chinese leader Xi Jinping before being allowed to eat. He says detainees were forced to memorize a list of what he calls '126 lies' about religion: 'Religion is opium, religion is bad, you must believe in no religion, you must believe in the Communist Party,' he remembers. 'Only [the] Communist Party could lead you to the bright future.'"[163]

The American far-right Heritage Foundation claimed that "children whose parents are detained in the camps are often sent to state-run orphanages and brainwashed to forget their ethnic roots. Even if their parents are not detained, Uyghur children need to move to inner China and immerse themselves into the Han culture under the Chinese government's 'Xinjiang classrooms' policy."[171]

In 2021, Gulbahar Haitiwaji reported being coerced into denouncing her family after her daughter was photographed at a protest in Paris.[172]

#### Forced labor

[edit]

Further information: Xinjiang cotton industry and Slavery in China

According to Quartz, the Xinjiang region is described by the Uyghur Human Rights Project as a "'cotton gulag' where prison labor is present in all steps of the cotton supply chain..."[173] Tahir Hamut, a Uyghur, worked in a labor camp during elementary school when he was a child, and he later worked in a labor camp as an adult, performing tasks such as picking cotton, shoveling gravel, and making bricks. "Everyone is forced to do all types of hard labor or face punishment," he said. "Anyone unable to complete their duties will be beaten."[174]

BuzzFeed News reported in December 2020 that "[f]orced labor on a vast scale is almost certainly taking place" inside the Xinjiang internment camps, with 135 factory facilities identified within the camps covering over 21 million square feet (2.0 km2) of land.[175] The report noted that "[f]ourteen million square feet of new factories were built in 2018 alone" within the camps and that "former detainees said they were never given a choice about working, and that they earned a pittance or no pay at all".[175]

A Chinese website hosted by Baidu has posted job listings for transferring Uyghur laborers in batches of 50 to 100 people.[176] The 2019 Five Year Plan of the Xinjiang government has an official "labour transfer programme" "to provide more employment opportunities for the surplus rural labour force".[176] These batches of Uyghurs are under "half-military" style management and direct supervision. A seafood processing plant owner said that the Uyghur workforce in his factory had left for Xinjiang due to the COVID-19 pandemic and were paid and housed properly.[176] At least 83 companies were found to have profited from Uyghur labor. Company responses included pledges of ensuring that it does not happen again by checking supply lines, such as Marks & Spencer. Samsung said that it would ensure that previous controls ensured good work conditions under its code of conduct. Apple, Esprit, and Fila did not respond.[177]

Posters in Bordeaux, France, accusing Nike of complicity in the Uyghur genocide.

The Chinese government is reported to have pressured foreign companies to reject claims of abuses.[178] Apple was asked by the Chinese government to censor Uyghur-related news apps, among others, on its devices sold in China.[179] Companies such as Nike and Adidas were boycotted in China after they criticized the treatment of Uyghurs, which resulted in significant drop in sales.[180]

#### Medical experiments

[edit]

Former inmates have said that they were subjected to medical experimentation.[181][182]

#### Organized mass rape and sexual torture

[edit]

From 2019 to 2021, BBC News and other sources reported accounts of organized mass rape and sexual torture carried out by Chinese authorities in the internment camps.[183][184][185]

Multiple women who were formerly detained in the Xinjiang internment camps have publicly made accusations of systemic sexual abuse, including rape, gang rape, and sexual torture, such as forced vaginal and anal penetrations with electric batons,[186] and rubbing chili pepper paste on genitals.[187][141] Sayragul Sauytbay, a teacher who was forced to work in the camps, told the BBC that employees of the internment camp in which she was detained conducted rapes en masse, saying that camp guards "picked the girls and young women they wanted and took them away".[188] She also told the BBC of an organized gang rape, in which a woman around age 21 was forced to make a confession in front of a crowd of 100 other women detained in the camps, before being raped by multiple policemen in front of the assembled crowd.[188] In 2018, a Globe and Mail interview with Sauytbay indicated that she did not personally see violence at the camp, but did witness malnourishment and a complete lack of freedom.[189] Tursunay Ziawudun, a woman who was detained in the internment camps for a period of nine months, told the BBC that women were removed from their cells every night to be raped by Chinese men in masks and that she was subjected to three separate instances of gang rape while detained.[188] In an earlier interview, Ziawudun reported that while she "wasn't beaten or abused" while in the camps, she was instead subjected to long interrogations, forced to watch propaganda, had her hair cut, was under constant surveillance, and kept in cold conditions with poor food, leading to her developing anemia.[190] Qelbinur Sedik, an Uzbek woman from Xinjiang, has stated that Chinese police sexually abused detainees during electric shock tortures, saying that "there were four kinds of electric shock... the chair, the glove, the helmet, and anal rape with a stick".[188]

Chinese government officials deny all allegations that there have been any human rights abuses within the internment camps.[188] Reuters reported in March 2021 that Chinese government officials also disclosed personal medical information of women witnesses in an effort to discredit them.[191]

In February 2021, the BBC released an extensive report which alleged that systematic sexual abuse was taking place within the camps.[192] The gang rapes and sexual torture were alleged to be part of a systemic rape culture which included both policemen and those from outside the camps who pay for time with the prettiest girls.[184] CNN reported in February 2021 about a worker and several former female inmates which survived the camps; they provided details about murder, torture and rape in the camps, which they described as routinely occurring.[193]

### Outside internment camps

[edit]

#### IUDs and birth control

[edit]

China performs regular pregnancy checks on minority women within Xinjiang.[10] Some CCP officials have spoken about the "demographic imbalance" in southern Xinjiang; Liu Yilei, deputy secretary-general of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps CCP Committee, said that the "proportion of the Han population in southern Xinjiang is too low, less than 15 percent. The problem of demographic imbalance is southern Xinjiang's core issue."[194]

Zenz reported that 80% of "new" Chinese IUD placements (defined in his study as total IUD placements minus IUD removals) in 2018 occurred in Xinjiang, despite the region constituting only 1.8% of the country's population.[195][196][197] Assessing Zenz's analysis, Xinjiang University Professor Lin Fangfei argued that the appropriate measure is that 8.7% of IUD operations were performed in Xinjiang, adding that the Uyghur population growth was bigger than the Han population growth in the region.[198][199]

Zenz reported that birth rates in counties whose majority population consists of ethnic minorities began to fall in 2015, "the very year that the government began to single out the link between population growth and 'religious extremism'".[200] Prior to the recent drops in birth rates, the Uyghur population had had a growth rate 2.6 times that of the Han between 2005 and 2015.[201] According to Zenz's analysis of Chinese government documents, the Chinese government had planned to sterilize between 14% and 34% of childbearing-age married women in two predominantly Uyghur counties in 2019, while seeking to sterilize 80% of childbearing-age women in four rural prefectures in Xinjiang's south that are primarily inhabited by ethnic minorities.[195]

According to a fax provided to CNN by the Xinjiang regional government, birth rates in Xinjiang fell by 32.68% from 2017 to 2018.[18] In 2019, the birth rates fell by 24% year over year, a significantly greater drop than the 4.2% decline in births experienced across the entire People's Republic of China.[10][18][202] According to Zenz, population growth rates in the two largest Uyghur prefectures in Xinjiang, Kashgar and Hotan, fell by 84% between 2015 and 2018.[12][203]

According to Adrian Zenz, Chinese government documents mandate that birth control violations of Uyghurs are punishable by extrajudicial internment.[204] Official records from Karakax County between 2017 and 2019 leaked to the Financial Times showed that the most common reason for detaining Uyghurs in camps was violation of family planning policies, with the second most common reason being for practising Islam. A 2018 Karakax government report said it had implemented "maximally strict family planning policies".[205]

The Heritage Foundation reported in 2019 that officials forced Uyghur women to take unknown drugs and liquids that caused them to lose consciousness, and sometimes caused them to stop menstruating.[171] In 2020, an Associated Press investigation reported that forced birth control in Xinjiang was "far more widespread and systematic than previously known", and that Chinese authorities had forced IUD insertions, sterilization and abortions upon "hundreds of thousands" of Uyghur and other minority women.[10] Many women stated that they were forced to receive contraceptive implants.[14][187] The full scale of forced sterilization in Xinjiang is unknown, partly because of the Chinese government's failure to collect or share data, as well as the reluctance of victims to come forward due to stigma.[206] The measures have been compared to China's past one-child policy targeting its Han population.[24][207]

According to CNN, regional authorities do not dispute the decrease in birth rates but deny that genocide and forced sterilization is occurring; Xinjiang authorities maintain that the decrease in birth rates is due to "the comprehensive implementation of the family planning policy."[18] The Chinese Embassy in the United States said the policy was positive and empowering for Uyghur women, writing that, "in the process of eradicating extremism, the minds of Uygur women were emancipated and gender equality and reproductive health were promoted, making them no longer baby-making machines. They are more confident and independent." Twitter removed the tweet for violating its policies.[93][208]

#### Forced cohabitation, co-sleeping, rape, and abortion

[edit]

Further information: Civil Servant-Family Pair Up

Beginning in 2018,[209] over one million Chinese government workers began forcibly living in the homes of Uyghur families to monitor and assess resistance to assimilation, as well as to watch for frowned-upon religious and cultural practices.[210]

The "Pair Up and Become Family" program assigned Han Chinese men to monitor the homes of Uyghurs and sleep in the same beds as Uyghur women.[211] According to Radio Free Asia, these Han Chinese government workers were trained to call themselves "relatives" and forcibly engaged in co-habitation of Uyghur homes for the purpose of promoting "ethnic unity".[210] Radio Free Asia reports that these men "regularly sleep in the same beds as the wives of men detained in the region's internment camps."[212] Chinese officials maintained that co-sleeping is acceptable, provided that a distance of one meter is maintained between the women and the "relative" assigned to the Uyghur home.[212] Uyghur activists state that no such restraint takes place, citing pregnancy and forced marriage numbers, and name the program a campaign of "mass rape disguised as 'marriage'."[citation needed] Human Rights Watch has condemned the program as a "deeply invasive forced assimilation practice", while the World Uyghur Congress states that it represents the "total annihilation of the safety, security and well-being of family members."[212]

A 37-year-old pregnant woman from the Xinjiang region said that she attempted to give up her Chinese citizenship to live in Kazakhstan but was told by the Chinese government that she needed to come back to China to complete the process. She alleges that officials seized the passports of her and her two children before coercing her into receiving an abortion to prevent her brother from being detained in an internment camp.[213]

A book from Chandos Publishing authored by Guo Rongxing stated that the 1990 Barin uprising were the result of 250 forced abortions imposed upon local Uyghur women by the Chinese government.[214]

#### Organ harvesting allegations and concerns

[edit]

See also: Organ harvesting in China

Ethan Gutmann[215] states that organ harvesting from prisoners of conscience became prevalent when members of the Uyghur ethnic group were targeted in security crackdowns and "strike hard campaigns" during the 1990s. According to Gutmann, organ harvesting from Uyghur prisoners dropped off by 1999 with members of the Falun Gong religious group overtaking the Uyghurs as a source of organs.[216][217][218]

In the 2010s, concerns about organ harvesting from Uyghurs resurfaced.[219][220] According to a unanimous determination by the China Tribunal in May 2020, China has persecuted and medically tested Uyghurs. Its report expressed concerns that Uyghurs were vulnerable to being subject to organ harvesting but did not yet have evidence of its occurrence.[221] In November 2020, Gutmann told RFA that a former hospital in Aksu, China, which had been converted into a Xinjiang internment camp, would allow local officials to streamline the organ harvesting process and provide a steady stream of harvested organs from Uyghurs.[222] In a December 2020 Haaretz article, Gutmann stated he believed at least 25,000 people were being killed in Xinjiang for their organs each year, claiming that "fast lanes" had been created for the movement of organs in local airports and crematoria had recently built in the province in order to more easily dispose of victims' bodies.[215][223]

In 2020, a Chinese woman alleged that Uyghurs were killed to provide halal organs for primarily Saudi customers. She also alleged that in one such instance in 2006, 37 Saudi clients received organs from killed Uyghurs at the Department of Liver Transplantation of Tianjin Taida Hospital. Dr. Enver Tohti, a former oncology surgeon in Xinjiang, thought the allegation was credible.[224][225][226]

In June 2021, the Special Procedures of the United Nations Human Rights Council voiced concerns over having "received credible information that detainees from ethnic, linguistic or religious minorities may be forcibly subjected to blood tests and organ examinations such as ultrasound and x-rays, without their informed consent; while other prisoners are not required to undergo such examinations." The press release stated that UN's human rights experts "were extremely alarmed by reports of alleged 'organ harvesting' targeting minorities, including Falun Gong practitioners, Uyghurs, Tibetans, Muslims and Christians, in detention in China."[227]

#### Forced labor

[edit]

Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, the Chinese government imposed forced labor conditions on Uyghurs.[228][229] In January 2020, videos surfaced on Douyin showing large numbers of Uyghurs being placed into airplanes, trains, and busses for transportation to forced factory labor programs.[230] In March 2020, the Chinese government was found to be using the Uyghur minority as forced sweatshop labor. According to a report published by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), no fewer than around 80,000 Uyghurs were forcibly removed from Xinjiang for purposes of forced labor in at least twenty-seven factories around China.[231] According to the Business and Human Rights Resource Centre, a UK-based charity, corporations such as Abercrombie & Fitch, Adidas, Amazon, Apple, BMW, Fila, Gap, H&M, Inditex, Marks & Spencer, Nike, North Face, Puma, PVH, Samsung, and Uniqlo sourced from these factories.[12][232] Over 570,000 Uyghurs are forced to pick cotton by hand in Xinjiang.[233][234] According to an archived report from Nankai University, the Chinese forced labor system is designed to reduce Uyghur population density.[235] In total, by 2021, the Chinese government had relocated more than 600,000 Uyghurs to industrial workplaces as a part of their forced labor programs.[230][229]

A June 2025 report published by Global Rights Compliance found evidence linking 68 Western and international companies to forced labor in China’s critical minerals industry, which is centered in the Xinjiang region.[236] Xinjiang partly relies on forced labor transfer programs, which targets Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslim populations, and experts say Uyghurs are forcibly transferred to the mines or face punishment such as imprisonment, income loss, and harassment.[236][237] Global Rights Compliance found 77 critical mineral sector companies operating in Xinjiang and identified 15 companies, including those outside China, actively sourcing from them. Some of the businesses had been flagged by the United Nations as being involved in state-run labor transfer programs. The report traced the XUAR mineral supply chains to various global brands, such as paint, thermos, aerospace, defense, nuclear tool, coffee, and soft drink companies.[237][236] Regarding the report, spokesperson Lin Jian for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China responded that "China's Xinjiang has never forced anyone to transfer employment" and that it was a "complete lie" by "individual anti-China forces". He further added that individual organizations needed "to stop interfering in China’s internal affairs under the guise of human rights and stop undermining Xinjiang's prosperity and stability."[236]

### Outside China

[edit]

China has been accused of coordinating efforts to coerce Uyghurs living overseas into returning to China, using family still in China to pressure members of the diaspora. Chinese officials dismiss the accusations as fabrications.[238]

China's robust surveillance system extends overseas, with a special emphasis placed on monitoring the Uyghur diaspora.[239] According to the MIT Technology Review "China's hacking of Uyghurs is so aggressive that it is effectively global, extending far beyond the country's own borders. It targets journalists, dissidents, and anyone who raises Beijing's suspicions of insufficient loyalty."[240]

In March 2021 Facebook reported that hackers based in China had been conducting cyberespionage against members of the Uyghur diaspora.[241][242]

Uyghurs in the United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Turkey have been detained and deported back to China, sometimes separating families.[243][244] CNN reported in June 2021 that "rights activists fear that even as Western nations take China to task over its treatment of Uyghurs, countries in the Middle East and beyond will increasingly be willing to acquiesce to its crackdown on members of the ethnic group at home and abroad."[243] According to the Associated Press, "Dubai also has a history as a place where Uyghurs are interrogated and deported back to China."[245]

A joint report from the Uyghur Human Rights Project and the Oxus Society for Central Asian Affairs found 1,546 cases of Uyghurs being detained and deported at the behest of Chinese authorities in 28 countries from 1997 to March 2021.[246]

## Use of biometric and surveillance technology

[edit]

Chinese authorities use biometric technology to track individuals.[209] According to Yahir Imin, Chinese authorities drew his blood, scanned his face, recorded his fingerprints, and documented his voice.[209] China collects genetic material from millions of Uyghurs. China uses facial recognition technology to sort people by ethnicity, and uses DNA to tell if an individual is a Uyghur. China has been accused of creating "technologies used for hunting people."[247]

In 2017, security-related construction tripled in Xinjiang. Charles Rollet stated, "projects include not only security cameras but also video analytics hubs, intelligent monitoring systems, big data centers, police checkpoints, and even drones."[248][249] Drone manufacturer DJI began providing surveillance drones to local police in 2017.[250] According to ASPI, the Ministry of Public Security invested billions of dollars in two government plans: the Skynet project (天网工程) and the Sharp Eyes project (雪亮工程).[249] These two projects attempted to use facial recognition to "resolutely achieve no blind spots, no gaps, no blank spots" by 2020.[3] A report by ASPI highlighted Morgan Stanley's claim that, by 2020, 400 million surveillance cameras were to be operating.[249] Chinese companies including SenseTime, CloudWalk, Yitu, Megvii, and Hikvision built algorithms to allow the Chinese government to track the Muslim minority group.[251]

In July 2020, the United States Department of Commerce sanctioned 11 Chinese firms, including two subsidiaries of BGI Group, for violating the human rights of Uyghur Muslims, by exploiting their DNA.[252] BGI Group along with Abu Dhabi-based AI and cloud computing firm Group 42 – accused of espionage in 2019 – were named by the US departments of Homeland Security and State in an October 2020 warning issued to Nevada against the use of the 200,000 COVID-19 test kits donated by UAE under the partnership of G42 and the BGI Group. US intelligence agencies warned foreign powers who were exploiting patients' medical samples to dig into their medical history, genetic traits, and illnesses.[253]

### Biometric data

[edit]

While he was Xinjiang Party secretary, Chen Quanguo launched "Physicals for All", purportedly a medical care program. "Every Xinjiang resident between the ages of twelve and 65" was required to provide DNA samples. Also collected were data on "blood types, fingerprints, voice-prints, iris patterns".[3] Officials in Tumxuk gathered hundreds of blood samples.[247] Tumxuk was named a "major battlefield for Xinjiang's security work" by the state news media.[247] In January 2018, a forensic DNA lab overseen by the Institute of Forensic Science of China was built there.[247] Lab documents showed that it used software created by Thermo Fisher Scientific, a Massachusetts company.[247] This software was used in correspondence to create genetic sequencers, helpful in analyzing DNA. In response, Thermo Fisher declared in February that it would cease sales to the Xinjiang region as a result of "fact-specific assessments".[247]

### GPS tracking of cars

[edit]

Security officials ordered residents in China's northwest region to install GPS tracking devices in their vehicles, allowing authorities to track their movements. Authorities said that it "is necessary to counteract the activities of Islamist extremists and separatists". An announcement from officials in Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture proclaimed that "there is a severe threat from international terrorism, and cars have been used as a key means of transport for terrorists as well as constantly serving as weapons. It is, therefore, necessary to monitor and track all vehicles in the prefecture."[254]

## Cultural effects

[edit]

See also: Islam in China (1911–present) and Islamophobia in China

### Mosques

[edit]

Mosque in Tuyoq, Xinjiang (2005)

Mosques, Muslim shrines, and cemeteries in Xinjiang have been the target of systematic destruction.[3][255] An estimated 16,000 mosques have been destroyed or damaged, minarets have been knocked down and "decorative features scrubbed away or painted over".[3]

In 2005, Human Rights Watch reported that "information scattered in official sources suggests that retaliation" against mosques not sponsored by the Chinese state was prevalent and that the Xinjiang Party Secretary expressed that Uyghurs "should not have to build new places for religious activities".[256] The Chinese government prohibited minors from participating in religious activities in Xinjiang in a manner that, according to Human Rights Watch, "has no basis in Chinese law".[256]

According to an analysis from The Guardian, over one-third of mosques and religious sites in China suffered "significant structural damage" between 2016 and 2018, with nearly one-sixth of all mosques and shrines completely razed.[257] This included the tomb of Imam Asim, a mud tomb in the Taklamakan Desert, and the Ordam shrine at the mazar of Ali Arslan Khan.[258] According to The Guardian, Uyghur Muslims believe that repeated pilgrimages to these tombs fulfill a Muslim's obligation to complete the Hajj.[257] In 2019, Bellingcat reported that "there is systematic repression and imprisonment of the Muslim Uighur minority in Xinjiang, and the destruction of cultural and religiously significant Islamic buildings in this province may be a further part of this ongoing repression."[255] In the same year, Indonesian scholar Said Aqil Siradj disputed that Uyghurs faced persecution, saying there was an increasing number of mosques being built and repaired in Xinjiang.[259][260]

Id Kah Mosque in Xinjiang is China's largest.[261] Radio Free Asia reported that in 2018, a plaque containing Quranic scriptures, that had long hung outside the front entrance of the mosque, had been removed by the authorities. Turghunjan Alawudun, director of the World Uyghur Congress, said the plaque was removed as "one aspect of the Chinese regime's evil policies meant to eliminate the Islamic faith among Uyghurs... and Uyghurs themselves".[262] Anna Fifield of The Independent wrote in 2020 that Kashgar no longer had any working mosques.[263] The Globe and Mail reported that the only services at the Id Kah mosque, which had been turned into a tourist attraction, were staged to give foreign visitors the impression that religion was being practiced freely and that mosque attendance numbered only in the dozens.[264][265] Indonesian outlet Antara released a video in 2021 documenting that 800 worshipers were in the mosque for Ramadan, but also that there was no iftar ritual due to pandemic restrictions.[266]

Radio Free Asia reported that starting from early 2020, in response to international criticism, Chinese authorities started limited easing of religious restrictions in Xinjiang, reopening some mosques that were closed down.[267] However, the broadcaster said that most Uyghurs have not returned to the mosques, fearful of their experiences in the previous crackdowns, and that Hui Muslims were given greater leeway than Uyghur Muslims.[267]

### Education

[edit]

Entrance to a school in Turpan, a Uyghur-majority city in Xinjiang, in 2018. The sign at the gate, written in Chinese, reads: "[You are] entering the school grounds. Please speak Guoyu ["the national language", i.e. Mandarin Chinese]"

In 2011, schools in Xinjiang transitioned to what officials called a policy of bilingual education. The primary medium of instruction is Standard Chinese, with only a few hours a week devoted to Uyghur literature. Despite this policy, few Han children are taught to speak Uyghur.[268]

Uyghur students are increasingly attending residential schools far from their home communities where they cannot speak Uyghur.[269] According to a 2020 report from Radio Free Asia (RFA), monolingual Chinese language education has been introduced in an influential high school in Kashgar that formerly provided bilingual education.[270]

Sayragul Sauytbay described how she was forced to teach at an internment camp, saying the camp was "cramped and unhygienic" with her detainee students given only basic sustenance. Sauytbay added that authorities forced the detainees to learn Chinese, sit through indoctrination classes, and make public confessions.[169]

In 2021, the standard Uyghur language textbooks used in Xinjiang since the early 2000s were outlawed and their authors and editors sentenced to death or life imprisonment on separatism charges. The textbooks had been created and approved by relevant government officials; however, according to the AP in 2021, the Chinese government said that the "2003 and 2009 editions of the textbooks contained 84 passages preaching ethnic separatism, violence, terrorism and religious extremism and that several people were inspired by the books to participate in a bloody anti-government riot in the regional capital Urumqi in 2009".[127]

### Detained academics and religious figures

[edit]

Uyghur economist Ilham Tohti

In 2019 the Uyghur Human Rights Project identified 386 Uyghur intellectuals who had been imprisoned, detained, or disappeared since early 2017.[271]

Uyghur economist Ilham Tohti was sentenced to life in prison in 2014. Amnesty International called his sentence unjustified and deplorable.[272] Rahile Dawut, a prominent Uyghur anthropologist who studied and preserved Islamic shrines, traditional songs, and folklore, disappeared.[273]

RFA reported that the Chinese government jailed Uyghur Imam Abduheber Ahmet after he took his son to a religious school not sanctioned by the state.[274] They reported that Ahmet had previously been lauded by China as a "five-star" imam but was sentenced in 2018 to over five years in prison for his action.[274]

### Cemeteries

[edit]

In September 2019, Agence France-Presse (AFP) visited 13 destroyed cemeteries across four cities and witnessed exposed bones remaining in four of them. Through an examination of satellite images, the press agency determined that the grave destruction campaign had been ongoing for more than a decade.[275] According to a previous AFP report, three cemeteries in Xayar County were among dozens of Uyghur cemeteries destroyed in Xinjiang between 2017 and 2019. The unearthed human bones from the cemeteries in Xayar County were discarded.[276][277] In January 2020, a CNN report based on an analysis of Google Maps satellite imagery said that Chinese authorities had destroyed more than 100 graveyards in Xinjiang, primarily Uyghur ones. CNN linked the destruction of the cemeteries to the government's campaign to control the Uyghurs and Muslims more broadly. The Chinese government claimed that the cemetery and tomb destruction were relocations due to lack of maintenance and that the dead were re-interred in new standardized cemeteries.[278][279]

> This is all part of China's campaign to effectively eradicate any evidence of who we are, to effectively make us like the Han Chinese. ... That's why they're destroying all of these historical sites, these cemeteries, to disconnect us from our history, from our fathers and our ancestors.

— Salih Hudayar, whose great-grandparents' graveyard was demolished[276][277]

Among the destroyed cemeteries is Sultanim Cemetery (37°07′02″N 79°56′04″E﻿ / ﻿37.11722°N 79.93444°E﻿ / 37.11722; 79.93444), the central Uyghur historical graveyard with generations of burials, and the most sacred shrine in Hotan city, which was demolished and converted into a parking lot between 2018 and 2019.[280] China Global Television Network (CGTN), a Chinese state-owned international channel affiliated with the Chinese Communist Party, said that the graves were relocated.[281]

### Marriage

[edit]

According to American journalist Leta Hong Fincher, the Chinese government offered Uyghur couples incentives to have fewer children, and for women to marry non-Uyghurs.[282][page needed] According to the outreach coordinator for the U.S.-based Uyghur Human Rights Project,[283] Zubayra Shamseden, the Chinese government "wants to erase Uighur culture and identity by remaking its women."[284]

Marriages between Uyghurs and Han are encouraged with government subsidies. In August 2014, local authorities in Cherchen County (Qiemo County) announced, "Incentive Measures Encouraging Uighur-Chinese Intermarriage," including a 10,000 CNY (US$1,450) cash reward per annum for the first five years to such intermarried couples as well as preferential treatment in employment and housing plus free education for the couples, their parents and offspring. County CCP Secretary Zhu Xin remarked:[285]

> Our advocacy of intermarriage is promoting positive energy ... Only by promoting the establishment of a social structure, and community environment in which all ethnic groups are embedded in each other ... can we boost the great unity, ethnic fusion, and development of all ethnic groups in Xinjiang, and finally realize our China dream of the great rejuvenation of our Chinese nation

In October 2017, the marriage of a Han man from Henan Province to a Uyghur woman from Lop County was celebrated on the county's social media page:[286]

> They will let ethnic unity forever bloom in their hearts,
>  Let ethnic unity become one's own flesh and blood.

University of Washington anthropologist and China expert Darren Byler said that a social media campaign in 2020 to marry off 100 Uyghur women to Han men indicated that, "a certain racialized power dynamic is a part of this process," commenting, "It does seem as though this is an effort to produce greater assimilation and diminish ethnic difference by pulling Uighurs into Han-dominated relationships."[285]

According to RFA reports, in March 2017 Salamet Memetimin, an ethnic Uyghur and the Communist Party Secretary for Chaka township's Bekchan village in Qira County, Hotan Prefecture, was relieved of her duties for taking her nikah marriage vows at her home.[287] In interviews with RFA in 2020, residents and officials of Shufu County (Kona Sheher), Kashgar Prefecture (Kashi) stated that it was no longer possible to perform traditional Uyghur nikah marriage rites in the county.[288]

### Clothing

[edit]

A Uyghur woman wearing a hijab in Xinjiang

Chinese authorities discourage the wearing of headscarves, veils, and other customary Islamic attire. On 20 May 2014, a protest broke out in Alakaga (Alaqagha, Alahage), Kuqa (Kuchar, Kuche), Aksu Prefecture when 25 women and schoolgirls were detained for wearing headscarves. According to a local official, two died and five were injured when police fired on protesters. Subsequently, a Washington Post team was detained in Alakaga and ultimately deported from the region.[289]

Documents leaked from the Xinjiang internment camps have noted that some inmates have been detained for wearing traditional clothing.[290]

### Naming

[edit]

Further information: Naming laws in China

#### Children's names

[edit]

RFA reported that in 2015, a list of banned names for children called "Naming Rules for Ethnic Minorities", was promulgated in Hotan, banning potential names including "Islam", "Quran", "Mecca", "Jihad", "Imam", "Saddam", "Hajj", and "Medina". Use of the list was later extended throughout Xinjiang.[291][292] Legislation in 2017 made it illegal to give children names that the Chinese government deemed to "exaggerate religious fervor".[82][291] This prohibition included a ban on naming children "Muhammad".[291]

#### Village Names

[edit]

A report by NGOs Human Rights Watch and Uyghur Hjelp found that 630 villages in Xinjiang were renamed to reflect Communist party ideology and remove religious and cultural references. Examples include Aq Meschit ("white mosque") village being renamed to Unity village and Dutar village being renamed to Red Flag village.[293][294]

Commenting on the renaming, founder of Uyghur Hjelp, Abduweli Ayup, said that the Chinese government wants to "erase people’s historical memory, because those names remind people of who they are".[295]

Acting China director at Human Rights Watch, Maya Wang, said that "The Chinese authorities have been changing hundreds of village names in Xinjiang from those rich in meaning for Uyghurs to those that reflect government propaganda [...] These name changes appear part of Chinese government efforts to erase the cultural and religious expressions of Uyghurs."[293]

## Classification of abuses

[edit]

See also: Xinjiang papers, China Cables, and Xinjiang internment camps § International reactions

Pages from the China Cables

Special purpose tribunals, scholars, commentators, journalists, governments, politicians, and diplomats from many countries have labeled China's actions variously as genocide, cultural genocide, ethnocide, settler colonialism, and/or crimes against humanity.

### Ethnocide or cultural genocide

[edit]

In 2008, Michael Clarke, an Australian terrorism scholar, noted that "there has emerged within the Uighur émigré community a tendency to portray the Uighurs as experiencing a form of 'cultural genocide'", citing as an example a 2004 speech by World Uyghur Congress president Erkin Alptekin.[296] In a 2012 Wall Street Journal op-ed, Uyghur activist Rebiya Kadeer described the CCP following "policies of Uighur cultural genocide".[297][298] In 2018, UCL human rights scholar Kate Cronin-Furman argued in 2018 that the Chinese state policies constituted cultural genocide.[299][300]

In July 2019, German academic Adrian Zenz wrote in the Journal of Political Risk that the situation in Xinjiang constituted a cultural genocide;[301] his research was later cited by BBC News and other news organizations.[302] James Leibold, a professor at Australia's La Trobe University, called that same month the treatment of Uyghurs by the Chinese government a "cultural genocide", and stated that "in their own words, party officials are 'washing brains' and 'cleansing hearts' to 'cure' those bewitched by extremist thoughts."[303][304][305] The term was used in editorials, such as in The Washington Post, at this point.[306]

Since the release of the Xinjiang papers and the China Cables in November 2019, various journalists and researchers have called the Chinese government's treatment of Uyghurs an ethnocide or a cultural genocide. In November 2019, Zenz described the classified documents as confirming "that this is a form of cultural genocide".[307] Foreign Policy published an article by Azeem Ibrahim in which he called the Chinese treatment of Uyghurs a "deliberate and calculated campaign of cultural genocide" after the release of the Xinjiang papers and China Cables.[308]

In 2020, academic Joanne Smith Finley wrote that scholars, commentators, and lawyers had been increasingly referring to the human rights situation in Xinjiang as a genocide, rather than a cultural genocide.[4]

### Genocide

[edit]

In April 2019, Cornell University anthropologist Magnus Fiskesjö wrote in Inside Higher Ed that mass arrests of ethnic minority academics and intellectuals in Xinjiang indicated that "the Chinese regime's current campaign against the native Uighur, Kazakh and other peoples is already a genocide."[309] Later, in 2020, Fiskejö wrote in academic journal Monde Chinois [fr] that "[t]he evidence for genocide is thus already massive, and must, at the very least, be regarded as sufficient for prosecution under international law... the number of competent authorities around the world concurring that this is indeed genocide are increasing."[310]

In June 2020, after an Associated Press investigation found that Uyghurs were being subjected to mass forced sterilizations and forced abortions in Xinjiang, scholars increasingly have referred to the abuses in Xinjiang as a genocide.[4]

In July 2020, Zenz said an interview with National Public Radio (NPR) that he had previously argued that the actions of the Chinese government are a cultural genocide, not a "literal genocide", but that one of the five criteria from the Genocide Convention was satisfied by more recent developments concerning the suppression of birth rates so "we do need to probably call it a genocide".[311] The same month, law professor Ryszard Piotrowicz likewise wrote that the sterilization of Uyghur women and children constituted genocide under the 1948 Convention.[24] Chris Patten, the last colonial governor of British Hong Kong, said that the "birth control campaign" was "arguably something that comes within the terms of the UN views on sorts of genocide".[312]

Although China is not a member of the International Criminal Court, on 6 July 2020 the self-proclaimed East Turkistan Government-in-Exile and the East Turkistan National Awakening Movement filed a complaint with the ICC calling for it to investigate PRC officials for crimes against Uyghurs including allegations of genocide.[313][314][315] The ICC responded in December 2020 and "asked for more evidence before it will be willing to open an investigation into claims of genocide against Uighur people by China, but has said it will keep the file open for such further evidence to be submitted."[316]

An August 2020 Quartz article reported that some scholars hesitate to label the human rights abuses in Xinjiang as a "full-blown genocide", preferring the term "cultural genocide", but that increasingly many experts were calling them "crimes against humanity" or "genocide".[313] In August 2020 the spokesperson for Joe Biden's presidential campaign described China's actions as genocide.[317]

In October 2020, the U.S. Senate introduced a bipartisan resolution designating the human rights abuses perpetrated by the Chinese government against the Uyghur people and other ethnic minorities in Xinjiang as genocide.[318] Around the same time, the House of Commons of Canada issued a statement that its Subcommittee on International Human Rights of the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development was persuaded that the Chinese Communist Party's actions in Xinjiang constitute genocide as laid out in the Genocide Convention.[183] The 2020 annual report by the Congressional-Executive Commission on China referred to the Chinese government's treatment of Uyghurs as "crimes against humanity and possibly genocide."[319][320]

In January 2021, U.S. secretary of state Mike Pompeo officially declared that China was committing genocide against the Uyghurs and other ethnic minorities living in Xinjiang.[321] This declaration, which came in the final hours of the Trump administration, had not been made earlier due to a worry that it could disrupt trade talks between the US and China. On the allegations of crimes against humanity Pompeo asserted that "These crimes are ongoing and include: the arbitrary imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty of more than one million civilians, forced sterilization, torture of a large number of those arbitrarily detained, forced labor and the imposition of draconian restrictions on freedom of religion or belief, freedom of expression and freedom of movement."[322]

On January 19, 2021, incoming U.S. president Joe Biden's secretary of state nominee Antony Blinken was asked during his confirmation hearings whether he agreed with Pompeo's conclusion that the CCP had committed genocide against the Uyghurs, he contended "That would be my judgment as well."[323] During her confirmation hearings Joe Biden's nominee to be the US ambassador to the United Nations Linda Thomas-Greenfield stated that she believed what was currently happening in Xinjiang was a genocide, adding "I lived through and experienced and witnessed a genocide in Rwanda."[324]

The US designation was followed by Canada's House of Commons and the Dutch parliament, each passing a non-binding motion in February 2021 to recognize China's actions as genocide.[30][31]

In January 2021, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum initially stated that, "[t]here is a reasonable basis to believe that the government of China is committing crimes against humanity."[164][325] In November 2021, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum revised its stance to state that the "Chinese government may be committing genocide against the Uyghurs."[326]

In February 2021, a legal opinion released by the Essex Court Chambers concluded that "there is a very credible case that acts carried out by the Chinese government against the Uighur people in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region amount to crimes against humanity and the crime of genocide, and describes how the minority group has been subject to "enslavement, torture, rape, enforced sterilisation and persecution." "Victims have been "forced to remain in stress positions for an extended period of time, beaten, deprived of food, shackled and blindfolded", it said. The legal team stated that they had seen "prolific credible evidence" of sterilisation procedures carried out on women, including forced abortions, saying the human rights abuses "clearly constitute a form of genocidal conduct".[327][328] The opinion identified three Chinese officials – President Xi, Chen Quanguo and Zhu Hailun – with whom the authors believed there was a "plausible" case that personal responsibility for the genocide lay.[22]

On 13 February 2021, The Economist wrote that while China's treatment and persecution of Uyghurs is "horrific" and a crime against humanity, "genocide" is the wrong word for China's actions due to China not engaging in mass murder.[329]

According to a March 2021 Newlines Institute report that was written by over 50 global China, genocide, and international law experts,[141][330][142] the Chinese government breached every article in the Genocide Convention, writing, "China's long-established, publicly and repeatedly declared, specifically targeted, systematically implemented, and fully resourced policy and practice toward the Uyghur group is inseparable from 'the intent to destroy in whole or in part' the Uyghur group as such."[331][332][143] The report cited credible reports of mass deaths under the mass internment drive, while Uighur leaders were selectively sentenced to death or sentenced to long-term imprisonment. "Uyghurs are suffering from systematic torture and cruel, inhumane, and degrading treatment, including rape, sexual abuse, and public humiliation, both inside and outside the camps", the report stated. The report argued that these policies are directly orchestrated by the highest levels of state, including Xi and the top officials of the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang.[143] It also reported that the Chinese government gave explicit orders to "eradicate tumours", "wipe them out completely", "destroy them root and branch", "round up everyone", and "show absolutely no mercy", in regards to Uyghurs,[143][142] and that camp guards reportedly follow orders to uphold the system in place until "Kazakhs, Uyghurs, and other Muslim nationalities, would disappear...until all Muslim nationalities would be extinct".[333] According to the report "Internment camps contain designated "interrogation rooms" where Uyghur detainees are subjected to consistent and brutal torture methods, including beatings with metal prods, electric shocks, and whips."[334]

In June 2021, the Canadian Anthropology Society issued a statement on Xinjiang in which the organization stated, "expert testimony and witnessing, and irrefutable evidence from the Chinese Government's own satellite imagery, documents, and eyewitness reports, overwhelmingly confirms the scale of the genocide."[335]

In June 2021, The New York Times and ProPublica published their analysis of over 3,000 videos, concluding that after the January 2021 U.S. declaration that China was committing genocide in Xinjiang, the Chinese government started an influence campaign featuring thousands of videos of Chinese citizens denying genocide and abuses in Xinjiang on Twitter and YouTube.[336] In August 2022, the U.S. State Department published a report PRC Efforts to Manipulate Global Public Opinion on Xinjiang on the Chinese government's global efforts "to discredit independent sources that report ongoing genocide and crimes against humanity" in Xinjiang.[337][338]

In an article for Ethnic and Racial Studies, David Tobin characterized China's actions as a "genocide by attrition". He wrote that China's actions against the Uyghurs, including sexual abuse, mass internment and physical and mental torture, were calculated to destroy "the foundations of [Uyghur] life, language, religion, and inter-generational cultural transmission, resolving the “ethnic problem” through social death of Turkic Muslims".[339]

A 2023 academic book by political theorists Alain Brossat and Juan Alberto Ruiz Casado labeled the accusation of genocide as unsubstantiated.[340] They described the information used to apply the label as misleading and coming "exclusively from a few sources, for the most part overwhelmingly and openly partisan in their anti-China crusade"; they especially criticize Adrian Zenz's 2018 detainee study and 2019 sterilization study as "academically flimsy" and containing misleading or directly false claims, respectively.[340]

Academics Steve Tsang and Olivia Cheung wrote that their research found no evidence that Xi Jinping advocates genocide against Uyghurs.[341] Tsang and Cheung conclude that China's policies subordinate identity based on culture, religion, or minority language in an effort to establish a national identity based on Han heritage, language, and Xi Jinping Thought.[341]

### Crimes against humanity

[edit]

In June 2019, the China Tribunal, an independent judicial investigation into forced organ transplantation in China concluded that crimes against humanity had been committed beyond reasonable doubt against China's Uyghur Muslim and Falun Gong populations.[342][343]

The Asia-Pacific Centre for the Responsibility to Protect at the University of Queensland concluded in November that evidence of atrocities in Xinjiang "likely meets the requirements of the following crimes against humanity: persecution, imprisonment, enforced disappearance, torture, forced sterilisation, and enslavement" and that "It is arguable that genocidal acts have occurred in Xinjiang, in particular acts of imposing measures to prevent births and forcible transfers."[344] In December, lawyers David Matas and Sarah Teich wrote in Toronto Star that "One distressing present day example [of genocide] is the atrocities faced by the Uighur population in Xinjiang, China."[345]

In 2021 the U.S. State Department's Office of the Legal Advisor concluded that although the situation in Xinjiang amounted to crimes against humanity, there was insufficient evidence to prove genocide.[29]

### Settler colonialism

[edit]

In addition to other classifications, some academics and researchers have also termed the abuses as part of an ongoing project of Han settler colonialism.[346]

### View of discourse

[edit]

Writing in 2023, academic and former UK diplomat Kerry Brown observes that the clash of labels between western and Chinese discourse on the issue of Xinjiang makes it nearly impossible to reach an empirical or neutral description of China's actions in Xinjiang.[347]

According to American academic Darren Byler, discourses about Uyghurs in Xinjiang typically revolve around Uyghurs as either potential terrorists and resisters (from the view of the Chinese state) or objects of pity to be rescue (in western discourses), with little focus on Uyghurs as autonomous actors.[347]

China contends that the Gaza war demonstrates the hypocrisy of Western criticisms of China's treatment of Uyghurs.[348] According to this view, if Western countries were genuinely concerned about human rights, they would focus instead on the negative humanitarian impact of Israeli military operations in Gaza.[348] Following a 2024 statement by US Secretary of State Anthony Blinken which equated the suffering of Muslims in Xinjiang with the suffering of Muslims in Gaza, the Foreign Ministry of the PRC responded, "There is no conflict in Xinjiang, but the conflict is in the Gaza Strip. Muslims in Xinjiang are not suffering from hunger, expulsion, and killing, but the millions of Muslims in the Gaza Strip are suffering from hunger, expulsion, and killing. The US should stop playing double standards on human rights ..."[349]

## International responses

[edit]

Further information: International reactions to the persecution of Uyghurs in China

### Reactions by supranational organizations

[edit]

#### United Nations

[edit]

Protesters at the United Nations with the flag of East Turkestan

The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (HCHR) began to discuss the possibility of a visit to Xinjiang with China in order to examine "the impact on human rights of its policies" in September 2020.[350] Since then, the HCHR's office has since been negotiating terms of access to China, but the High Commissioner has not visited the country.[351] In a February 2021 speech to the UNHRC, the Chinese Foreign Minister stated that Xinjiang is "always open" and the country "welcomes the High Commissioner for Human Rights (HCHR) to visit Xinjiang".[351] At a March 2021 meeting of the UNHRC, the United States ambassador condemned China's human rights abuses in Xinjiang as "crimes against humanity and genocide".[352][353]

China has turned down multiple requests from the UN HCHR to investigate the region.[354] In January 2022, unidentified sources told the South China Morning Post that UN rights chief Michelle Bachelet had secured a visit to Xinjiang, not to be framed as an investigation, some time during the first half of the year, as long as her office doesn't agree to the U.S. request of publishing its Xinjiang report ahead of the Beijing Winter Olympics.[355] The visit occurred in May 2022.[356] In a statement released by the UN, Bachelet said that she raised concerns in Xinjiang about the broad application of counter-terrorism and de-radicalisation measures (including their impacts on Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities) and encouraged the government to review such policies to ensure they fully comply with international human rights standards.[356] Bachelet stated that while she was unable to investigate the full scale of the vocational educational and training centres (VETC), she raised with the Chinese government concerns about the lack of independent judicial oversight for the program, and said that the government provided assurances that the VETC system had been dismantled.[356] U.S. rights advocates criticized Bachelet's visit as a propaganda victory for Beijing.[357] The World Uyghur Congress and the Washington D.C.-based Campaign for Uyghurs called for her to resign,[358] and Bachelet announced in June 2022 that she would step down from her role as UN human rights chief.[359]

On 31 August 2022, Bachelet released a report on China's treatment of Uyghur Muslims and other Muslim minority groups in Xinjiang, the OHCHR Assessment of human rights concerns in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China. The report found that China's treatment of these groups may amount to crimes against humanity. The report concludes that "serious human rights violations have been committed" in the province, which the report attributes to China's "application of counter-terrorism and counter-'extremism' strategies" targeting Uyghur Muslims and other Muslim minority groups. The report also said that "Allegations of patterns of torture or ill-treatment, including forced medical treatment and adverse conditions of detention, are credible, as are allegations of individual incidents of sexual and gender-based violence". China opposed the release of the report and claimed that it is based on "disinformation and lies". China also claimed that "All ethnic groups, including the Uygur, are equal members of the Chinese nation. Xinjiang has taken actions to fight terrorism and extremism in accordance with the law, effectively curbing the frequent occurrences of terrorist activities".[360][361] On 6 October 2022, the UNHCR voted down a proposal to debate the alleged human rights abuses in Xinjiang.[362]

### Reactions by country

[edit]

In December 2020, a case brought to the International Criminal Court was dismissed because the crimes alleged appeared to have been "committed solely by nationals of China within the territory of China, a State which is not a party to the Statute", meaning the ICC could not investigate them.[27] In January 2021, the United States Department of State declared China's actions as genocide,[28][29] and legislatures in several countries have passed non-binding motions doing the same, including the House of Commons of Canada,[30] the Dutch parliament,[31] the House of Commons of the United Kingdom,[32] the Seimas of Lithuania,[33] and the French National Assembly.[34] Other parliaments, such as those in New Zealand,[35] Belgium,[36] and the Czech Republic condemned the Chinese government's treatment of Uyghurs as "severe human rights abuses" or crimes against humanity.[37]

The Uyghur Tribunal, a "people's tribunal" based in the United Kingdom, began to hold hearings in June 2021 to examine evidence in order to evaluate whether China's abuses against Uyghurs constitute genocide under the Genocide Convention.[363][364][365] The tribunal was chaired by Geoffrey Nice, the lead prosecutor in the trial of Slobodan Milošević, who announced the creation of the tribunal in September 2020.[363][366][367] On 9 December 2021, the tribunal concluded that China has committed genocide against the Uyghurs via birth control and sterilization measures.[368] The tribunal also found evidence of crimes against humanity, torture and sexual abuse.[368] The tribunal's final determination does not legally bind any government to take action.[365][369]

#### Multinational corporations

[edit]

Xinjiang boycott advert on NYU's campus in New York, NY
"Boycott Xinjiang Genocide Products!"

In reaction to the proposed Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act in 2020 to impose sanctions on "any foreign person who 'knowingly engages'" and require firms to disclose their dealings with Xinjiang,[370] the president of the American Apparel & Footwear Association said that blanket import bans on cotton or other products from Xinjiang from such legislation would "wreak havoc" on legitimate supply chains in the apparel industry because Xinjiang cotton exports are often intermingled with cotton from other countries and there is no available origin-tracing technology for cotton fibers.[371] On 22 September 2020, the US Chamber of Commerce issued a letter stating that the act "would prove ineffective and may hinder efforts to prevent human rights abuses."[372] Major companies with supply chain ties to Xinjiang, including Apple Inc., Nike, Inc. and The Coca-Cola Company, have lobbied Congress to weaken the legislation and amend its provisions.[373]

Uyghur human rights demonstration protest near the White House, on 25 September 2015

##### 2022 Winter Olympics Boycott

[edit]

Main article: Concerns and controversies at the 2022 Winter Olympics

In the aftermath of the 2019 leak of the Xinjiang papers which made public Chinese policies towards the Uyghurs, calls were made for a boycott of the 2022 Winter Olympics.[374] In a 30 July 2020 letter, the World Uyghur Congress urged the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to reconsider the decision to hold the Olympics in Beijing.[375][376] In a non-binding motion in February 2021, the Canadian House of Commons called for the IOC to move the Olympics to a new location.[377] The IOC met with activists in late 2020 about their request to move the Olympics.[378] In March 2021, the President of the International Olympic Committee Thomas Bach opposed a boycott, which would also damage the IOC image and finances, and said that the IOC must stay out of politics.[378] On 6 April 2021, a senior U.S. State Department official stated that the department's position "on the 2022 Olympics has not changed" and that it has not "discussed and [is] not discussing any joint boycott with allies and partners."[379] Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, India, Kosovo, Lithuania, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, and the United States announced diplomatic boycotts of the 2022 Winter Olympics.[380]

## Denial of abuses

[edit]

The abuses against the Uyghurs and related ethnic groups have been denied by the Chinese government. These denials have been both internal and external.[381] The Chinese government has conducted propaganda campaigns on social media to further denial of the abuses. In 2021, the Chinese government posted thousands of videos to social media showing residents of Xinjiang denying claims of abuse made by Mike Pompeo; a joint investigation by ProPublica and The New York Times found the videos were part of an influence campaign coordinated by the CCP's Central Propaganda Department.[114] They have also used their existing disinformation networks, including social media trolls, to deny genocide and other human rights abuses against Uyghurs.[382]

In 2020, during an interview with Andrew Marr of the BBC, the Chinese ambassador to the UK Liu Xiaoming denied any abuse against Uyghurs despite being shown drone footage of what appeared to be shackled Uyghur, and other minority ethnic, prisoners being herded on to trains during a prison transfer. The ambassador also blamed reports of forced sterilisations on "some small group of anti-China elements".[383] In January 2021, Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesperson Zhao Lijian responded to questions about the Uyghur genocide during a press briefing by stating, "China has no genocide; China has no genocide; China has no genocide, period."[384][385] In February 2021, Wang Wenbin called the Uyghur genocide the "lie of the century".[386][387]

The abuses, and the existence of the camp network, have also been denied by a small minority of American left-wing media outlets. These include a left-wing blog called LA Progressive which began publishing denial articles in April 2020, while The Grayzone has been the most influential outlet to publish articles denying "China's ongoing repression of the Uyghur people".[388] The Grayzone has been featured by Chinese state media, including CGTN and the Global Times. In 2020, Chinese government spokesperson Hua Chunying retweeted a story published by The Grayzone which claimed to have debunked research into the internment camps in Xinjiang.[389]

In February 2021, a Press Gazette investigation found that Facebook had accepted content from Chinese state media outlets such as China Daily and China Global Television Network that denied the mistreatment of Uyghurs.[390]

According to anthropologist and China expert Gerald Roche, writing in The Nation, Xinjiang denialism only aids Chinese and American imperialism.[391] He cited Donald Trump, who, according to former National Security Advisor John Bolton, believed that building internment camps was "exactly the right thing to do."[392]

According to reports by the Newlines Institute, a think tank at the Fairfax University of America, AmaBhungane, and The New York Times, Neville Roy Singham funds a network of nonprofits and groups, including Code Pink, that deny or downplay human rights abuses against Uyghurs and other Turkic Muslim minorities in Xinjiang.[393][394][395] According to Sang Heae Kil of San Jose State University, within far-left circles, "there is a hesitancy to want to recognize that what’s happening to the Uyghurs is a type of genocide."[396]

In Taiwan, former KMT chairwoman Hung Hsiu-chu received criticism for claiming that Western nations had "fabricated lies about the so-called 'forced labor' and 'genocide' in Xinjiang to undermine China's internal unity" while on a Chinese government-sponsored trip to Xinjiang in 2022.[397]

Darren Beattie, the acting Under Secretary of State for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs during the second Trump administration, previously wrote, "The Chinese aren't genocidal. They just object to Uyghur supremacy and uyghurness. If Uyghurs simply reject Uyghur supremacy, they'll have no problem functioning in Chinese society." In another post in 2021, he wrote "Uighurs don't like anti-Uighur racism, it must be because they are Uighur nationalists who think all of China is for Uighurs ONLY." He also wrote in the August 2024 that, "Britain treats its own native white people far worse than China treats its muslim Uighur population."[398]

## See also

[edit]

* Outline of genocide studies
* Ethnic minorities in China
* History of the Uyghur people
* Persecution of Uyghurs in Turkey
* History of Xinjiang
* Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin
* Dzungar genocide
* Dungan Revolt
* Xinjiang conflict
* Xinjiang papers
* Transnational repression by China
* American Indian boarding schools
* Canadian Indian residential school system
* Kidnapping of children by Nazi Germany
* Kinder der Landstrasse
* Native schools in New Zealand
* Norwegianization of Sámi and Kvens
* Stolen Generations

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Abbas, Rushan (2021). "The Rise of Global Islamophobia and the Uyghur Genocide". Brown Journal of World Affairs. 28 (1). Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
2. ^ "Uyghur Genocide and Concentrated Reeducation Camps in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China" (PDF). U.S. Office of Director of National Intelligence. October 2024. Retrieved 3 March 2025.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Khatchadourian, Raffi (5 April 2021). "Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
4. ^ a b c d e f Finley, Joanne (2020). "Why Scholars and Activists Increasingly Fear a Uyghur Genocide in Xinjiang". Journal of Genocide Research. 23 (3). Newcastle University: 348–370\. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1848109. ISSN 1462-3528. S2CID 236962241.
5. ^ Kirby, Jen (25 September 2020). "Concentration camps and forced labor: China's repression of the Uighurs, explained". Vox. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 15 January 2021. "It is the largest mass internment of an ethnic-religious minority group since World War II."
6. ^ Turdush, Rukiye; Fiskesjö, Magnus (28 May 2021). "Dossier: Uyghur Women in China's Genocide". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 15 (1): 22–43\. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.15.1.1834.
7. ^ Sudworth, John (December 2020). "China's 'tainted' cotton". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
8. ^ Congressional Research Service (18 June 2019). "Uyghurs in China" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
9. ^ "Muslim minority in China's Xinjiang face 'political indoctrination': Human Rights Watch". Reuters. 9 September 2018. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
10. ^ a b c d e f g "China cuts Uighur births with IUDs, abortion, sterilization". Associated Press. 28 June 2020. Archived from the original on 16 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
11. ^ "China Forces Birth Control on Uighurs to Suppress Population". Voice of America. Associated Press. 29 June 2020. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
12. ^ a b c Samuel, Sigal (10 March 2021). "China's genocide against the Uyghurs, in 4 disturbing charts". Vox. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
13. ^ "China: Uighur women reportedly sterilized in attempt to suppress population". Deutsche Welle. 1 July 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
14. ^ a b "China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs". BBC News. 29 June 2020. Archived from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
15. ^ Feng, Emily (9 July 2018). "Uighur children fall victim to China anti-terror drive". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 10 July 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
16. ^ Zenz, Adrian (July 2019). "Break Their Roots: Evidence for China's Parent-Child Separation Campaign in Xinjiang". The Journal of Political Risk. 7 (7). Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
17. ^ "Birth rate, crude (per 1,000 people) - China". The World Bank. Archived from the original on 3 April 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
18. ^ a b c d e f Watson, Ivan; Wright, Rebecca; Westcott, Ben (21 September 2020). "Xinjiang government confirms huge birth rate drop but denies forced sterilization of women". CNN International. Archived from the original on 27 September 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
19. ^ Griffiths, James (17 April 2021). "From cover-up to propaganda blitz: China's attempts to control the narrative on Xinjiang". CNN. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024.
20. ^ "'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'". The Independent. 5 July 2019. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
21. ^ Finnegan, Ciara (2020). "The Uyghur Minority in China: A Case Study of Cultural Genocide, Minority Rights and the Insufficiency of the International Legal Framework in Preventing State-Imposed Extinction". Laws. 9: 1. doi:10.3390/laws9010001.
22. ^ a b Landale, James (8 February 2021). "Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 8 February 2021.
23. ^ Alecci, Scilla (14 October 2020). "British lawmakers call for sanctions over Uighur human rights abuses". International Consortium of Investigative Journalists. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
24. ^ a b c Piotrowicz, Ryszard (14 July 2020). "Legal expert: forced birth control of Uighur women is genocide – can China be put on trial?". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023.
25. ^ "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide". UNGA. 9 December 1948. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024 – via Human Rights Web.
26. ^ Basu, Zachary (8 October 2020). "Mapped: More countries sign UN statement condemning China's mass detentions in Xinjiang". Axios. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
27. ^ a b

* Griffiths, James. "China avoids ICC prosecution over Xinjiang for now, but pressure is growing". CNN. Archived from the original on 3 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
* "Report on Preliminary Examination Activities 2020" (PDF). The Office of the Prosecutor. International Criminal Court. 14 December 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
* Gordon 2021
* Lynch 2021

28. ^ a b Gordon 2021.
29. ^ a b c Lynch 2021.
30. ^ a b c Jones, Ryan Patrick (22 February 2021). "MPs vote to label China's persecution of Uighurs a genocide". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2021. "A substantial majority of MPs — including most Liberals who participated — voted in favour of a Conservative motion that says China's actions in its western Xinjiang region meet the definition of genocide set out in the 1948 United Nations Genocide Convention. ... The final tally was 266 in favour and zero opposed. Two MPs formally abstained."
31. ^ a b c "Dutch parliament: China's treatment of Uighurs is genocide". Reuters. 25 February 2021. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 25 February 2021.
32. ^ a b Hefffer, Greg (22 April 2021). "House of Commons declares Uighurs are being subjected to genocide in China". Sky News. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2021.
33. ^ a b Basu, Zachary (20 May 2021). "Lithuanian parliament becomes latest to recognize Uyghur genocide". Axios. Archived from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2021.
34. ^ a b "French Parliament Denounces China's Uyghur 'Genocide'". AFP News. 20 January 2022. Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
35. ^ a b Manch, Thomas (5 May 2021). "Parliament unanimously declares 'severe human rights abuses' occurring against Uyghur in China". Stuff. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
36. ^ a b "Belgian MPs warn of 'risk of genocide' of China's Uyghurs". Alarabiya. AFP. 15 June 2021. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
37. ^ a b Gerlin, Roseanne (15 June 2021). "Belgium, Czech Republic Legislatures Pass Uyghur Genocide Declarations". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 17 January 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
38. ^ Ramzy, Austin (1 September 2022). "For Uyghurs, U.N. Report on China's Abuses Is Long-Awaited Vindication". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 September 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
39. ^ "China: New UN Report Alleges Crimes Against Humanity". Human Rights Watch. 31 August 2022. Archived from the original on 3 September 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
40. ^ a b Wickeri, Philip L.; Tam, Yik-fai (2011). "The Religious Life of Ethnic Minority Communities". In Palmer, David A.; Shive, Glenn; Wickeri, Philip L. (eds.). Chinese Religious Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 61–63\. ISBN 9780199731398.
41. ^ Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Garry F.; Fennig, Charles D. "Uyghur". Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas, Texas: Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 26 February 2014. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
42. ^ Gladney, Dru C. "The Chinese Program of Development and Control, 1978–2001". In Starr (2004), pp. 101–119.
43. ^ Hayes & Clarke 2015, p. 63.
44. ^ Hayes & Clarke 2015, p. 4.
45. ^ Clarke 2011, p. 16.
46. ^ Millward, James (7 February 2019). "'Reeducating' Xinjiang's Muslims". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
47. ^ Hayes & Clarke 2015, p. 3.
48. ^ Toops, Stanley W. "The Demography of Xinjiang". In Starr (2004), p. 243.
49. ^ Toops, Stanley (May 2004). "Demographics and Development in Xinjiang after 1949" (PDF). East-West Center Washington Working Papers (1). East–West Center: 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2007. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
50. ^ Forbes, Andrew D. (1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949 W. (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5212-5514-1. Archived from the original on 4 July 2014. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
51. ^ Dillon, Michael (2014). Xinjiang and the Expansion of Chinese Communist Power: Kashgar in the Early Twentieth Century. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-64721-8. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
52. ^ Roberts, Sean R. "A "Land of Borderlands": Implications of Xinjiang's Cross-border Interactions". In Starr (2004), p. 217.
53. ^ Benson, Linda (1990). The Ili Rebellion: the Moslem Challenge to Chinese Authority in Xinjiang, 1944–1949. M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-87332-509-7. Archived from the original on 22 June 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
54. ^ Devastating Blows: Religious Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang (PDF) (Report). Vol. 17\. Human Rights Watch. April 2005. Post 9/11: labeling Uighurs terrorists, p. 16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2018.
55. ^ Clarke 2011, p. 69.
56. ^ Reed, J. Todd; Raschke, Diana (2010). The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat. ABC-CLIO. p. 37\. ISBN 978-0-3133-6540-9. Archived from the original on 18 June 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
57. ^ a b Dwyer 2005, p. x.
58. ^ Dwyer 2005, pp. ix–xii, 1–2.
59. ^ Dwyer 2005, p. ix.
60. ^ a b Christoffersen, Gaye (1993). "Xinjiang and the Great Islamic Circle: The Impact of Transnational Forces on Chinese Regional Economic Planning". The China Quarterly (133): 137–138\. ISSN 0305-7410. JSTOR 654242.
61. ^ Holley, David (12 November 1990). "An Islamic Challenge to China: Officials fear the spread of fundamentalism in the westernmost region. They toughen controls on religious life and suppress secessionist activities". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
62. ^ Sautman, Barry (March 1998). "Preferential policies for ethnic minorities in China: The case of Xinjiang" (PDF). Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 4 (1–2): 103–105\. doi:10.1080/13537119808428530. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2021.1–2&rft.pages=103-105&rft.date=1998-03&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/13537119808428530&rft.aulast=Sautman&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https://repository.ust.hk/ir/bitstream/1783.1-1152/1/sosc32.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Persecution+of+Uyghurs+in+China" class="Z3988">
63. ^ Boehm, Dana Carver (2009). "China's Failed War on Terror: Fanning the Flames of Uighur Separatist Violence" (PDF). Berkeley Journal of Middle Eastern & Islamic Law. 2: 108–111\. doi:10.15779/Z38BC7J. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 3 August 2024.
64. ^ "China: Gross violations of human rights in the Xinjiang Uighur autonomous region (includes erratum)". Amnesty International. 31 March 1999. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2024.
65. ^ "China: Human Rights Concerns in Xinjiang". Human Rights Watch. October 2001. Archived from the original on 12 November 2008. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
66. ^ Millward, James A. (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-2311-3924-3. Archived from the original on 10 December 2013. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
67. ^ Debata, Mahesh Ranjan (2007). China's Minorities: Ethnic-religious Separatism in Xinjiang. Pentagon Press. p. 170\. ISBN 978-81-8274-325-0. Archived from the original on 13 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
68. ^ Branigan, Tania; Watts, Jonathan (5 July 2009). "Muslim Uighurs riot as ethnic tensions rise in China". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 7 September 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
69. ^ "Wary Of Unrest Among Uighur Minority, China Locks Down Xinjiang Region". NPR. 26 September 2017. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020. "In the years that followed, Uighur terrorists killed dozens of Han Chinese in brutal, coordinated attacks at train stations and government offices. A few Uighurs have joined ISIS, and Chinese authorities are worried about more attacks on Chinese soil."
70. ^ Kennedy, Lindsey; Paul, Nathan. "China created a new terrorist threat by repressing this ethnic minority". Quartz. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 June 2018.
71. ^ "Chinese break up 'needle' riots". BBC News. 4 September 2009. Archived from the original on 4 September 2009. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
72. ^ Richburg, Keith B. (19 July 2011). "China: Deadly attack on police station in Xinjiang". San Francisco Chronicle. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
73. ^ "Deadly Terrorist Attack in Southwestern China Blamed on Separatist Muslim Uighurs". Time. Archived from the original on 3 March 2014. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
74. ^ "Deadly China blast at Xinjiang railway station". BBC News. 30 April 2014. Archived from the original on 30 April 2014. Retrieved 1 May 2014.
75. ^ "Urumqi car and bomb attack kills dozens". The Guardian. 22 May 2014. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
76. ^ Karen, Leigh (9 October 2019). "The Uighurs". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 2 February 2020. "Tensions erupted in 2009... Attacks by Uighur separatists intensified in the years that followed, with one of the groups that carried them out—the Turkistan Islamic Party—also being credited with having thousands of jihadist fighters in Syria."
77. ^ Wines, Michael (11 July 2009). "Wang Lequan Is China's Strongman in Controlling Uighurs". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
78. ^ "China Steps Up 'Strike Hard' Campaign in Xinjiang". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 3 December 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
79. ^ Shesgreen, Diedre (2 April 2021). "The US says China is committing genocide against the Uyghurs. Here's some of the most chilling evidence". USA Today. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
80. ^ Wong, Edward (30 May 2014). "China Moves to Calm Restive Xinjiang Region". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 May 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2019.
81. ^ Nazeer, Tasnim. "The Missing Uyghur Children". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
82. ^ a b Shepherd, Christian; Blanchard, Ben (30 March 2017). "China sets rules on beards, veils to combat extremism in Xinjiang". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
83. ^ "Foreign journalists in China complain of abuse from officials". South China Morning Post. Agence France-Presse. 30 January 2018. Archived from the original on 9 April 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
84. ^ a b c Maizland, Lindsay. "China's Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021.
85. ^ Groot, Gerry (2019). "Internment and Indoctrination—Xi's 'new Era' in Xinjiang". In Golley, Jane; Jaivin, Linda; Farrelly, Paul J.; Strange, Sharon (eds.). Power. ANU Press. pp. 98–112\. ISBN 978-1-76046-280-2. JSTOR j.ctvfrxqkv.14.
86. ^ Cheng, June (30 October 2018). "Razor-wire evidence". World. Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
87. ^ a b c "As crackdown eases, China's Xinjiang faces long road to rehabilitation". The Washington Post. 23 September 2022. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
88. ^ Brown 2023, p. 138.
89. ^

* Qin 2021
* Xiao 2021: "Beijing is beating back international criticism of its treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang with a propaganda push on Facebook, Twitter and the big screen."
* Brouwer 2021
* Kim, Jo (16 December 2019). "Why China's Xinjiang Propaganda Fails". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.

90. ^ a b Griffiths, James (17 April 2021). "From cover-up to propaganda blitz: China's attempts to control the narrative on Xinjiang". www.cnn.com. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
91. ^ Dorman, Mark; Stephen, Hutcheon; Dylan, Welch; Taylor, Kyle (31 October 2018). "China's frontier of fear". ABC News. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
92. ^ Shepherd, Christian (2 April 2021). "China intensifies Xinjiang propaganda push as global backlash grows". The Financial Times. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
93. ^ a b c Cadell, Cate (March 2021). "China counters Uighur criticism with explicit attacks on women witnesses". Reuters. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
94. ^ Cheung, Rachel; Wilhelm, Benjamin (31 March 2021). "China Lashes Out to Silence Its Xinjiang Critics". World Politics Review. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
95. ^ a b Qin, Amy (1 April 2021). "BBC Correspondent Leaves China, Citing Growing Risks". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021.
96. ^ Tarabay, Jamie (4 March 2021). "China's BBC Attacks Show Growing Sophistication, Group Says". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
97. ^ Yan, Sophia (4 March 2021). "China using Big Tech firms to attack BBC in state propaganda campaign, says report". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
98. ^ a b Sudworth, John (2 April 2021). "'The grim reality of reporting in China that pushed me out'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
99. ^ Sudworth, John (31 March 2021). "BBC journalist John Sudworth flees China after state harassment campaign". The Times of London. Archived from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
100. ^ "RTÉ reporter in Beijing flees China with husband after threats". The Irish Times. 31 March 2021. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
101. ^

* Xiao 2021: "Beijing is beating back international criticism of its treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang with a propaganda push on Facebook, Twitter and the big screen."
* Cockerell, Isobel (19 September 2020). "Welcome to TikTok's sanitized version of Xinjiang". Rappler. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
* Niewenhuis 2021

102. ^ a b "Xinjiang's TikTok wipes away evidence of Uyghur persecution". Rappler. Coda Story. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
103. ^ Xiao 2021: "Beijing is beating back international criticism of its treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang with a propaganda push on Facebook, Twitter and the big screen."
104. ^ Niewenhuis 2021.
105. ^ Mac, Ryan. "These New Facebook Ads From Chinese State Media Want You To Believe Xinjiang's Muslim Internment Camps Are Just Great". Buzzfeed News. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
106. ^ Fifeld, Anna (27 November 2019). "TikTok's owner is helping China's campaign of repression in Xinjiang, report finds". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
107. ^ Borak, Marsha. "ByteDance says TikTok and Douyin are different, but they face similar criticisms". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
108. ^ Gallagher, Ryan (19 August 2019). "Twitter Helped Chinese Government Promote Disinformation on Repression of Uyghurs". The Intercept. Archived from the original on 21 August 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
109. ^ Borak, Masha (5 December 2019). "New swarm of pro-China Twitter bots spreads disinformation about Xinjiang". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
110. ^ Qin 2021.
111. ^ Brouwer 2021.
112. ^ Xiao, Bang (7 April 2021). "Uyghur community leaders in Australia appalled and outraged the government allowed a Chinese Communist Party propaganda parade". ABC News (Australia). Archived from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
113. ^ "China launches musical in bid to counter Uyghur abuse allegations". The Guardian. Agence France-Presse. 3 April 2021. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
114. ^ a b Kao, Jeff; Zhong, Raymond; Mozur, Paul; Krolik, Aaron (23 June 2021). "How China Spreads Its Propaganda Version of Life for Uyghurs". ProPublica. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 15 March 2023.
115. ^ Ryan, Fergus; Impiombato, Daria; Pai, Hsi-Ting (20 October 2022). "Frontier influencers: the new face of China's propaganda". Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
116. ^ a b "NEWSWEEK – China Makes Contentious Comparison Between Gaza and Xinjiang". East Turkistan Government in Exile. 31 October 2023. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023.
117. ^ Diego Mendoza (1 November 2023). "Chinese embassy in France compares Gaza with Xinjiang". Semafor. Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
118. ^ Trédaniel, Marie; Lee, Pak K. (18 September 2017). "Explaining the Chinese framing of the "terrorist" violence in Xinjiang: insights from securitization theory" (PDF). Nationalities Papers. 46 (1): 177–195\. doi:10.1080/00905992.2017.1351427. ISSN 0090-5992. S2CID 157729459. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
119. ^ Tynen, Sarah (1 June 2021). "Islamophobia, Terrorism and the Uyghurs: When Minorities in China Find Themselves on the Wrong Side of the Counterterrorism Discourse". Geopolitics. 27: 4. doi:10.1080/14650045.2021.1924939. S2CID 236335966.
120. ^ Tobin, David (23 January 2024). "Visualising insecurity: the globalisation of China's racist 'counter-terror' education". Comparative Education. 60: 195–215\. doi:10.1080/03050068.2023.2298130. ISSN 0305-0068.
121. ^ a b "China expels French reporter who questioned terror claims". The Times of Israel. Associated Press. 26 December 2015. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2021.
122. ^ "UN calls on China to free Uighurs from alleged re-education camps". The Straits Times. 30 August 2018. Archived from the original on 13 October 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
123. ^ Editorial Board (18 November 2019). "Beijing's Secrets of Xinjiang". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
124. ^ Sales, Nathan; Brownback, Sam (22 May 2019). "China's attack on Uighurs isn't counterterrorism. It's ugly repression". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 November 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
125. ^ "China Sentences Two Ex-Xinjiang Officials to Death on Separatism Charges". Voice of America. 7 April 2021. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 14 July 2024. "Wang Langtao, the vice president of Xinjiang's higher people's court, told reporters Tuesday that Sattar Sawut and Shirzat Bawudun have both been granted a two-year reprieve on their sentences. Such sentences are usually commuted to life imprisonment."
126. ^ "China sentences Uyghur former government officials to death for 'separatist activities'". Channel NewsAsia. Agence France-Presse. 7 April 2021. Archived from the original on 7 April 2021.
127. ^ a b "China condemns 2 ex-Xinjiang officials in separatism cases". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 10 April 2021.
128. ^ Ramzy, Austin; Buckley, Chris (16 November 2019). "'Absolutely No Mercy': Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
129. ^ "Secret documents reveal how China mass detention camps work". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 24 November 2019. Archived from the original on 25 March 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
130. ^ Zenz, Adrian (16 May 2023). "How Beijing Forces Uyghurs to Pick Cotton". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
131. ^ Willemyns, Alex (19 September 2023). "Uyghur event in NY goes ahead despite Beijing's warning". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 5 November 2023. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
132. ^ Bhuiyan, Karishma; Fang, Andrew (26 April 2024). "Rights group: China imprisons more than 449,000 Uyghurs in Xinjiang". United Press International. Archived from the original on 26 April 2024. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
133. ^ a b Wright, Rebecca; Watson, Ivan; Mahmood, Zahid; Booth, Tom (5 October 2021). "Chinese detective in exile reveals torture inflicted on Uyghurs". CNN. Archived from the original on 5 October 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
134. ^ a b c "One million Muslim Uighurs held in secret China camps: UN panel". Al Jazeera. 10 August 2018. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
135. ^ Chin, Josh (21 May 2019). "The German Data Diver Who Exposed China's Muslim Crackdown". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 19 January 2020. Retrieved 14 January 2020.
136. ^ Zenz, Adrian (July 2019). "Brainwashing, Police Guards and Coercive Internment: Evidence from Chinese Government Documents about the Nature and Extent of Xinjiang's "Vocational Training Internment Camps"". Journal of Political Risk. 7 (7). Archived from the original on 3 August 2019. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
137. ^ Lipes, Joshua (12 November 2019). "Expert Estimates China Has More Than 1,000 Internment Camps For Xinjiang Uyghurs". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 13 November 2019.
138. ^ Zenz, Adrian (1 July 2020). "China's Own Documents Show Potentially Genocidal Sterilization Plans in Xinjiang". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 29 March 2021. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
139. ^ Davidson, Helen (18 September 2020). "Clues to scale of Xinjiang labour operation emerge as China defends camps". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 March 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
140. ^ "Break Their Lineage, Break Their Roots" (Report). Human Rights Watch. 19 April 2021. Archived from the original on 6 January 2025. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
141. ^ a b c "The Uyghur Genocide: An Examination of China's Breaches of the 1948 Genocide Convention". Newlines Institute for Strategy and Policy. 8 March 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
142. ^ a b c Millward, David (9 March 2019). "Legal experts accuse China of committing genocide against Uighurs". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
143. ^ a b c d "China committing genocide against Uighurs, says report". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
144. ^ Hoshur, Shohret (29 October 2019). "At Least 150 Detainees Have Died in One Xinjiang Internment Camp: Police Officer". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 4 April 2021. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
145. ^ Cockburn, Harry (28 November 2018). "Muslim woman describes torture and beatings in China detention camp: 'I begged them to kill me'". The Independent. Archived from the original on 1 January 2025.
146. ^ "Internment Camps in Xinjiang's Aksu Separated by Crematorium". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 7 April 2021. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
147. ^ Mirovalev, Mansur. "Why are Central Asian countries so quiet on Uighur persecution?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2023. "In November, border guards in neighbouring Uzbekistan deported Gene Bunin, a Russian-American scholar of the Uighur language who runs Shahit.biz, an online collection of testimony of thousands of Chinese Muslims."
148. ^ "OHCHR Assessment of human rights concerns in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China" (PDF). Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 31 August 2022. p. 41\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2023. "For example, on 9 April 2021, in a press conference in Beijing, authorities acknowledged that out of 12,050 people in the Xinjiang Victims Database, they had confirmed the existence of 10,708 people. 1,342 accounts reportedly pertained to individuals who were "fabricated." Out of the 10,708 people, 6,962 were "living a normal life"; 3,244 had reportedly been convicted and sentenced for terrorist acts and other criminal offences; 238 had reportedly died of "diseases and other causes" and 264 were living overseas."
149. ^ Nee, William (27 November 2023). "A Nuanced Approach to China Needs Human Rights at the Core". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2023. "The Xinjiang Victims Database has recorded 225 deaths in custody, likely the tip of the iceberg."
150. ^ Khoo Yi-Hang (17 January 2023). "Deep undercover? Andy Lau and Chow Yun Fat listed as Xinjiang 'crackdown' cops by US activists, netizens go wild". AsiaOne. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
151. ^ 鄭秀珠 (14 January 2023). "Zhōurùnfā liúdéhuá bèi qū 'xīnjiāng jǐngchá míngdān'wǎngyǒu cháo︰tāmen zhīdào xīn shēnfèn ma?" 周潤發劉德華被屈「新疆警察名單」網友嘲︰他們知道新身份嗎? [Chow Yun-fat Andy Lau were subsumed to the "Xinjiang Police List". Netizens ridiculed: do they know their new identities?]. HK01 (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
152. ^ "Zhōurùnfā liúdéhuá jīng xiàn"xīnjiāng jǐngchá míngdān" wǎng cháo: Tāmen zhīdào xīn shēnfèn ma" 周润发刘德华惊现"新疆警察名单" 网嘲: 他们知道新身分吗 [Chow Yun-fat and Andy Lau were found on the "Xinjiang Police List" and netizens mocked: Do they know their new identities?]. China Press (in Chinese). Malaysia. 14 January 2023. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
153. ^ Cheshire, Tom (11 October 2021). "Uyghurs tortured and beaten to death in Xinjiang, former Chinese police officer reveals". Sky News.
154. ^ "Facebook finds Chinese hacking operation targeting Uyghurs". Associated Press. 24 March 2020. Archived from the original on 25 March 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021. "China has imprisoned more than 1 million people, including Uyghurs and other mostly Muslim ethnic groups, in a vast network of concentration camps, according to U.S. officials and human rights groups. People have been subjected to torture, sterilization and political indoctrination, in addition to forced labor, as part of an assimilation campaign in a region whose inhabitants are ethnically and culturally distinct from the Han Chinese majority."
155. ^ "Inside Chinese camps thought to be detaining a million Muslims". NBC News. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
156. ^ Bouscaren, Durrie (24 March 2021). "Uyghur mothers in Turkey walk for miles to ask politicians for help locating their children in China". PRI. Archived from the original on 25 March 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
157. ^ "To Make Us Slowly Disappear": The Chinese Government's Assault on the Uyghurs (PDF). United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. November 2021. p. 24\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 June 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
158. ^ a b "A tale of torture in a Chinese internment camp for Uighurs". U.S. Virtual Embassy Iran. 7 December 2018. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
159. ^ "Academics condemn China over Xinjiang camps, urge sanctions". Al Jazeera. 27 November 2018. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
160. ^ a b Yan, Sophia (28 November 2018). "'I begged them to kill me', Uighur woman describes torture to US politicians". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
161. ^ "Academics condemn China over Xinjiang camps, urge sanctions". Al Jazeera. 27 November 2018. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
162. ^ "Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Hua Chunying's Regular Press Conference on January 21, 2019". Foreign Ministry of China. Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
163. ^ a b Samark, Former detainee Kayrat. "Ex-Detainee Describes Torture In China's Xinjiang Re-Education Camp". NPR. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
164. ^ a b Kirby, Jen. "Concentration camps and forced labor: China's repression of the Uighurs, explained". Vox. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
165. ^ Stavrou, David (17 October 2019). "A Million People Are Jailed at China's Gulags. I Managed to Escape. Here's What Really Goes on Inside". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 17 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
166. ^ Handley, Erin (23 September 2019). "'Deeply disturbing' footage surfaces of blindfolded Uyghurs at train station in Xinjiang". ABC News. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
167. ^ Fifield, Anna (28 November 2019). "TikTok's owner is helping China's campaign of repression in Xinjiang, report finds". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
168. ^ "First she survived a Uighur internment camp. Then she made it out of China". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
169. ^ a b Cheng, June (2 July 2020). "A cultural genocide before our eyes". World. Asheville, North Carolina. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2020.
170. ^ a b c Fallert, Nicole (14 April 2021). "Gynecologist Exiled From China Says 80 Sterilizations Per Day Forced on Uyghurs". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
171. ^ a b Enos, Olivia; Kim, Yujin (29 August 2019). "China's Forced Sterilization of Uighur Women Is Cultural Genocide". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
172. ^ Haitiwaji, Gulbahar; Morgat, Rozenn (12 January 2021). "'Our souls are dead': how I survived a Chinese 're-education' camp for Uighurs". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
173. ^ Bain, Marc. "Clothing made by Chinese forced labor is likely being sold in the US". Quartz. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
174. ^ "China profiting off of forced labor in Xinjiang: report". Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 9 December 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2019.
175. ^ a b Killing, Allison; Rajagopalan, Megha (28 December 2020). "The Factories In The Camps". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
176. ^ a b c "Batches of 50 to 100 Uighur workers are being advertised on the Chinese internet". Sky News. 16 April 2021. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
177. ^ "Samsung's response". Business & Human Rights Resource Centre. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
178. ^ "China steps up pressure on brands to reject reports of Uyghur abuses". NBC News. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2021.
179. ^ Nicas, Jack; Zhong, Raymond; Wakabayashi, Daisuke (17 May 2021). "Censorship, Surveillance and Profits: A Hard Bargain for Apple in China". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
180. ^ "Adidas, Nike Web Sales Plunge in China Amid Xinjiang Boycott". Bloomberg. 6 May 2021. Archived from the original on 22 December 2022. Retrieved 14 March 2023.
181. ^ "Prisoners in China's Xinjiang concentration camps subjected to gang rape and medical experiments, former detainee says". The Independent. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
182. ^ "Muslim woman describes horrors of Chinese concentration camp: Haaretz". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
183. ^ a b "Committee News Release - October 21, 2020 - SDIR (43-2)". House of Commons of Canada. 21 October 2020. Archived from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
184. ^ a b "Uighur camps: US, UK governments condemn reports of systematic rape". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
185. ^

* Hill, Campanale & Gunter 2021
* Brunnstrom, David (3 February 2021). "U.S. 'deeply disturbed' by reports of systematic rape of Muslims in China camps". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 5 February 2021.
* Rahim, Zamira (22 October 2019). "Prisoners in China's Xinjiang concentration camps subjected to gang rape and medical experiments, former detainee says". The Independent. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
* Dziedzic, Stephen (3 February 2021). "Uyghur advocates speak out after horrifying accounts of rape and torture in Xinjiang camps in China". ABC News. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 3 April 2021.

186. ^ "China Uses Rape as Torture Tactic Against Uighur Detainees, Victims Say". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
187. ^ a b Ferris-Rotman, Amie; Toleukhan, Aigerim; Rauhala, Emily; Fifield, Anna (6 October 2019). "China accused of genocide over forced abortions of Uighur Muslim women as escapees reveal widespread sexual torture". The Independent. Archived from the original on 8 December 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2019.
188. ^ a b c d e Hill, Campanale & Gunter 2021.
189. ^ Vanderklippe, Nathan (2 August 2018). "'Everyone was silent, endlessly mute': Former Chinese re-education instructor speaks out". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
190. ^ "She Escaped The Nightmare Of China's Brutal Internment Camps. Now She Could Be Sent Back". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 14 February 2021.
191. ^ Cadell, Cate (1 March 2021). "China counters Uighur criticism with explicit attacks on women witnesses". Reuters. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2021.
192. ^ Tiezzi, Shannon. "China Bans BBC World News Over Xinjiang Reporting". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
193. ^ "Allegations of shackled students and gang rape inside China's detention camps". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 February 2021. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
194. ^ Zenz, Adrian; Rosenberg, Erin (8 June 2021). "Beijing Plans a Slow Genocide in Xinjiang". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
195. ^ a b Zenz 2020, pp. 2–3.
196. ^ Editorial Board (6 July 2020). "What's happening in Xinjiang is genocide". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
197. ^ "Pompeo calls report of forced sterilisation of Uighurs 'shocking'". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
198. ^ Ilmie, M. Irfan; Mutiasari, Tia (11 January 2021). "Populasi Uighur naik 25 persen, pemerintah Xinjiang bantu cek keluarga" [Uighur population up 25 percent, Xinjiang government helps check families]. Antara News (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 14 June 2021.
199. ^ "Chinese academic hits out at Pompeo-backed Xinjiang sterilisation report". South China Morning Post. 15 September 2020. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
200. ^ Zenz 2020, p. 8.
201. ^ Zenz 2020, p. 5.
202. ^ "China forces birth control on Uyghurs, other minorities to suppress population". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
203. ^ "China 'using birth control' to suppress Uighurs". BBC News. 29 June 2020. Archived from the original on 29 June 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
204. ^ Zenz, Adren. "Sterilizations and Mandatory Birth Control in Xinjiang". Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
205. ^ Shepherd, Christian; Pitel, Laura (17 February 2020). "The Karakax list: how China targets Uighurs in Xinjiang". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
206. ^ Reinsberg, Lisa (29 July 2020). "China's Forced Sterilization of Uyghur Women Violates Clear International Law". Just Security. Archived from the original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
207. ^ Ordonez, Victor (8 June 2021). "Chinese birth-control policy could cut millions of Uyghur births: Report". ABC News. Archived from the original on 6 January 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
208. ^ Lee, Timothy B. (8 January 2021). "Twitter takes down China's "baby-making machines" tweet on Uighur women". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
209. ^ a b c Westcott, Ben; Xiong, Yong. "Xinjiang's Uyghurs didn't choose to be Muslim, new Chinese report says". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
210. ^ a b Byler, Darren (9 November 2018). "Why Chinese civil servants are happy to occupy Uyghur homes in Xinjiang". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
211. ^ "China's Uighurs told to share beds, meals with party members". AP News. 30 November 2018. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
212. ^ a b c Hoshur, Shohret (31 October 2019). "Male Chinese 'Relatives' Assigned to Uyghur Homes Co-sleep With Female 'Hosts'". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 14 January 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2021.
213. ^ "'They Ordered Me to Get an Abortion': A Chinese Woman's Ordeal in Xinjiang". NPR. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
214. ^ Guo, Rongxing (15 July 2015). China's Spatial (Dis)integration: Political Economy of the Interethnic Unrest in Xinjiang. Chandos Publishing. ISBN 9780081004036. Archived from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
215. ^ a b Stravrou, David (3 December 2020). "China's 'XXX Files': '25 Thousand People Disappear Each Year, Their Organs Are Harvested'". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 12 December 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
216. ^ "Congressional Testimony:Organ Harvesting of Religious and Political Dissidents by the Chinese Communist Party" (PDF). Ethan Gutmann. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. 12 September 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
217. ^ Gutmann, Ethan (5 December 2011). "The Xinjiang Procedure". The Weekly Standard. Archived from the original on 16 December 2018.
218. ^ Brooks, David (22 December 2011). "The Sidney Awards Part II". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020.
219. ^ Martin, Will. "China is harvesting thousands of human organs from its Uighur Muslim minority, UN human-rights body hears". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
220. ^ Batha, Emma (24 September 2019). "U.N. urged to investigate organ harvesting". Reuters. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
221. ^

* "Short Form of the China Tribunal's Judgement" (PDF). China Tribunal. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 July 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2020. "These individual conclusions, when combined, led to the unavoidable final conclusion that; [...] The concerted persecution and medical testing of Uyghurs is more recent and it may be that evidence of forced organ harvesting of this group may emerge in due course. [...] In regard to the Uyghurs the Tribunal has evidence of medical testing on a scale that could allow them, amongst other uses, to become an 'organ bank'."
* Smith, Saphora (18 June 2019). "China forcefully harvests organs from detainees, tribunal concludes". NBC News. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
* McKay, Hollie (14 October 2019). "Survivors and victims on shocking state-sanctioned organ harvesting in China". Fox News Channel. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2020.
* Denyer, Simon (15 September 2017). "China used to harvest organs from prisoners. Under pressure, that practice is finally ending". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 October 2017. Retrieved 3 August 2020.

222. ^ Lipes, Joshua (18 November 2020). "Aksu Internment Camp Was Former Hospital, Raising Fears Uyghur Detainees Are Used in Organ Trade". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021.
223. ^ "China's sick tactics used against pregnant women". Queensland Times.
224. ^ Swerling, Gabriella (17 June 2019). "British government 'ignored' Chinese organ harvesting, Tribunal rules". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
225. ^ Werlemann, C. J. (24 January 2020). "China's Harvesting of Uyghur Organs Gets Darker". Byline Times. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
226. ^ Everington, Keoni (22 January 2020). "Saudis allegedly buy 'Halal organs' from 'slaughtered' Xinjiang Muslims". Taiwan News. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
227. ^ "China: UN human rights experts alarmed by 'organ harvesting' allegations". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 14 June 2021. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
228. ^ Sherwell, Philip; Spence, Madeleine (9 August 2020). "Uighurs forced to keep China running at height of Covid-19 pandemic". The Sunday Times. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
229. ^ a b Vanderklippe, Nathan (2 March 2021). "Thousands of Uyghur workers in China are being relocated in an effort to assimilate Muslims, documents show". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
230. ^ a b Cockerell, Isobel (9 July 2020). "Revealed: New videos expose China's forced migration of Uyghurs during the pandemic". Coda Story. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
231. ^ Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong; Cave, Danielle; Leibold, James; Munro, Kelsey; Ruser, Nathan (February 2020). Uyghurs for sale: 'Re-education', forced labour and surveillance beyond Xinjiang (Report). Australian Strategic Policy Institute. pp. 6–28\. Archived from the original on 24 August 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
232. ^ "China: 83 major brands implicated in report on forced labour of ethnic minorities from Xinjiang assigned to factories across provinces; Includes company responses". Business & Human Rights Resource Centre. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
233. ^ "'A huge game-changer': Report says more than 570,000 Uighurs forced to pick cotton". France 24. 15 December 2020. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
234. ^ "China accused of forcing 570,000 people to pick cotton in Xinjiang". Reuters. 15 December 2020. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
235. ^ Davidson, Helen (3 March 2021). "Chinese labour schemes aimed to cut Uighur population density – report". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
236. ^ a b c d "Report: Western Supply Chains Tied to Uyghur Forced Labor in China's Critical Minerals Boom". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 12 June 2025. Retrieved 12 June 2025.
237. ^ a b "Risk at the Source: Critical Mineral Supply Chains and State-Imposed Forced Labour in the Uyghur Region – New Report". globalrightscompliance.org. Retrieved 12 June 2025.
238. ^ Davidson, Helen; McKernan, Bethan (29 December 2020). "Pressure on Turkey to protect Uighurs as China ratifies extradition treaty". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
239. ^ Lyngaas, Sean (24 March 2021). "China-based hackers used front companies to hack Uighurs, Facebook says". cyberscoop.com. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
240. ^ O'Neill, Patrick Howell. "How China turned a prize-winning iPhone hack against the Uyghurs". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2021.
241. ^ "Facebook: Chinese hackers spy on Uyghur Muslims abroad". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 26 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
242. ^ Collier, Kevin. "Facebook says Chinese hackers used platform to hack Uyghurs abroad". NBC News. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
243. ^ a b "Uyghurs are being deported from Muslim countries, raising concerns about China's growing reach". CNN. 8 June 2021. Archived from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
244. ^ Simmons, Keir; Saravia, Laura; Smith, Alexander (10 August 2023). "What once were safe havens for those fleeing China now feel dangerous". NBC News. Archived from the original on 31 May 2024. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
245. ^ "Detainee says China has secret jail in Dubai, holds Uyghurs". Taiwan News. Associated Press. 16 August 2021. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
246. ^ Putz, Catherine. "Measuring the Scale of Chinese Transnational Repression". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
247. ^ a b c d e f Wee, Sui-Lee; Mozur, Paul (3 December 2019). "China Uses DNA to Map Faces, With Help From the West". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
248. ^ Rollett, Charles (13 June 2018). "In China's Far West, Companies Cash in on Surveillance Program That Targets Muslims". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
249. ^ a b c Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong; Cave, Danielle; Ryan, Fergus (22 August 2019). "Mapping more of China's tech giants: AI and surveillance". aspi.org.au. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2019.
250. ^ "Dà jiāng chuàngxīn yǔ xīnjiāng zìzhìqū gōng'ān tīng jié wéi jǐng yòng wú rén jī zhànlüè hézuò huǒbàn" 大疆创新与新疆自治区公安厅结为警用无人机战略合作伙伴 [DJI and Xinjiang Autonomous Region Public Security Department form strategic partnership for police drones]. YouUAV.com (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
251. ^ Mozur, Paul (14 April 2019). "One Month, 500,000 Face Scans: How China Is Using A.I. to Profile a Minority". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 June 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
252. ^ "Commerce Department Adds Eleven Chinese Entities Implicated in Human Rights Abuses in Xinjiang to the Entity List". U.S. Department of Commerce. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
253. ^ "US warned Nevada not to use Chinese COVID tests from UAE". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 16 October 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
254. ^ Phillips, Tom (21 February 2017). "China orders hundreds of thousands of private cars to have GPS trackers installed for monitoring". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
255. ^ a b Waters, Nick (5 April 2019). "Are Historic Mosques In Xinjiang Being Destroyed?". Bellingcat. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
256. ^ a b "Devastating Blows: Religious Repression of Uighurs in Xinjiang" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. April 2005. pp. 1–112\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
257. ^ a b Kuo, Lily (6 May 2019). "Revealed: new evidence of China's mission to raze the mosques of Xinjiang". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
258. ^ Davidson, Helen (25 September 2020). "Thousands of Xinjiang mosques destroyed or damaged, report finds". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
259. ^ Drs H. Agus Fathuddin Yusuf MA (28 September 2020). "Isu Xinjiang Terus Digoreng Bagian dari Perang Dagang". Detik.com (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 22 November 2022.
260. ^ Fathuddin, Agus (19 July 2019). "PBNU Yakin Tidak Ada Kekerasan Etnis Uighur dan Muslim Xinjiang" [PBNU Confident There Is No Ethnic Violence Of Uyghurs And Xinjiang Muslims]. Suara Merdeka (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
261. ^ Neville-Hadley, Peter (2003). Frommer's China. Frommer's. p. 302\. ISBN 978-0-7645-6755-1.
262. ^ "Removal of Islamic Motifs Leaves Xinjiang's Id Kah Mosque 'a Shell For Unsuspecting Visitors'". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
263. ^ Fifield, Anna (25 September 2020). "'Prisons by another name': China is building vast new detention centres for Muslims in Xinjiang". The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
264. ^ Vanderklippe, Nathan (9 March 2021). "Lawsuit against Xinjiang researcher marks new effort to silence critics of China's treatment of Uyghurs". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 11 March 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
265. ^ Vanderklippe, Nathan (4 November 2019). "'Like a movie': In Xinjiang, new evidence that China stages prayers, street scenes for visiting delegations". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
266. ^ "Laporan dari China - Suasana Ramadhan di Kota Kashgar, Xinjiang" [Report from China - Ramadan atmosphere in Kashgar City, Xinjiang]. Antara News. 27 April 2021. at 3:47 minutes in the video. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2022.
267. ^ a b Hoshur, Shohret (23 November 2022). "China appears to ease up on Islamic worship in Xinjiang, but Uyghurs aren't buying it". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 5 December 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
268. ^ "Tongue-Tied; Education in Xinjiang". The Economist. 27 June 2015. Archived from the original on 24 November 2024.
269. ^ Shir, Rustem. "China's Effort to Silence the Sound of Uyghur". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 15 September 2019. Retrieved 11 December 2019.
270. ^ "Xinjiang Authorities Institute Mandarin-Only Instruction at Prominent Uyghur High School". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 25 June 2020.
271. ^ "Detained and Disappeared: Intellectuals Under Assault in the Uyghur Homeland". Uyghur Human Rights Project. 25 March 2019. Archived from the original on 11 December 2019.
272. ^ "Ilham Tohti". World Uyghur Congress. 12 September 2016. Archived from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
273. ^ Ramzy, Austin (5 January 2019). "China Targets Prominent Uighur Intellectuals to Erase an Ethnic Identity". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 13 December 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
274. ^ a b Hoshur, Shohret (10 May 2018). "Xinjiang Authorities Jail Uyghur Imam Who Took Son to Unsanctioned Religious School". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
275. ^ "'No space to mourn': the destruction of Uygur graveyards in Xinjiang". South China Morning Post. Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
276. ^ a b "Even in death, Uighurs feel long reach of Chinese state". France 24. 9 October 2019. Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2020. "In just two years, dozens of cemeteries have been destroyed in the northwest region, according to an AFP investigation with satellite imagery analysts Earthrise Alliance.
Some of the graves were cleared with little care -- in Shayar county, AFP journalists saw unearthed human bones left discarded in three sites."
277. ^ a b Xiao, Eva; Yiu, Pak (11 October 2019). "China disturbs even the Uighur dead in 'development' of Xinjiang". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2020. "Some of the graves were cleared with little care — in Shayar County, journalists saw unearthed human bones left discarded at three sites."
278. ^ Rivers, Matt. "More than 100 Uyghur graveyards demolished by Chinese authorities, satellite images show". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
279. ^ Osborne, Samuel. "China has destroyed more than 100 Uighur Muslim graveyards, satellite images show". The Independent. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.
280. ^

* Rivers, Matt (3 January 2020). "More than 100 Uyghur graveyards demolished by Chinese authorities, satellite images show". CNN. Archived from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 11 August 2020. "The Sultanim Cemetery in the center of Hotan City is one of the most famous ancient cemeteries in Xinjiang. It was destroyed between January to March 2019."
* Hiatt, Fred (3 November 2019). "In China, every day is Kristallnacht". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2020. "Before After
Cemetery demolished
The site of Sultanim cemetery in Hotan, Xinjiang, in December, 2018 and March 2019."
* Niyaz, Kurban; Lipes, Joshua (1 May 2020). "Xinjiang Authorities Construct Parking Lot Atop Historic Uyghur Cemetery". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
* Kashgarian, Asim (1 December 2019). "US: China Targets Uighur Mosques to Eradicate Minority's Faith". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 11 August 2020. "37°7′2.13"N 79°56′2.96"E
Satellite imagery with a comparative analysis of Sultanim Cemetery in Hotan city, in China's northwest Xinjiang province."
* Sintash, Bahram K. (October 2019). "Demolishing Faith: The Destruction and Desecration of Uyghur Mosques and Shrines" (PDF). Uyghur Human Rights Project. pp. 24–25\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2020. Retrieved 11 August 2020. "The Sultanim Cemetery has a history of over 1,000 years. King Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan of the Kara-Khanid Khanate (999–1211) conquered Hotan (the Buddhist Kingdom Udun at that time), and spread Islam around 960 AD. During the conquest, four Kara-khan commanders, including Prince Sultan Kilich Khan, were killed and Muslims buried them at this location. Since then, the cemetery has been known as Sultanim Maziri (My Sultan Shrine) and became one of the most important cemeteries among Uyghur Muslims who have paid their respects here for over 1,000 years. In the center, the four commanders' graves were still there until China completely bulldozed the entire cemetery in 2019. Many religious leaders, scholars and other important people in Hotan's far and recent history have been buried in this cemetery."

281. ^ Handley, Erin (17 January 2020). "Safe and sound? China launches propaganda blitz to discredit Uyghur #StillNoInfo campaign". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 27 January 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
282. ^ Hong Fincher, Leta (2018). Betraying Big Brother. Verso Books. ISBN 9781786633644.
283. ^ Shamseden, Zubayra. "Uyghur Human Rights Project". Archived from the original on 3 December 2019.
284. ^ Lynch, Elizabeth M. (21 October 2019). "China's attacks on Uighur women are crimes against humanity". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2 December 2019.
285. ^ a b Kashgarian, Asim (21 August 2020). "China Video Ad Calls for 100 Uighur Women to 'Urgently' Marry Han Men". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 28 August 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2020.
286. ^ Kang, Dake; Wang, Yanan (1 December 2018). "China's Uighurs told to share beds, meals with party members". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 18 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2019. "In recent years, the government has even encouraged Uighurs and Han Chinese to tie the knot. Starting in 2014, Han-Uighur spouses in one county were eligible to receive 10,000 yuan ($1,442) annually for up to five years following the registration of their marriage license. Such marriages are highly publicized. The party committee in Luopu county celebrated the marriage of a Uighur woman and a "young lad" from Henan in an official social media account in October 2017. The man, Wang Linkai, had been recruited through a program that brought university graduates to work in the southern Xinjiang city of Hotan. "They will let ethnic unity forever bloom in their hearts," the party committee's post said. "Let ethnic unity become one's own flesh and blood.""
287. ^ "'No Sign' of Kazakh Imam Scheduled For Release From Prison in July". Radio Free Asia. 9 August 2017. Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2019. "In March, Xinjiang authorities fired an ethnic Uyghur official for holding her wedding ceremony at home according to Islamic traditions instead of at a government-sanctioned venue. Salamet Memetimin, the communist party secretary for Chaka township's Bekchan village, in Hotan (in Chinese, Hetian) prefecture's Chira (Cele) county, was among 97 officials recently charged with disciplinary violations, according to an April 10 report by the state-run Hotan Daily newspaper. Local residents said the woman was relieved of her duties for taking her "nikah" marriage vows in her own home. "I think this may be a local policy unique to Xinjiang," the source said. "You have to first apply for a marriage certificate and then carry out the Islamic practice of nikah." "The imams aren't allowed to perform nikah if there is no marriage certificate, or they will be sent to prison.""
288. ^ Hoshur, Shohret; Lipes, Joshua (25 August 2020). "Xinjiang Authorities Restrict Islamic 'Nikah' Wedding Rites, Citing Danger to 'Stability'". Translated by Elise Anderson. Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 29 August 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2020.
289. ^

* Denyer, Simon (19 September 2014). "China's war on terror becomes all-out attack on Islam in Xinjiang". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
* Hoshur, Shohret; Finney, Richard (23 May 2014). "Over 100 Detained After Xinjiang Police Open Fire on Protesters". Translated by Shohret Hoshur. Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 9 July 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
* Sulaiman, Eset; Ponnudurai, Parameswaran (20 May 2014). "Xinjiang Police Open Fire at Protest Against Clampdown on Islamic Dress". Translated by Eset Sulaiman. Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
* "The Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act". US Government Publishing Office. 2015. p. 13 & 15 – via Internet Archive.

290. ^ "Report: China's Treatment of Uyghurs Meets Definition of Genocide". National Catholic Register. Catholic News Agency. 10 March 2021. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
291. ^ a b c Hernandez, Javier C. (25 April 2017). "China bans 'Muhammad,' 'Jihad' as baby names in Muslim region". The Seattle Times. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
292. ^ Lin, Xin (20 April 2017). Luisetta Mudie (ed.). "China Bans 'Extreme' Islamic Baby Names Among Xinjiang's Uyghurs". Translated by Luisetta Mudie. Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 14 November 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2020.
293. ^ a b "China: Hundreds of Uyghur Village Names Change". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 30 August 2024. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
294. ^ "China has renamed hundreds of Uyghur villages and towns, say human rights groups". The Guardian. 19 June 2024. Archived from the original on 23 September 2024. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
295. ^ Mistreanu, Simina (18 June 2024). "Religious and cultural mentions removed from names of China's Xinjiang villages, rights groups say". AP News. Archived from the original on 31 July 2024. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
296. ^ Clarke 2008, pp. 271–301.
297. ^ Kadeer, Rebiya (8 November 2012). "The World Holds Its Breath for China". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
298. ^ Mackerras, Colin (31 January 2015). "Xinjiang in China's Foreign Relations: Part of a New Silk Road or Central Asian Zone of Conflict?". East Asia. 32 (1). Springer Science+Business Media: 25–42\. doi:10.1007/s12140-015-9224-8. hdl:10072/71101. ISSN 1096-6838. S2CID 154037766.
299. ^ Cronin-Furman, Kate (19 September 2018). "China Has Chosen Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang—For Now". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 23 July 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
300. ^ Sun, Ivan Y.; Wu, Yuning; Triplett, Ruth; Hu, Rong (25 September 2020). "Political Efficacy, Police Legitimacy, and Public Support for Counterterrorism Measures in China". Terrorism and Political Violence. 34 (8). Informa UK Limited: 1580–1594\. doi:10.1080/09546553.2020.1817741. ISSN 0954-6553. S2CID 224989251.
301. ^ Withnall, Adam (5 July 2019). "'Cultural genocide': China separating thousands of Muslim children from parents for 'thought education'". The Independent. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020.
302. ^ Sudworth, John (4 July 2019). "China Muslims: Xinjiang schools used to separate children from families". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 December 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
303. ^ Liebold, James (28 July 2019). "China's treatment of Uighurs is cultural genocide". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019.
304. ^ Leibold, James (24 July 2019). "Despite China's denials, its treatment of the Uyghurs should be called what it is: cultural genocide". The Conversation. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
305. ^ Xu, Vicky Xiuzhong; Cave, Danielle; Leibold, James; Munro, Kelsey; Ruser, Nathan (1 March 2020). Uyghurs for sale (PDF) (Report). Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2024.
306. ^ Editorial Board (20 July 2019). "Muslim countries joined China in defending its cultural genocide of Uighurs. Aren't they ashamed?". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
307. ^ "Secret documents reveal how China mass detention camps work". Associated Press. 25 November 2019. Archived from the original on 20 January 2020.
308. ^ Ibrahim, Azeem (3 December 2019). "China Must Answer for Cultural Genocide in Court". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 20 January 2020.
309. ^ Fiskejö, Magnus (8 April 2019). "China's Thousandfold Guantánamos". Inside Higher Ed.
310. ^ Fiskejö, Magnus (2020). "Forced Confessions as Identity Conversion in China's Concentration Camps". Monde Chinois [fr]. 62 (2): 28–43 – via Cairn.info.+[fr]&rft.atitle=Forced+Confessions+as+Identity+Conversion+in+China's+Concentration+Camps&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=28-43&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Fiskejö&rft.aufirst=Magnus&rft_id=https://www.cairn.info/revue-monde-chinois-2020-2-page-28.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Persecution+of+Uyghurs+in+China" class="Z3988">
311. ^ "China Suppression Of Uighur Minorities Meets U.N. Definition Of Genocide, Report Says". NPR. 4 July 2020. Archived from the original on 19 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
312. ^ "Calls for UN probe of China forced birth control on Uighurs". Associated Press. 30 June 2020. Archived from the original on 25 December 2024. Retrieved 1 July 2020.
313. ^ a b Steger, Isabella (20 August 2020). "On Xinjiang, even those wary of Holocaust comparisons are reaching for the word "genocide"". Quartz. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
314. ^ Simons, Marlise (6 July 2020). "Uighur Exiles Push for Court Case Accusing China of Genocide". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 10 July 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
315. ^ Kuo, Lily (7 July 2020). "Exiled Uighurs call on ICC to investigate Chinese 'genocide' in Xinjiang". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
316. ^ Wintour, Patrick (11 December 2020). "ICC asks for more evidence on Uighur genocide claims". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 January 2025.
317. ^ Hansler, Jennifer; Rahim, Zamira; Westcott, Ben. "US accuses China of 'genocide' of Uyghurs and minority groups in Xinjiang". CNN. Archived from the original on 24 December 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
318. ^ "Menendez, Cornyn Introduce Bipartisan Resolution to Designate Uyghur Human Rights Abuses by China as Genocide". United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. 27 October 2020. Archived from the original on 27 December 2024. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
319. ^ Brunnstrom, David (14 January 2021). "U.S. commission says China possibly committed 'genocide' against Xinjiang Muslims". Reuters. Archived from the original on 12 January 2025. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
320. ^ Annual Report 2020 (PDF) (Report). Congressional-Executive Commission on China. 14 January 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
321. ^ "In parting shot, Trump administration accuses China of 'genocide' against Uighurs". France 24. Archived from the original on 26 December 2024. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
322. ^ Borger, Julian. "Mike Pompeo declares China's treatment of Uighurs 'genocide'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 5 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
323. ^ Everington, Keoni. "Chinese invasion of Taiwan would be 'grievous mistake': Blinken". Taiwan News. Archived from the original on 26 December 2024. Retrieved 20 January 2021.
324. ^ Kelly, Laura. "Biden administration reviewing China genocide designation". The Hill. Archived from the original on 5 March 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
325. ^ "Chinese Persecution of the Uyghurs". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2021. Archived from the original on 17 December 2024.
326. ^ Allen-Ebrahimian, Bethany (9 November 2021). "Holocaust Museum report warns China "may be committing genocide"". Axios. Archived from the original on 11 October 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
327. ^ Batchelor, Tom (8 February 2021). "'Credible' case of Chinese government genocide against Uighur Muslims, say lawyers". The Independent. Archived from the original on 31 December 2024.
328. ^ Macdonald, Alison (February 2021). International Criminal Responsibility For Crimes Against Humanity And Genocide Against The Uyghur Population In The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (PDF) (Report). et al. Essex Court Chambers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2025.
329. ^ ""Genocide" is the wrong word for the horrors of Xinjiang". The Economist. 13 February 2021. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
330. ^ Westcott, Ben; Wright, Rebecca (9 March 2021). "First independent report into Xinjiang genocide allegations claims evidence of Beijing's 'intent to destroy' Uyghur people". CNN. "...according to an independent report by more than 50 global experts in international law, genocide and the China region."
331. ^ Davidson, Helen (9 March 2021). "China breaching every act in genocide convention, says legal report on Uighurs". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 June 2025.
332. ^ Chamas, Zena (10 March 2021). "Uyghurs in Australia call for genocide declaration in wake of report into China's Xinjiang region policies". ABC News. Archived from the original on 18 February 2025.
333. ^ Laskar, Rezaul H. (9 March 2021). "China has breached all provisions of UN Genocide Convention in Xinjiang: Report". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021.
334. ^ "The Uyghur Genocide: An Examination of China's Breaches of the 1948 Genocide Convention". Genocide Watch. Newlines Institute for Strategy and Policy and the Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights. 10 March 2021. Archived from the original on 23 June 2025.
335. ^ "CASCA Statement on Xinjiang" (PDF). Canadian Anthropology Society. 28 June 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 July 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2021.
336. ^ "How China Spreads Its Propaganda Version of Life for Uyghurs". ProPublica. 23 June 2021. Archived from the original on 30 June 2024. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
337. ^ "PRC Efforts To Manipulate Global Public Opinion on Xinjiang". United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 28 December 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
338. ^ Seytoff, Alim; Kashgary, Jilil (24 August 2022). "US report details China's efforts to manipulate public opinion on Xinjiang". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
339. ^ Tobin, David (22 November 2021). "Genocidal processes: social death in Xinjiang". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 45 (16): 93–121\. doi:10.1080/01419870.2021.2001556.
340. ^ a b Brossat, Alain [in French]; Ruiz Casado, Juan Alberto (2023). "What Is Happening in Xinjiang?". Culture of Enmity: The Discursive Struggle for Taiwan in the Making of the New Cold War. Singapore: Springer. pp. 75–94\. doi:10.1007/978-981-99-4217-6_6. ISBN 978-981-99-4216-9.
341. ^ a b Tsang & Cheung 2024, p. 203.
342. ^ "China Tribunal: Final judgement detailed, the hearings records, submissions etc". China Tribunal. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
343. ^ Iacobucci, Gareth (3 March 2020). "Chinese doctors admitted in undercover calls that harvested organs were available, informal tribunal finds". The BMJ. 368: m859. doi:10.1136/bmj.m859. PMID 32127369. S2CID 212403405. Retrieved 12 April 2021.
344. ^ Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity in Xinjiang? Applying the Legal Tests (Report). Asia-Pacific Centre for the Responsibility to Protect. November 2020. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020.
345. ^ Matas, David; Teich, Sarah (9 December 2020). "Don't turn away from China's ongoing genocide of Uighurs". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on 11 October 2023.
346. ^

* Finley, Joanne Smith (1 September 2022). "Tabula rasa: Han settler colonialism and frontier genocide in "re-educated" Xinjiang". HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory. 12 (2): 341–356\. doi:10.1086/720902. ISSN 2575-1433. S2CID 253268699.
* Brooks, Jonathan (2021). "Settler Colonialism, Primitive Accumulation, and Biopolitics in Xinjiang, China". SSRN 3965577.
* Clarke, Michael (16 February 2021). "Settler Colonialism and the Path toward Cultural Genocide in Xinjiang". Global Responsibility to Protect. 13 (1): 9–19\. doi:10.1163/1875-984X-13010002. ISSN 1875-9858. S2CID 233974395.
* Byler, Darren (20 December 2021). Terror Capitalism: Uyghur Dispossession and Masculinity in a Chinese City. Duke University Press. doi:10.1215/9781478022268. ISBN 978-1-4780-2226-8. JSTOR j.ctv21zp29g. S2CID 243466208.[page needed]
* Byler, Darren (2021). In the Camps: China's High-Tech Penal Colony. Columbia Global Reports. ISBN 978-1-7359136-2-9. JSTOR j.ctv2dzzqqm.[page needed]

347. ^ a b Brown 2023, p. 136.
348. ^ a b Zhang 2025, p. 139.
349. ^ Zhang 2025, pp. 139–140.
350. ^ "U.N. rights chief discussing visit to Xinjiang with China". Reuters. 14 September 2020. Archived from the original on 28 September 2021.
351. ^ a b "China rejects Uighurs genocide charge, invites UN's rights chief". Al Jazeera. 22 February 2021. Archived from the original on 19 December 2024.
352. ^ Nebehay, Stephanie (12 March 2021). "U.S. condemns China at UN rights forum for abuse of Uighurs, Tibetans". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
353. ^ Saric, Ivana (12 March 2021). "At UN, U.S. condemns China's treatment of Uighurs". Axios. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
354. ^ "French lawmakers officially recognise China's treatment of Uyghurs as 'genocide'". France 24. 20 January 2022. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022. "Beijing has turned down repeated requests from the UN High Commission for Human Rights to visit the region to investigate"
355. ^ Wong, Catherine (27 January 2022). "China says UN human rights chief can visit Xinjiang 'after Olympics'". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
356. ^ a b c "Statement by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet after official visit to China". OHCHR. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
357. ^ "U.N. rights chief Michelle Bachelet ends China visit with cautious Xinjiang criticism - The Washington Post". The Washington Post. 4 August 2022. Archived from the original on 4 August 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
358. ^ Seytoff, Alim (31 May 2022). "Uyghur groups urge resignation of UN rights chief for 'Potemkin-style' Xinjiang tour". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
359. ^ Kashgarian, Asim (16 June 2022). "Activists Welcome UN Rights Chief's Decision to Step Down". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 11 March 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
360. ^ Engels, Jorge (31 August 2022). "UN rights chief releases controversial Xinjiang report on her final day". CNN. Archived from the original on 26 December 2024. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
361. ^ "China may have committed crimes against humanity in Xinjiang - UN report". BBC News. 1 September 2022. Archived from the original on 11 January 2025. Retrieved 1 September 2022.
362. ^ Keaten, Jamey (6 October 2022). "UN rights body rejects Western bid to debate Xinjiang abuses". The Washington Post. Associated Press. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
363. ^ a b "UK tribunal to hear witnesses on China genocide accusations". Associated Press. 4 February 2021. Archived from the original on 22 December 2024.
364. ^

* Lipes 2020
* ""Cannot Forget...": Uyghur Tribunal Hears Testimony Of Alleged China Abuses". NDTV. Agence France-Presse. 4 June 2021. Archived from the original on 11 June 2025.
* "UK tribunal to investigate China's alleged genocide against Muslim Uighur population". ITV News. 3 September 2020. Archived from the original on 27 February 2025.

365. ^ a b "'Uyghur Tribunal' opens with testimony of alleged rape, torture". Al Jazeera. 4 June 2021. Archived from the original on 17 March 2025.
366. ^ Lipes 2020.
367. ^ Gunter, Joel (4 June 2021). "Hearings in London aim to assess allegations of genocide in China". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 June 2025.
368. ^ a b Gunter, Joel (9 December 2021). "China committed genocide against Uyghurs, independent tribunal rules". BBC News. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021.
369. ^

* "'Uighur tribunal' to open in London as China dismisses 'PR show'". France 24. 4 June 2021. Archived from the original on 23 December 2024.
* Weiting, Asye (3 June 2021). "Uyghur exiles describe forced abortions, torture in Xinjiang". Washington Times. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 22 December 2024.
* Gerin, Roseanne (4 June 2021). "Uyghur Tribunal Hears Grim Accounts of Rape And Torture in China's Xinjiang". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 21 June 2025.
* Swerling, Gabriella (4 June 2021). "'The horror made me wonder if they are human': UK inquiry examines China genocide allegations". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.

370. ^ Brunnstrom, David (11 March 2020). "U.S. lawmakers seek to tighten ban on forced-labor goods from China's Xinjiang". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 September 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
371. ^ Lawder, David (17 September 2020). "US ban on China's Xinjiang cotton 'would wreak havoc', leading apparel group says". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
372. ^ Bradley, Neil L. (22 September 2020). "U.S. Chamber Letter on H.R. 6210, the "Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act," and H.R. 6270, the "Uyghur Forced Labor Disclosure Act of 2020"". US Chamber of Commerce. Archived from the original on 26 March 2025. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
373. ^ Swanson, Ana (29 November 2020). "Nike and Coca-Cola Lobby Against Xinjiang Forced Labor Bill". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
374. ^

* Karlik, Evan (8 August 2019). "The Case for Boycotting Beijing 2022". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
* Westcott, Ben (2 December 2019). "Huge leaks are exposing Xinjiang's re-education camps. But don't expect Beijing to back down". CNN. Archived from the original on 9 September 2020. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
* Montgomery, Marc (10 June 2020). "Boycott the 2022 China Winter Olympics?". Radio Canada International. Archived from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
* Bandler, Kenneth (17 August 2020). "The Uyghers' plight is a humanitarian crisis. More must be done to help". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 17 August 2020. ""It is a genocide," says Turkel, adding that the "purposeful prevention of population growth" is one of the legal definitions of genocide. "In the last year, Uyghur population growth dropped by 24%, and in the previous three years by 84%."{...}If there is no significant change in Chinese government policy regarding the Uyghurs, Turkel would like to see the US boycott the Winter Olympics in Beijing in 2022."

375. ^ Nebehay, Stephanie (14 August 2020). "Uighur group urges IOC to reconsider 2022 Beijing Winter Games venue". Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 February 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
376. ^ "Uighur group calls for China to lose 2022 Winter Olympics over 'genocide'". WION. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
377. ^ Wade, Stephen (25 February 2021). "Rights groups target sponsors in protest over 2022 Beijing Olympics". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 20 December 2024. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
378. ^ a b Wade, Stephen (14 March 2021). "EXPLAINER: What drives possible boycott of Beijing Olympics". Associated Press. Retrieved 20 March 2021.
379. ^ Macias, Amanda (6 April 2021). "U.S. State Department backs away from the idea of a Beijing Olympics boycott". CNBC. Archived from the original on 13 December 2024. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
380. ^

* Reyes, Yacob (8 December 2021). "Beijing Olympics: These countries have announced diplomatic boycotts". Axios. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2021.
* "Denmark to join diplomatic boycott of Beijing Olympics over human rights". Reuters. 14 January 2022. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
* Shih, Gerry (3 February 2022). "India joins diplomatic boycott of Beijing Olympics after Chinese soldier from deadly Himalayan skirmish made part of torch relay". The Washington Post.
* "Kosova bojkoton Lojrat Olimpike në Pekin" [Kosovo boycotts Beijing Winter Olympics]. Alsat News (in Albanian). 8 December 2021. Archived from the original on 23 December 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
* "Lithuania confirms diplomatic boycott of Beijing 2022 Winter Olympics". ANI News. 3 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
* "Běijīng dōng ào wǒ dàibiǎo tuán bù chūxí kāibì mù shì dǎng zhèng rénshì: Jiāngyóu jiàoyù bù xuānbù" 北京冬奧我代表團不出席開閉幕式 黨政人士: 將由教育部宣布 [Chinese Taipei delegation will not attend the Beijing Winter Olympics opening and closing ceremonies; Party and government figures: will be announced by the Ministry of Education]. Liberty Times (in Chinese). 26 January 2022. Archived from the original on 26 December 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2022.

381. ^ Tiezzi, Shannon (29 May 2021). "What Do Chinese People Think Is Happening in Xinjiang?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 26 December 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
382. ^ Yang, Jianli; Monaco, Nick. "Why the US Must Take China's Disinformation Operations Seriously". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 25 December 2024. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
383. ^ Stewart, Heather (19 July 2020). "China's UK ambassador denies abuse of Uighurs despite fresh drone footage". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 23 December 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
384. ^ Shinkman, Paul D. (28 January 2021). "China Fires Back at Blinken's Condemnation Regarding Uighurs: 'No Genocide – Period'". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on 1 August 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
385. ^ Hudson, John (10 March 2021). "U.S.-China meeting in Alaska to test Biden's balancing act with Beijing". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
386. ^ Westcott, Ben; Wright, Rebecca (9 March 2021). "First independent report into Xinjiang genocide allegations claims evidence of Beijing's 'intent to destroy' Uyghur people". CNN. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
387. ^ Griffiths, James (17 April 2021). "From cover-up to propaganda blitz: China's attempts to control the narrative on Xinjiang". CNN. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021.
388. ^ Thompson, Caitlin (30 July 2020). "Enter the Grayzone: fringe leftists deny the scale of China's Uyghur oppression". Coda Story. Archived from the original on 31 December 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2021. "While the number of left-wing voices denying China's ongoing repression of the Uyghur people is few, those that do exist are vociferous and well-organized. Of these, The Grayzone is by far the most influential."
389. ^ Allen-Ebrahimian, Bethany (11 August 2020). "The American blog pushing Xinjiang denialism". Axios. Archived from the original on 5 May 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
390. ^ Turvill, William (18 February 2021). "Profits from propaganda: Facebook takes China cash to promote Uyghur disinformation". Press Gazette. Archived from the original on 21 December 2024. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
391. ^ Roche, Gerald (6 July 2021). "Xinjiang Denialists Are Only Aiding Imperialism". The Nation. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
392. ^ Fox, Ben; Riechmann, Deb (17 June 2020). "Bolton: Trump said Xi was right to detain ethnic minorities". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 25 December 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
393. ^ Reid Ross, Alexander; Dobson, Courtney (18 January 2022). "The Big Business of Uyghur Genocide Denial". New Lines. Fairfax University of America. Archived from the original on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2022.
394. ^ Reddy, Micah; Sole, Sam (27 July 2022). "Who killed New Frame?". AmaBhungane. Archived from the original on 8 December 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2023.
395. ^ Hvistendahl, Mara; Fahrenthold, David A.; Chutel, Lynsey; Jhaveri, Ishaan (5 August 2023). "A Global Web of Chinese Propaganda Leads to a U.S. Tech Mogul". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 August 2023. Retrieved 5 August 2023.
396. ^ Schuman, Michael (6 January 2025). "The Global Outrage Machine Skips the Uyghurs". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 6 January 2025. Retrieved 10 January 2025.
397. ^ Pan, Jason (28 May 2022). "Labor groups, TSP slam Hung over Xinjiang". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 24 December 2024.
398. ^ Kawase, Kenji (4 February 2025). "China's Uyghur travel restrictions detailed in report amid Trump unease". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 4 February 2025.

### General and cited sources

[edit]

* Brouwer, Joseph (6 April 2021). "Propaganda Films Attempt to Cloak Xinjiang in Disinformation". China Digital Times. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
* Brown, Kerry (2023). China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One. London: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-26724-4.
* Clarke, Michael (9 April 2008). "China's 'War on Terror' in Xinjiang: Human Security and the Causes of Violent Uighur Separatism". Terrorism and Political Violence. 20 (2). Informa UK Limited: 271–301\. doi:10.1080/09546550801920865. ISSN 0954-6553. S2CID 144284074.
* Clarke, Michael E. (2011). Xinjiang and China's Rise in Central Asia - A History (1st ed.). London: Taylor & Francis. doi:10.4324/9780203831113. ISBN 978-1-1368-2706-8.
* Dwyer, Arienne M. (2005). The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy and Political Discourse (PDF). Washington, D.C.: East-West Center Washington. hdl:10125/3504. ISBN 1-932728-29-5. ISSN 1547-1330. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 December 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
* Gordon, Michael R. (19 January 2021). "U.S. Says China Is Committing 'Genocide' Against Uighur Muslims". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
* Hayes, Anna; Clarke, Michael (2015). Inside Xinjiang: Space, Place and Power in China's Muslim Far Northwest (1st ed.). London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315770475. ISBN 9781315770475.
* Hill, Matthew; Campanale, David; Gunter, Joel (2 February 2021). "'Their goal is to destroy everyone': Uighur camp detainees allege systematic rape". BBC News. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022. Retrieved 3 February 2021.
* Idris, Abdulhakim (2020). Menace: China's Colonization of the Islamic World & Uyghur Genocide. Washington, D.C.: Center for Uyghur Studies. ISBN 978-1-7365414-1-8.
* Lipes, Joshua (4 September 2020). "Independent Tribunal Launched to Judge Claims of Mass Atrocities Crimes in Xinjiang". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020.
* Lynch, Colum (19 February 2021). "State Department Lawyers Concluded Insufficient Evidence to Prove Genocide in China". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2023.
* Niewenhuis, Lucas (2 April 2021). "How will Facebook deal with Beijing's propaganda on Xinjiang?". SupChina. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
* Qin, Amy (5 April 2021). "China Tries to Counter Xinjiang Backlash With ... a Musical?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 April 2021.
* Shinn, David H.; Eisenman, Joshua (2023). China's Relations with Africa: a New Era of Strategic Engagement. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-21001-0.
* Starr, S. Frederick, ed. (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. Studies of Central Asia and the Caucasus. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. doi:10.4324/9781315697949. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9.
* Tsang, Steve; Cheung, Olivia (2024). The Political Thought of Xi Jinping. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197689363.
* Xiao, Eva (2 April 2021). "Facebook Staff Fret Over China's Ads Portraying Happy Muslims in Xinjiang". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 16 May 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021. "Beijing is beating back international criticism of its treatment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang with a propaganda push on Facebook, Twitter and the big screen."
* Zenz, Adrian (June 2020). "Sterilizations, IUDs, and Mandatory Birth Control: The CCP's Campaign to Suppress Uyghur Birthrates in Xinjiang" (PDF). Jamestown Foundation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 12 August 2020.
* Zhang, Chuchu (2025). China's Changing Role in the Middle East: Filling a Power Vacuum?. Changing Dynamics in Asia-Middle East Relations series. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-032-76275-3.

## External links

[edit]

Library resources about
Persecution of Uyghurs in China

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Abdelfatah, Rund; Arablouei, Ramtin; York, Jamie; Kaplan-Levenson, Laine; Caine, Julie; Shah, Parth; Yvellez, Victor; Schmitz, Rob (22 September 2022) [2021]. "Five Fingers Crush the Land (2021)". Throughline. NPR. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
* "China Undercover". Frontline. Season 38. Episode 17. 7 April 2020. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved 22 December 2024.

* v
* t
* e

National security and law enforcement in China

National|

* Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
* National Security Commission
* Central Military Commission
* People's Liberation Army
* Militia
* Maritime Militia
* NDMC
* United Front Work Department
* State Council
* Ministry of State Security
* Ministry of Public Security
* National Defense Mobilization Commission
* Ministry of National Defense
* Taiwan Affairs Office

Mainland|

* Fire and Rescue
* Supervisory Commissions
* People's Police
* Public Security PP
* provincial Public Security Departments
* city/county Public Security Bureaus
* Internet police
* Immigration
* Inspection
* State Security PP
* Provincial departments of State security
* Municipal Bureaus of State security
* Judicial Administrative PP
* People's Courts Judicial Police
* People's Procuratorates Judicial Police
* People's Armed Police
* ~~Ministry of Public Security Active Service Forces~~
* Coast Guard
* Mobile units
* 1st Mobile Corps
* 2nd Mobile Corps
* Customs
* State Secrets Protection
* Cyberspace Admin
* Urban Admin

Hong Kong|

* Office for Safeguarding National Security
* Committee for Safeguarding National Security
* PLA Hong Kong Garrison
* Independent Commission Against Corruption
* Disciplined Services
* Police
* National Security Department
* Fire
* Correction
* Customs
* Immigration

Macau|

* PLA Macau Garrison
* Commission Against Corruption
* Macau Security Force
* Unitary Police Service [zh]
* Public Security Police (including Migration Service)
* Judicial Police [zh]
* Fire Services Bureau
* Correctional Services Bureau
* Macau Customs Service

Operations|

* Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries (1950–53)
* Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns (1951–52)
* Sufan movement (1955–57)
* Anti-Rightist Campaign (1957–59)
* Red August (1966)
* Shadian incident (1975)
* 1983 "Strike Hard" Anti-crime Campaign (1983–87)
* Persecution of Falun Gong (1999)
* 6521 Project (2009)
* Anti-corruption campaign (2012–)
* Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism (2014–)
* Operation Fox Hunt (2014–)
* 709 crackdown (2015)
* Special Campaign to Crack Down on Organized Crime and Eliminate Evil (2018–21)
* Education and Rectification of the Political and Legal Teams (2021–22)
* Abroad
* Information operations and information warfare
* United States
* California
* Hawaii
* Philippines

Other topics|

* 2011 crackdown
* 610 Office
* Arbitrary arrest and detention
* Black jails
* Capital punishment
* Censorship
* Central Case Examination Group
* Chinese information operations and information warfare
* Civil Servant-Family Pair Up
* Death sentence with reprieve
* Enforced disappearance
* Great Cannon
* Grid-style social management
* Holistic national security
* Hong Kong national security law
* List of Hong Kong national security cases
* Human flesh search engine
* Human rights
* Tibet
* Macao
* Hong Kong
* Internet censorship
* Inciting subversion of state power
* Judicial system
* Judiciary of Hong Kong
* Judiciary of Macau
* Laogai
* Life imprisonment
* Liuzhi
* Mass surveillance in China
* Migration to Xinjiang
* Penal system
* PLA Unit 61398
* Political offences
* Picking quarrels and provoking trouble
* Re-education through labor
* Residential Surveillance at a Designated Location
* Soft detention
* Shuanggui
* Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism
* Three warfares
* Two-faced person
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China
* Xinjiang internment camps

* v
* t
* e

Xinjiang topics

Ürümqi (capital)

History|

| Pre-Han dynasty|

* Tocharians
* Western Regions
* Loulan
* Shule
* Yuezhi
* Kucha
* Karasahr
* Xiongnu
* Gaochang
* Khotan

|

Han dynasty|

* Protectorate of the Western Regions
* Chief Official of the Western Regions
* Kingdom of Khotan
* Sixteen Kingdoms
* Gaochang
* Göktürks
* First
* Western
* Eastern
* Second

Tang dynasty|

* Protectorate General to Pacify the West
* Four Garrisons of Anxi
* Beiting Protectorate
* Tibetan Empire
* Uyghur Khaganate
* Qocho
* Kara-Khanid Khanate
* Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin
* Qara Khitai

Yuan dynasty|

* Mongol Empire
* * Chagatai Khanate
* Moghulistan
* Kara Del
* Turpan Khanate
* Yarkent Khanate
* Dzungar Khanate
* Dzungar conquest of Altishahr
* Dzungar–Qing Wars
* Dzungar genocide
* Kumul Khanate

Qing dynasty|

* Qing rule
* Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
* Afaqi Khoja revolts
* Holy War of the Seven Khojas
* General of Ili
* Reconquest of Xinjiang

Republic of China|

* Xinjiang Wars
* First East Turkestan Republic
* Second East Turkestan Republic
* Ili Rebellion

People's Republic of China|

* PRC incorporation
* Yi–Ta incident
* Strike Hard Campaign Against Violent Terrorism

Geography|

| "Three Mountains and Two Basins"|

* Altai Mountains
* Junggar Basin
* Dzungaria
* Tian Shan
* Tarim Basin
* Taklamakan Desert
* Kunlun Mountains

|

Other Landscapes|

* Cities
* Gurbantünggüt Desert
* Kumtag Desert
* Turpan Depression
* Karakoram Mountains
* Pamir Mountains

Transportation|

* Hexi Corridor
* Lanzhou–Xinjiang railway
* Lanzhou–Xinjiang high-speed railway
* Southern Xinjiang railway
* Northern Xinjiang railway
* Jinghe–Yining–Khorgos railway
* Kuytun–Beitun railway
* Ürümqi–Dzungaria railway
* Hami–Lop Nur railway
* Kashgar–Hotan railway
* China Railway Ürümqi Group

Education
Research|

* Xinjiang University
* Xinjiang Agricultural University
* Xinjiang Medical University
* Xinjiang University of Finance and Economics
* Xinjiang Astronomical Observatory

Culture|

* Doppa Day
* Music
* Meshrep gathering
* Muqam
* Tocharian clothing

Cuisine|

* Dapanji
* Nan
* Sangza
* Samsa
* Youtazi
* Pamirdin
* Xurpa
* Tunurkawab
* Chinese Islamic cuisine

Economy|

* Silk Road
* China Western Development
* Cotton industry
* National Cotton and Cotton Yarn Trading Center
* Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
* Xinjiang Free-Trade Zone

Visitor attractions|

* Apak Khoja and Xiang Fei Tomb
* Flaming Mountains
* Jiaohe ruins
* Gaochang
* Grand Bazaar, Ürümqi
* Id Kah Mosque
* Karakul Lake
* Kizil Caves
* Niya ruins

Related|

* Uyghur people
* Xinjiang conflict
* Migration to Xinjiang
* Altishahr
* Chinese Turkestan
* East Turkestan
* China–Afghanistan relations
* China–India relations
* China–Kazakhstan relations
* China–Kyrgyzstan relations
* China–Pakistan relations
* China–Tajikistan relations
* China–Turkey relations
* History of the Uyghur people

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Genocide

Genocides
(chronological list)|

Before 1490

* Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE)
* Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE)
* Gauls (50s BCE)
* Eburones
* Bar Kokhba (132–136)
* Ancestral Puebloans (800s)
* Harrying of the North (1069–1070)
* Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s)
* Cathars (1209–1229)
* Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311)
* Timurid conquests (1393–1394)
* Guanches (1402–1496)

1490 to 1912

* Taíno (1493–1550)
* Jaragua massacre (1503)
* Ainu (1500s–)
* Indigenous peoples in Brazil
* 11th Parallel massacre (1963)
* Tanaru (1970s–2009)
* Helmet massacre (1988)
* Akuntsu (1990)
* Haximu (1993)
* Yanomami (2019–2023)
* Aztecs (1521)
* Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872)
* Huguenots (1572)
* Kalinago (1626)
* Indigenous peoples in the United States
* Pequots (1636–1638)
* Beaver Wars (1609–1701)
* Huron
* Sullivan Expedition (1779)
* Indian removal (1830–1847)
* Trail of Tears (1830–1850)
* California (1846–1873)
* Dakota (1862)
* Osage Indian murders (1918–1931)
* Cultural genocide
* Indigenous peoples in Canada
* Beaver Wars (1609–1701)
* Beothuk (1700s–1800s)
* Residential school system (1874–1996)
* Sixties Scoop (1951–1985)
* Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women
* Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657)
* 1740 Batavia massacre (1740)
* Great Gypsy Round-up (1749)
* Dzungars (1750s)
* Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783)
* Chechens (1785–2017)
* French Hatians (1804)
* Meiteis (1819–1826)
* Indigenous peoples in Australia
* Black War (1825–1832)
* Stolen Generations (1869–1977)
* Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women
* Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875)
* El Ouffia
* Charrúa (1831)
* Moriori (1835)
* Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846)
* Manchus (1850–1864)
* Circassians (1860s)
* Mapuche (1870s–1884)
* Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913)
* Congolese (1885–1908)
* Hazaras (1888–1893)
* Selknam (1890s–1900s)
* Hamidian massacres (1894–1896)
* Herero and Nama (1904–1907)
* Ukame (1905–1907)
* Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction
* Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913)

1913 to 1945

* Late Ottoman genocides
* Greeks (1913–1923)
* Pontic Greeks
* Thracian Bulgarians (1913)
* Assyrians (1915–1919)
* Armenians (1915–1917)
* Christians in Diyarbekir (1915)
* Kurds (1916–1934)
* Indigenous peoples in Venezuela
* Pemon
* Kyrgyz (1916–1917)
* Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920)
* Russian White Terror
* Cossacks (1919–1933)
* Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s)
* Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922)
* Kantō Massacre (1923)
* Napalpí massacre (1924)
* Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973)
* Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War
* Manchukuo (1931–1945)
* Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938)
* Three Alls policy (1940–1942)
* Sook Ching (1942)
* Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945)
* Libyan Arabs (1929–1934)
* Kazakhs (1930–1933)
* La Matanza (1932)
* Holodomor (1932–1933)
* Simele massacre (1933)
* Romani Holocaust (1935–1945)
* Spanish White Terror (1936–1947)
* Yekatit 12 (1937)
* Polish Operation (1937–1938)
* Alevi Kurds (1937–1938)
* Parsley massacre (1937)
* Generalplan Ost (1939–1945)
* Poland
* Baltic lands
* Croatia
* Czech lands
* Ukraine
* Hunger Plan
* The Holocaust (1941–1945)
* German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945)
* Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945)
* Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945)
* Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948)
* Crimean Tatars (1944–1948)

1946 to 1999

* Hyderabadi Muslims (1948)
* Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989)
* Maya (1962–1996)
* Papua (1962–)
* Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964)
* 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966)
* Biafra (1966–1970)
* Equatoguinean (1969–1979)
* Feyli Kurds (1970–2003)
* Bangladesh (1971)
* Acholi and Lango (1972–1979)
* Burundi
* 1972
* 1993
* East Timor (1974–1999)
* Cambodian (1975–1979)
* Jummas (1977–1997)
* Afghans (1979–1989)
* Baganda (1981–1985)
* 1982 Hama massacre (1982)
* Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982)
* Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009)
* Gukurahundi (1983–1987)
* Anfal (1986–1989)
* Isaaq (1987–1989)
* National Population Program (1987–2002)
* Amhara (1990–)
* Ahwaris (1991–2003)
* Bosnian (1992–1995)
* Srebrenica massacre
* Rwandan (1994)
* Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997)

21st century

* Effacer le tableau (2002–2003)
* Darfur (2003–)
* Masalit massacres
* Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–)
* Southern Kaduna (2011–2023)
* Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017)
* Yazidis (2014–2017)
* Shias under ISIS (2014–)
* Christians under ISIS (2014–)
* Rohingyas, Kachins, and Burmese Muslims (2017–)
* Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022)
* Bucha massacre (2022)
* Gazans (2023–)

Terms|

* Cultural genocide
* Democide
* Autogenocide
* Domicide
* Ecocide
* Ethnocide
* Eugenics
* Gendercide
* Androcide
* Transgender genocide
* Genocide of indigenous peoples
* Memoricide
* Policide
* Politicide
* Classicide
* Eliticide
* Utilitarian genocide
* War of annihilation

Methods|

* Cultural genocide
* Death marches
* Death squades
* Ethnic cleansing
* Extermination camp
* Forced adoption
* Forced assimilation
* Forced conversion
* Incitement
* Massacres
* Killing Fields
* Pogroms
* Mass killing
* Rape
* Settler colonialism
* Urbicide

Denial|

* The Holocaust
* Trivialization
* Armenian
* Japanese history textbook controversies
* Nanjing
* Serbian
* Bosnian
* Rwandan
* Holodomor
* Cambodian
* Indigenous

Issues|

* Definitions
* Names of the Holocaust
* Terminology of the Armenian genocide
* Holocaust terminology
* Genocide law
* Prevention
* Effects on young survivors
* Politics of recognition
* Justification
* Mass killings under communist regimes
* Anti-communist mass killings

Legal proceedings|

Holocaust trials (1943–2022)

* Krasnodar trial (1943)
* Kharkov trial (1943)
* Épuration légale (1944–1951)
* Majdanek trials (1944–1989)
* Chełmno trials (1945–2001)
* Dachau trials (1945–1947)
* Belsen trials (1945–1948)
* Euthanasia trials (1945–1949)
* Nuremberg trial (1945–1946)
* Minsk trial (1945–1946)
* Riga trial (1946)
* Stutthof trials (1946–1947)
* Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials (1946–1953)
* Supreme National Tribunal (1946–1948)
* Hamburg Ravensbrück trials (1946–1948)
* Nuremberg Military Tribunals (1946–1949)
* Erich von Manstein (1949)
* Ulm Einsatzkommando trial (1958)
* War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia (1961–1962)
* Eichmann trial (1961)
* Belzec trial (1963–1965)
* Frankfurt Auschwitz trials (1963–1989)
* Treblinka trials (1964–1970)
* Sobibor trial (1965–1966)
* Fedorenko trial (1986)
* Finta trial (1994)

20th century

* Budak trial (1945)
* International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946–1948)
* Belgrade Process (1946)
* Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948)
* Bosnian genocide case (1993–2007)
* International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017)
* Slobodan Milošević (2002–2006)
* Radovan Karadžić (2008–2016)
* Ratko Mladić (2011–2017)
* Trials of the Derg members (1994–2008)
* International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–2015)
* Khmer Rouge Tribunal (1997–2022)
* Croatia–Serbia genocide case (1999–2015)

21st century

* International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur (2005–)
* Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka (2010–2023)
* International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh (2012–)
* Mohammad Salimullah v. Union of India (2017)
* Rohingya genocide case (2019–)
* International Criminal Court investigation in Bangladesh/Myanmar (2019–)
* Uyghur Tribunal (2020–2021)
* International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine (2022–)
* Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022–)
* South Africa v. Israel (2023–)
* Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al (2023–2024)
* Nicaragua v. Germany (2024)

* v
* t
* e

Xi Jinping

* General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party
* President of China
* Chairman of the Central Military Commission

Policies
and theories|

* General secretaryship
* paramount leader (2012–present)
* leadership core
* Li Qiang Government (2023–present)
* Xi Jinping–Li Keqiang Administration
* Li Keqiang Government (2013–2023)
* Li Keqiang
* Xi Jinping Thought
* Culture
* Diplomacy
* Ecological Civilization
* Economy
* Rule of Law
* Strengthening the Military
* Both sides of the Taiwan Strait are one family
* Clear waters and green mountains
* Chinese Dream
* Chinese-style modernization
* Common prosperity
* Decision on Comprehensively Deepening Reform
* Document Number Nine
* Double Eight Strategy
* Dual circulation
* Eight Musts
* Eight-point Regulation
* Five-in-one
* Four Comprehensives
* Four Confidences
* Four Consciousnesses
* Four Malfeasances
* Four Noes
* Great changes unseen in a century
* High-quality development
* Houses are for living, not for speculation
* New concept for development
* New normal
* New productive forces
* Party media takes the party's last name
* Public opinion struggle
* Roll up our sleeves and work hard
* Holistic national security
* The East is rising and the West is declining
* Historical resolution
* Sense of community for the Chinese nation
* Supply-side structural reform
* Xi's Five Points
* Telling China's stories well
* Two Cannot be Denied
* Two Centenaries
* Two Establishes
* Two Integrations
* Two Upholds
* Whole-process people's democracy

Events|

| First term|

* 2012 election as Party general secretary
* Anti-corruption campaign
* Wang Qishan (2012–2017)
* Party's Mass Line Education and Practice Activities
* August 19 speech
* Coordinated Development of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region
* Three Stricts and Three Honests
* World Internet Conference
* Deepening National Defense and Military Reform
* 709 crackdown
* Toilet Revolution in China
* 2015 China Victory Day Parade
* Ma–Xi meeting
* Xi–Chu Summit
* Battle against poverty
* Targeted Poverty Alleviation
* Two No Worries and Three Guarantees
* Symposium on News Reporting and Public Opinion
* Two Studies and One Action
* Copying the Party Constitution
* 2017 Hong Kong visit

|

Second term|

* 2017 reelection as Party general secretary
* Special Campaign to Crack Down on Organized Crime and Eliminate Evil
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China
* Xinjiang internment camps
* 2018 constitutional amendment
* Deepening the reform of the Party and state institutions
* China–United States trade war
* Strategy for Integrated Development of the Yangtze River Delta
* 2019–20 Hong Kong protests
* Conference on Dialogue of Asian Civilizations
* Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind
* 2019 China 70th National Day grand parade
* COVID-19 pandemic
* Response
* Education and Rectification of the Political and Legal Teams
* 2020 Inner Mongolia protests
* 70th Anniversary of Chinese People's Volunteers
* 100th Anniversary of the Chinese Communist Party
* 2020–2021 reform spree
* 2022 Winter Olympics
* 2022 Hong Kong visit

Third term|

* 2022 2nd reelection as Party general secretary
* 2022 COVID-19 protests in China
* Plan on reforming Party and state institutions
* 2025 Central Conference on Work Related to Neighboring Countries
* 2025 China Victory Day Parade

Diplomacy|

| Policies|

* Belt and Road Initiative
* Forum
* Community of Common Destiny
* Global Development Initiative
* Global Security Initiative
* Global Civilization Initiative
* Major-country diplomacy
* New type of international relations
* Wolf warrior diplomacy
* China and the Russian invasion of Ukraine

|

Meetings
and trips|

* 2013 Russia, Tanzania, South Africa, Congo visit
* 2015 Pakistan visit
* 2015 United States visit
* 2015 United Kingdom visit
* 2017 Vietnam and Laos visit
* CPC in Dialogue with World Political Parties High-level Meeting
* Kim–Xi meetings
* 2019 Italy and France visit
* CPC and World Political Parties Summit
* 2022 Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan visit
* 2022 China-Arab States Summit
* 2023 Russia visit
* China-Central Asia Summit
* 2023 Vietnam visit
* 2024 France, Serbia, Hungary visit
* 2024 Kazakhstan and Tajikistan visit
* 2024 Peru and Brazil visit
* 2025 Vietnam, Malaysia and Cambodia visit
* 2025 Russia visit

Works|

* General Secretary Xi Jinping important speech series
* The Governance of China
* The Hopes of President Xi
* I Am the Son of the Yellow Earth
* Zhijiang Xinyu

Family|

* Xi Zhongxun (father)
* Qi Xin (mother)
* Ke Lingling (1st wife)
* Peng Liyuan (2nd wife)
* Qi Qiaoqiao (sister)
* Xi Yuanping (brother)
* Xi Mingze (daughter)

Related|

* Amazing China
* Accelerator-in-Chief
* Awards
* Censorship of Winnie-the-Pooh
* Cult of personality
* Neoauthoritarianism
* General Secretary Xi Jinping's Kindness We Never Forget
* Introduction to Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era
* Liangjiahe
* New World
* New Zhijiang Army
* Open Letter asking Xi Jinping to Resign
* Outline for the Study of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era
* Panama Papers (Deng Jiagui)
* Rhyzodiastes xii
* Xi Jinping Boulevard
* Xi Jinping in Fuzhou
* Xuexi Qiangguo

* Category:Xi Jinping

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template