Pharmacy

This article is about the profession. For retail pharmacies, see Pharmacy (shop). For other uses, see Pharmacy (disambiguation).

Pharmacy

Occupation
Names| Pharmacist, Chemist, Doctor of Pharmacy, Druggist, Apothecary or simply Doctor

Occupation type

| Professional

Activity sectors

| Health care, health sciences, chemical sciences
Description

Education required

| Doctor of Pharmacy, Master of Pharmacy, Bachelor of Pharmacy, Diploma in Pharmacy

Related jobs

| Physician, pharmacy technician, toxicologist, chemist, pharmacy assistant, other medical specialists
The Green Pharmacy Cross (sometimes overlaid with Bowl of Hygieia), is widely used in Europe and India[citation needed] on pharmacy signs. A medication is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. The Apothecary or The Chemist by Gabriël Metsu (c. 1651–67)

Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, reviewing and monitoring medications, aiming to ensure the safe, effective, and affordable use of medicines. It is a miscellaneous science as it links health sciences with pharmaceutical sciences and natural sciences. The professional practice is becoming more clinically oriented as most of the drugs are now manufactured by pharmaceutical industries. Based on the setting, pharmacy practice is either classified as community or institutional pharmacy. Providing direct patient care in the community of institutional pharmacies is considered clinical pharmacy.[1]

The scope of pharmacy practice includes more traditional roles such as compounding and dispensing of medications. It also includes more modern services related to health care including clinical services, reviewing medications for safety and efficacy, and providing drug information with patient counselling. Pharmacists, therefore, are experts on drug therapy and are the primary health professionals who optimize the use of medication for the benefit of the patients. In some jurisdictions, such as Canada, Pharmacists may be able to prescribe or adapt/manage prescriptions, as well as give injections and immunizations.[2]

An establishment in which pharmacy (in the first sense) is practiced is called a pharmacy (this term is more common in the United States) or chemists (which is more common in Great Britain, though pharmacy is also used).[citation needed] In the United States and Canada, drugstores commonly sell medicines, as well as miscellaneous items such as confectionery, cosmetics, office supplies, toys, hair care products and magazines, and occasionally refreshments and groceries.

In its investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients, the work of the apothecary may be regarded as a precursor of the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology, prior to the formulation of the scientific method.[citation needed]

## Disciplines

[edit]

Pharmacy, Tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (14th century)

The field of pharmacy can generally be divided into various disciplines:

* Pharmaceutics and Computational Pharmaceutics
* Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
* Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy
* Pharmacology
* Pharmacy Practice
* Pharmacoinformatics
* Pharmacogenomics

The boundaries between these disciplines and with other sciences, such as biochemistry, are not always clear-cut. Often, collaborative teams from various disciplines (pharmacists and other scientists) work together toward the introduction of new therapeutics and methods for patient care. However, pharmacy is not a basic or biomedical science in its typical form. Medicinal chemistry is also a distinct branch of synthetic chemistry combining pharmacology, organic chemistry, and chemical biology.

Pharmacology is sometimes considered the fourth discipline of pharmacy. Although pharmacology is essential to the study of pharmacy, it is not specific to pharmacy. Both disciplines are distinct. Those who wish to practice both pharmacy (patient-oriented) and pharmacology (a biomedical science requiring the scientific method) receive separate training and degrees unique to either discipline.

Pharmacoinformatics is considered another new discipline, for systematic drug discovery and development with efficiency and safety.

Pharmacogenomics is the study of genetic-linked variants that effect patient clinical responses, allergies, and metabolism of drugs.[3]

## Professionals

[edit]

The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 2.6 million pharmacists and other pharmaceutical personnel worldwide.[4]

### Pharmacists

[edit]

Main article: Pharmacist

See also: List of pharmacy associations

Pharmacists are healthcare professionals with specialized education and training who perform various roles to ensure optimal health outcomes for their patients through the quality use of medicines. Pharmacists may also be small business proprietors, owning the pharmacy in which they practice. Since pharmacists know about the mode of action of a particular drug, and its metabolism and physiological effects on the human body in great detail, they play an important role in optimization of drug treatment for an individual.

Pharmacists are represented internationally by the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP), an NGO linked with World Health Organization (WHO). They are represented at the national level by professional organisations such as the Royal Pharmaceutical Society in the UK, Pharmaceutical Society of Australia (PSA), Canadian Pharmacists Association (CPhA), Indian Pharmacist Association (IPA), Pakistan Pharmacists Association (PPA), American Pharmacists Association (APhA), and the Malaysian Pharmaceutical Society (MPS).[5]

In some cases, the representative body is also the registering body, which is responsible for the regulation and ethics of the profession.

In the United States, specializations in pharmacy practice recognized by the Board of Pharmacy Specialties include: cardiovascular, infectious disease, oncology, pharmacotherapy, nuclear, nutrition, and psychiatry.[6] The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatric pharmacy practice. The American Board of Applied Toxicology certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology.

## Pharmacy support staff

[edit]

A pharmacy worker distributing drugs to an old woman at a local clinic.

### Pharmacy technicians

[edit]

Main article: Pharmacy technician

Pharmacy technicians support the work of pharmacists and other health professionals by performing a variety of pharmacy-related functions, including dispensing prescription drugs and other medical devices to patients and instructing on their use. They may also perform administrative duties in pharmaceutical practice, such as reviewing prescription requests with medic's offices and insurance companies to ensure correct medications are provided and payment is received.

Legislation requires the supervision of certain pharmacy technician's activities by a pharmacist. The majority of pharmacy technicians work in community pharmacies. In hospital pharmacies, pharmacy technicians may be managed by other senior pharmacy technicians. In the UK the role of a PhT in hospital pharmacy has grown and responsibility has been passed on to them to manage the pharmacy department and specialized areas in pharmacy practice allowing pharmacists the time to specialize in their expert field as medication consultants spending more time working with patients and in research. Pharmacy technicians are registered with the General Pharmaceutical Council (GPhC). The GPhC is the regulator of pharmacists, pharmacy technicians, and pharmacy premises.

In the US, pharmacy technicians perform their duties under the supervision of pharmacists. Although they may perform, under supervision, most dispensing, compounding and other tasks, they are not generally allowed to perform the role of counseling patients on the proper use of their medications. Some states have a legally mandated pharmacist-to-pharmacy technician ratio.

### Dispensing assistants

[edit]

Dispensing assistants are commonly referred to as "dispensers" and in community pharmacies perform largely the same tasks as a pharmacy technician. They work under the supervision of pharmacists and are involved in preparing (dispensing and labelling) medicines for provision to patients.

### Healthcare assistants/medicines counter assistants

[edit]

In the UK, this group of staff can sell certain medicines (including pharmacy only and general sales list medicines) over the counter. They cannot prepare prescription-only medicines for supply to patients.

## History

[edit]

Main articles: History of pharmacy and List of pharmacists

Physician and Pharmacist, illustration from Medicinarius (1505) by Hieronymus Brunschwig

The earliest known compilation of medicinal substances was the Sushruta Samhita, an Indian Ayurvedic treatise attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BC. However, the earliest text as preserved dates to the 3rd or 4th century AD.

Many Sumerian (4th millennium BC – early 2nd millennium BC) cuneiform clay tablets record prescriptions for medicine.[7]

Ancient Egyptian pharmacological knowledge was recorded in various papyri such as the Ebers Papyrus of 1550 BC, and the Edwin Smith Papyrus of the 16th century BC.

Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, Byzantium, 15th century

In Ancient Greece, Diocles of Carystus (4th century BC) was one of several men studying the medicinal properties of plants. He wrote several treatises on the topic.[8] The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides is famous for writing a five-volume book in his native Greek Περί ύλης ιατρικής in the 1st century AD. The Latin translation De Materia Medica (Concerning medical substances) was used as a basis for many medieval texts and was built upon by many middle eastern scientists during the Islamic Golden Age, themselves deriving their knowledge from earlier Greek Byzantine medicine.[9]

Pharmacy in China dates at least to the earliest known Chinese manual, the Shennong Bencao Jing (The Divine Farmer's Herb-Root Classic), dating back to the 1st century AD. It was compiled during the Han dynasty and was attributed to the mythical Shennong. Earlier literature included lists of prescriptions for specific ailments, exemplified by a manuscript "Recipes for 52 Ailments", found in the Mawangdui, sealed in 168 BC.

In Japan, at the end of the Asuka period (538–710) and the early Nara period (710–794), the men who fulfilled roles similar to those of modern pharmacists were highly respected. The place of pharmacists in society was expressly defined in the Taihō Code (701) and re-stated in the Yōrō Code (718). Ranked positions in the pre-Heian Imperial court were established; and this organizational structure remained largely intact until the Meiji Restoration (1868). In this highly stable hierarchy, the pharmacists—and even pharmacist assistants—were assigned status superior to all others in health-related fields such as physicians and acupuncturists. In the Imperial household, the pharmacist was even ranked above the two personal physicians of the Emperor.[10]

There is a stone sign for a pharmacy shop with a tripod, a mortar, and a pestle opposite one for a doctor in the Arcadian Way in Ephesus near Kusadasi in Turkey.[11] The current Ephesus dates back to 400 BC and was the site of the Temple of Artemis, one of the seven wonders of the world.

In Baghdad the first pharmacies, or drug stores, were established in 754,[12] under the Abbasid Caliphate during the Islamic Golden Age. By the 9th century, these pharmacies were state-regulated.[13][unreliable source?]

The advances made in the Middle East in botany and chemistry led medicine in medieval Islam substantially to develop pharmacology. Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865–915), for instance, acted to promote the medical uses of chemical compounds. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936–1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. His Liber servitoris is of particular interest, as it provides the reader with recipes and explains how to prepare the "simples" from which were compounded the complex drugs then generally used. Sabur Ibn Sahl (d 869), was, however, the first physician to record his findings in a pharmacopoeia, describing a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. Al-Biruni (973–1050) wrote one of the most valuable Islamic works on pharmacology, entitled Kitab al-Saydalah (The Book of Drugs), in which he detailed the properties of drugs and outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and duties of the pharmacist. Avicenna, too, described no less than 700 preparations, their properties, modes of action, and their indications. He devoted in fact a whole volume to simple drugs in The Canon of Medicine. Of great impact were also the works by al-Maridini of Baghdad and Cairo, and Ibn al-Wafid (1008–1074), both of which were printed in Latin more than fifty times, appearing as De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus by 'Mesue' the younger, and the Medicamentis simplicibus by 'Abenguefit'. Peter of Abano (1250–1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Maridini under the title De Veneris. Al-Muwaffaq's contributions in the field are also pioneering. Living in the 10th century, he wrote The foundations of the true properties of Remedies, amongst others describing arsenious oxide, and being acquainted with silicic acid. He made clear distinction between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate, and drew attention to the poisonous nature of copper compounds, especially copper vitriol, and also lead compounds. He also describes the distillation of sea-water for drinking.[14][15]

In Europe, pharmacy-like shops began to appear during the 12th century. In 1240, emperor Frederic II issued a decree by which the physician's and the apothecary's professions were separated.[16]

Löwen-Apotheke in Trier, operating continuously from at least 1241  Sign of the Town Hall Pharmacy in Tallinn, operating continuously from at least 1422, showing the Bowl of Hygieia

There are pharmacies in Europe that have been in operation since medieval times. In Florence, Italy, the director of the museum in the former Santa Maria Novella pharmacy says that the pharmacy there dates back to 1221.[17] In Trier (Germany), the Löwen-Apotheke is in operation since 1241, the oldest pharmacy in Europe in continuous operation.[18] In Dubrovnik (Croatia), a pharmacy that first opened in 1317 is located inside the Franciscan monastery: it is the 2nd oldest pharmacy in Europe that is still operating.[19][20] In the Town Hall Square of Tallinn (Estonia), there is a pharmacy dating from at least 1422.[citation needed] The medieval Esteve Pharmacy, located in Llívia, a Catalan enclave close to Puigcerdà, is a museum: the building dates back to the 15th century and the museum keeps albarellos from the 16th and 17th centuries, old prescription books and antique drugs.

## Practice areas

[edit]

Pharmacists practice in a variety of areas including community pharmacies, infusion pharmacies, hospitals, clinics, insurance companies, medical communication companies, research facilities, pharmaceutical companies, extended care facilities, psychiatric hospitals, and regulatory agencies. Pharmacists themselves may have expertise in a medical specialty.

### Community pharmacy

[edit]

Main article: Pharmacy (shop)

See also: Community pharmacy and Pharmacy automation

A pharmacy in Klaukkala, Finland

A pharmacy (also known as a chemist in Australia, New Zealand and the British Isles; or drugstore in North America; retail pharmacy in industry terminology; or apothecary, historically) is where most pharmacists practice the profession of pharmacy. It is the community pharmacy in which the dichotomy of the profession exists; health professionals who are also retailers.

Community pharmacies usually consist of a retail storefront with a dispensary, where medications are stored and dispensed. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, the opening of the first drugstores are recorded by Muslim pharmacists in Baghdad in 754 AD.[12][21]

### Hospital pharmacy

[edit]

Main article: Hospital pharmacy

Pharmacies within hospitals differ considerably from community pharmacies. Some pharmacists in hospital pharmacies may have more complex clinical medication management issues, and pharmacists in community pharmacies often have more complex business and customer relations issues.

Because of the complexity of medications including specific indications, effectiveness of treatment regimens, safety of medications (i.e., drug interactions) and patient compliance issues (in the hospital and at home), many pharmacists practicing in hospitals gain more education and training after pharmacy school through a pharmacy practice residency, sometimes followed by another residency in a specific area. Those pharmacists are often referred to as clinical pharmacists and they often specialize in various disciplines of pharmacy.

For example, there are pharmacists who specialize in hematology/oncology, HIV/AIDS, infectious disease, critical care, emergency medicine, toxicology, nuclear pharmacy, pain management, psychiatry, anti-coagulation clinics, herbal medicine, neurology/epilepsy management, pediatrics, neonatal pharmacists and more.

Hospital pharmacies can often be found within the premises of the hospital. Hospital pharmacies usually stock a larger range of medications, including more specialized medications, than would be feasible in the community setting. Most hospital medications are unit-dose, or a single dose of medicine. Hospital pharmacists and trained pharmacy technicians compound sterile products for patients including total parenteral nutrition (TPN), and other medications are given intravenously. That is a complex process that requires adequate training of personnel, quality assurance of products, and adequate facilities.

Several hospital pharmacies have decided to outsource high-risk preparations and some other compounding functions to companies who specialize in compounding. The high cost of medications and drug-related technology and the potential impact of medications and pharmacy services on patient-care outcomes and patient safety require hospital pharmacies to perform at the highest level possible.

### Clinical pharmacy

[edit]

Main article: Clinical pharmacy

Pharmacists provide direct patient care services that optimize the use of medication and promotes health, wellness, and disease prevention.[22] Clinical pharmacists care for patients in all health care settings, but the clinical pharmacy movement initially began inside hospitals and clinics. Clinical pharmacists often collaborate with physicians and other healthcare professionals to improve pharmaceutical care. Clinical pharmacists are now an integral part of the interdisciplinary approach to patient care. They often participate in patient care rounds for drug product selection. In the UK clinical pharmacists can also prescribe some medications for patients on the National Health Services (NHS) or privately, after completing a non-medical prescribers course to become an Independent Prescriber.[23]

The clinical pharmacist's role involves creating a comprehensive drug therapy plan for patient-specific problems, identifying goals of therapy, and reviewing all prescribed medications prior to dispensing and administration to the patient. The review process often involves an evaluation of the appropriateness of drug therapy (e.g., drug choice, dose, route, frequency, and duration of therapy) and its efficacy. Research shows that pharmacist led strategies reduce errors related to medication use.[24] The pharmacist must also consider potential drug interactions, adverse drug reactions, and patient drug allergies while they design and initiate a drug therapy plan.[25]

### Ambulatory care pharmacy

[edit]

Since the emergence of modern clinical pharmacy, ambulatory care pharmacy practice has emerged as a unique pharmacy practice setting. Ambulatory care pharmacy is based primarily on pharmacotherapy services that a pharmacist provides in a clinic. Pharmacists in this setting often do not dispense drugs, but rather see patients in-office visits to manage chronic disease states.

In the U.S. federal health care system (including the VA, the Indian Health Service, and National Institute of Health (NIH)) ambulatory care pharmacists are given full independent prescribing authority. In some states, such as North Carolina and New Mexico, these pharmacist clinicians are given collaborative prescriptive and diagnostic authority.[26] In 2011 the board of Pharmaceutical Specialties approved ambulatory care pharmacy practice as a separate board certification. The official designation for pharmacists who pass the ambulatory care pharmacy specialty certification exam will be Board Certified Ambulatory Care Pharmacist and these pharmacists will carry the initials BCACP.[27]

### Compounding pharmacy/industrial pharmacy

[edit]

Main article: Compounding

Compounding involves preparing drugs in forms that are different from the generic prescription standard. This may include altering the strength, ingredients, or dosage form.[28] Compounding is a way to create custom drugs for patients who may not be able to take the medication in its standard form, such as due to an allergy or difficulty swallowing. Compounding is necessary for these patients to still be able to properly get the prescriptions they need.

One area of compounding is preparing drugs in new dosage forms. For example, if a drug manufacturer only provides a drug as a tablet, a compounding pharmacist might make a medicated lollipop that contains the drug. Patients who have difficulty swallowing the tablet may prefer to suck the medicated lollipop instead.

Another form of compounding is by mixing different strengths (g, mg, mcg) of capsules or tablets to yield the desired amount of medication indicated by the physician, physician assistant, nurse practitioner, or clinical pharmacist practitioner. This form of compounding is found at community or hospital pharmacies or in-home administration therapy.

Compounding pharmacies specialize in compounding, although many also dispense the same non-compounded drugs that patients can obtain from community pharmacies.

### Consultant pharmacy

[edit]

Main article: Consultant pharmacist

The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

Consultant pharmacy practice focuses more on medication regimen review (i.e. "cognitive services") than on actual dispensing of drugs. Consultant pharmacists most typically work in nursing homes, but are increasingly branching into other institutions and non-institutional settings.[29] Traditionally[where?] consultant pharmacists were usually independent business owners, though in the United States many now work for a large pharmacy management company such as Omnicare, Kindred Healthcare or PharMerica. This trend may be gradually reversing[citation needed] as consultant pharmacists begin to work directly with patients, primarily because many elderly people are now taking numerous medications but continue to live outside of institutional settings. Some community pharmacies employ consultant pharmacists and/or provide consulting services.

The main principle of consultant pharmacy was developed by Hepler and Strand in 1990.[30][31]

### Veterinary pharmacy

[edit]

Main article: Veterinary pharmacy

Veterinary pharmacies, sometimes called animal pharmacies, may fall in the category of hospital pharmacy, retail pharmacy or mail-order pharmacy. Veterinary pharmacies stock different varieties and different strengths of medications to fulfill the pharmaceutical needs of animals. Because the needs of animals, as well as the regulations on veterinary medicine, are often very different from those related to people, in some jurisdictions veterinary pharmacy may be kept separate from regular pharmacies.

### Nuclear pharmacy

[edit]

Main article: Nuclear pharmacy

Nuclear pharmacy focuses on preparing radioactive materials for diagnostic tests and for treating certain diseases. Nuclear pharmacists undergo additional training specific to handling radioactive materials, and unlike in community and hospital pharmacies, nuclear pharmacists typically do not interact directly with patients.

### Military pharmacy

[edit]

The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

Airman 1st Class Breanna DeMasters and Staff Sgt. Giovanni Fiorito, 332nd Expeditionary Medical Group pharmacy technicians, fill prescription medication for patients, Oct. 7, Joint Base Balad Iraq.

Military pharmacy is a different working environment to civilian practise because military pharmacy technicians perform duties such as evaluating medication orders, preparing medication orders, and dispensing medications. This would be illegal in civilian pharmacies because these duties are required to be performed by a licensed registered pharmacist.[32] In the US military, state laws that prevent technicians from counseling patients or doing the final medication check prior to dispensing to patients (rather than a pharmacist solely responsible for these duties) do not apply.

### Pharmacy informatics

[edit]

Main article: Pharmacy informatics

Pharmacy informatics is the combination of pharmacy practice science and applied information science.[33] Pharmacy informaticists work in many practice areas of pharmacy, however, they may also work in information technology departments or for healthcare information technology vendor companies. As a practice area and specialist domain, pharmacy informatics is growing quickly to meet the needs of major national and international patient information projects and health system interoperability goals. Pharmacists in this area are trained to participate in medication management system development, deployment, and optimization.

### Specialty pharmacy

[edit]

Main article: Specialty pharmacy

Specialty pharmacies supply high-cost injectable, oral, infused, or inhaled medications that are used for chronic and complex disease states such as cancer, hepatitis, and rheumatoid arthritis.[34] Unlike a traditional community pharmacy where prescriptions for any common medication can be brought in and filled, specialty pharmacies carry novel medications that need to be properly stored, administered, carefully monitored, and clinically managed.[35] In addition to supplying these drugs, specialty pharmacies also provide lab monitoring, adherence counseling, and assist patients with cost-containment strategies needed to obtain their expensive specialty drugs.[36] In the US, it is currently the fastest-growing sector of the pharmaceutical industry with 19 of 28 newly Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved medications in 2013 being specialty drugs.[37]

Due to the demand for clinicians who can properly manage these specific patient populations, the Specialty Pharmacy Certification Board has developed a new certification exam to certify specialty pharmacists. Along with the 100 questions computerized multiple-choice exam, pharmacists must also complete 3,000 hours of specialty pharmacy practice within the past three years as well as 30 hours of specialty pharmacist continuing education within the past two years.[38]

## Pharmaceutical sciences

[edit]

"Pharmaceutical research" redirects here. For the journal, see Pharmaceutical Research (journal).

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Pharmacy" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

The pharmaceutical sciences are a group of interdisciplinary areas of study concerned with the design, manufacturing, action, delivery, and classification of drugs. They apply knowledge from chemistry (inorganic, physical, biochemical and analytical), biology (anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, cell biology, and molecular biology), epidemiology, statistics, chemometrics, mathematics, physics, and chemical engineering.[39]

The pharmaceutical sciences are further subdivided into several specific specialties, with four main branches:

* Pharmacology: the study of the biochemical and physiological effects of drugs on human beings.
* Pharmacodynamics: the study of the cellular and molecular interactions of drugs with their receptors. Simply "What the drug does to the body"[40]
* Pharmacokinetics: the study of the factors that control the concentration of drug at various sites in the body. Simply "What the body does to the drug"[41]
* Pharmaceutical toxicology: the study of the harmful or toxic effects of drugs. [citation needed]
* Pharmacogenomics: the study of the inheritance of characteristic patterns of interaction between drugs and organisms.[42]
* Pharmaceutical chemistry: the study of drug design to optimize pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and synthesis of new drug molecules (Medicinal Chemistry).
* Pharmaceutics: the study and design of drug formulation for optimum delivery, stability, pharmacokinetics, and patient acceptance.[43]
* Pharmacognosy: the study of medicines derived from natural sources.[44]

As new discoveries advance and extend the pharmaceutical sciences, subspecialties continue to be added to this list. Importantly, as knowledge advances, boundaries between these specialty areas of pharmaceutical sciences are beginning to blur. Many fundamental concepts are common to all pharmaceutical sciences. These shared fundamental concepts further the understanding of their applicability to all aspects of pharmaceutical research and drug therapy.

Pharmacocybernetics (also known as pharma-cybernetics, cybernetic pharmacy, and cyber pharmacy) is an emerging field that describes the science of supporting drugs and medications use through the application and evaluation of informatics and internet technologies, so as to improve the pharmaceutical care of patients.[45]

## Society and culture

[edit]

### Etymology

[edit]

The word pharmacy is derived from Old French farmacie "substance, such as a food or in the form of a medicine which has a laxative effect" from Medieval Latin pharmacia from Greek pharmakeia (Ancient Greek: φαρμακεία) "a medicine", which itself derives from pharmakon (φάρμακον), meaning "drug, poison, spell"[46][47][a] (which is etymologically related to pharmakos).

### Separation of prescribing and dispensing

[edit]

Main article: Separation of prescribing and dispensing

Separation of prescribing and dispensing, also called dispensing separation, is a practice in medicine and pharmacy in which the physician who provides a medical prescription is independent from the pharmacist who provides the prescription drug.

In the Western world there are centuries of tradition for separating pharmacists from physicians. In Asian countries, it is traditional for physicians to also provide drugs.

In contemporary time researchers and health policy analysts have more deeply considered these traditions and their effects. Advocates for separation and advocates for combining make similar claims for each of their conflicting perspectives, saying that separating or combining reduces conflict of interest in the healthcare industry, unnecessary health care, and lowers costs, while the opposite causes those things. Research in various places reports mixed outcomes in different circumstances.

### Environmental impacts

[edit]

In 2022 the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) proposed that pharmaceutical companies should be required to collect and destroy unused or expired medicines that they have put on the market in order to reduce public health risks around the misuse of medicines obtained from waste bins, the development of antimicrobial resistant bacteria from the discharge of antibiotics into environmental systems and "economic losses" from wasted healthcare resources. Potentially harmful concentrations of pharmaceutical waste has been detected in more than a quarter of water samples taken from 258 rivers around the world. OECD recommend that medicines should be collected separately from household waste and that "marketplaces and redistribution platforms for unused close-to-expiry-date medicines" should be set up. Such extended producer responsibility schemes are already running in France, Spain and Portugal.[49]

### The future of pharmacy

[edit]

Pharmacists now go on rounds with doctors and have more patient interaction.

In the coming decades, pharmacists are expected to become more integral within the health care system. Rather than simply dispensing medication, pharmacists are increasingly expected to be compensated for their patient care skills.[50] In particular, Medication Therapy Management (MTM) includes the clinical services that pharmacists can provide for their patients. Such services include a thorough analysis of all medication (prescription, non-prescription, and herbals) currently being taken by an individual. The result is a reconciliation of medication and patient education resulting in increased patient health outcomes and decreased costs to the health care system.[51][unreliable source?]

This shift has already commenced in some countries; for instance, pharmacists in Australia receive remuneration from the Australian Government for conducting comprehensive Home Medicines Reviews. In Canada, pharmacists in certain provinces have limited prescribing rights (as in Alberta and British Columbia) or are remunerated by their provincial government for expanded services such as medications reviews (Medschecks in Ontario). In the United Kingdom, pharmacists who undertake additional training are obtaining prescribing rights and this is because of pharmacy education. They are also being paid for by the government for medicine use reviews. In Scotland, the pharmacist can write prescriptions for Scottish registered patients of their regular medications, for the majority of drugs, except for controlled drugs, when the patient is unable to see their doctor, as could happen if they are away from home or the doctor is unavailable. In the United States, pharmaceutical care or clinical pharmacy has had an evolving influence on the practice of pharmacy.[52] Moreover, the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.) degree is now required before entering practice and some pharmacists now complete one or two years of residency or fellowship training following graduation. In addition, consultant pharmacists, who traditionally operated primarily in nursing homes, are now expanding into direct consultation with patients, under the banner of "senior care pharmacy".[53]

In addition to patient care, pharmacies will be a focal point for medical adherence initiatives. There is enough evidence to show that integrated pharmacy based initiatives significantly impact adherence for chronic patients. For example, a study published in National Institute for Health (NIH) shows "pharmacy based interventions improved patients' medication adherence rates by 2.1 percent and increased physicians' initiation rates by 38 percent, compared to the control group".[54]

## Pharmacy journals

[edit]

* List of pharmaceutical sciences journals

## Symbols

[edit]

The symbols most commonly associated with pharmacy are the mortar and pestle (North America) and the ℞ (medical prescription) character, which is often written as "Rx" in typed text; the green cross in France, Argentina, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and India; the Bowl of Hygieia (only) often used in the Netherlands but may be seen combined with other symbols elsewhere. Other common symbols include conical measures, and (in the US) caduceuses, in their logos. A red stylized letter A is used in Germany and Austria (from Apotheke, the German word for pharmacy, from the same Greek root as the English word "apothecary"). The show globe was used in the US until the early 20th century; the Gaper in the Netherlands is increasingly rare.

* Rod of Asclepius, the internationally recognised symbol of medicine

* green cross (AIGA symbol for First Aid)

* Green cross and Bowl of Hygieia used in Europe (with the exception of Germany and Austria) and India

* Simple green Greek cross, widely used in Europe and India,[citation needed] often an animated neon sign

* Red "A" (Apotheke) sign, used in Germany

* Similar red "A" sign, used in Austria

* The mortar and pestle, used in the United States and Canada

* A hanging Show globe, formerly used in the United States

* The Gaper, formerly used in the Netherlands

* The symbol used on medical prescriptions, from the Latin recipe (take thou).

* the Bowl of Hygieia

## See also

[edit]

* American Society for Pharmacy Law – Professional organization
* Apothecary – Former name for a pharmacist
* Bachelor of Pharmacy, Master of Pharmacy, Doctor of Pharmacy
* Classification of Pharmaco-Therapeutic Referrals – Taxonomy of cases requiring referral
* Clinical pharmacy – Branch of pharmacy for direct provision
* Consultant pharmacist – Provider of expert pharmaceutical advice
* Drug packaging – Packaging for pharmaceutical preparations
* Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries
* Health informatics – Computational approaches to health care
* History of pharmacy
* Hospital pharmacy – Dispensary within a hospital
* International Pharmaceutical Federation
* International Pharmaceutical Students' Federation
* List of drugs by year of discovery
* List of pharmaceutical laboratories by year of foundation
* List of pharmacies
* List of pharmacy associations
* List of pharmacy organizations in the United Kingdom
* List of pharmacy schools in the United States
* List of pharmacy schools
* Nuclear pharmacy – Branch of pharmacy focused on radioactive pharmaceuticals
* Online pharmacy – Pharmacy that operates over the Internet
* Pharmaceutics – Science of the properties of medicines
* Pharmaceutical industry – Industry involved with discovery, development, production and marketing of drugs
* Pharmacogenomics – Study of the role of the genome in drug response
* Pharmacognosy – Study of drugs obtained from natural sources
* Pharmacology – Science of drugs and medications and their effects
* Pharmaconomist – Danish qualification like BPharm
* Pharmacy automation – Mechanical handling of medications
* Pharmacy residency – Post-graduate internship
* Professional Further Education in Clinical Pharmacy and Public Health
* Raeapteek – One of Europe's longest-lived pharmacies
* Telepharmacy – Pharmacy care by telecommunication

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Its earliest attested form in Greek could be the Mycenaean 𐀞𐀔𐀒, pa-ma-ko, written in the Linear B syllabic script and found on the PY Un 1314 tablet; this tablet is also found listed as PY Vn 1314 or PY Sb 1314.[48]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Thomas D (November 2018). Clinical Pharmacy Education, Practice and Research. Elsevier. ISBN 9780128142769. Archived from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2019.
2. ^ "Scope of Practice". OCPInfo.com. Retrieved 23 July 2025.
3. ^ Reference, Genetics Home. "What is pharmacogenomics?". Genetics Home Reference. Archived from the original on 19 December 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
4. ^ World Health Organization. World Health Statistics 2011 – Table 6: Health workforce, infrastructure, and essential medicines. Geneva, 2011. Accessed 21 July 2011.
5. ^ "Member organizations". FIP. Open Publishing. 9 September 2019. Archived from the original on 1 January 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
6. ^ "BPS Specialties". Board of Pharmacy Specialties.
7. ^ John K. Borchardt (2002). "The Beginnings of Drug Therapy: Ancient Mesopotamian Medicine". Drug News & Perspectives. 15 (3): 187–192\. doi:10.1358/dnp.2002.15.3.840015. ISSN 0214-0934. PMID 12677263.
8. ^ Edward Kremers, Glenn Sonnedecker (1986). "Kremers and Urdang's History of pharmacy Archived 19 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine". Amer. Inst. History of Pharmacy. p.17. ISBN 0931292174
9. ^ ISBN 978-1409441656 Medicine and Pharmacy in Byzantine Hospitals: A study of the extant formularies (Medicine in the Medieval Mediterranean) 1st Edition by David Bennett
10. ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (1834) Annales des empereurs du Japon, p. 434.
11. ^ "PBase.com". www.pbase.com. Archived from the original on 13 September 2009. Retrieved 6 September 2019.
12. ^ a b Hadzovic, S (1997). "Pharmacy and the great contribution of Arab-Islamic science to its development". Medicinski Arhiv (in Croatian). 51 (1–2): 47–50\. ISSN 0025-8083. OCLC 32564530. PMID 9324574.1–2&rft.pages=47-50&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info:oclcnum/32564530&rft.issn=0025-8083&rft_id=info:pmid/9324574&rft.aulast=Hadzovic&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Pharmacy" class="Z3988">
13. ^ al-Ghazal, Sharif Kaf (October 2003). "The valuable contributions of Al-Razi (Rhazes) in the history of pharmacy during the Middle Ages" (PDF). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. 2 (4): 9–11\. ISSN 1303-667X. OCLC 54045642. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2017. Retrieved 24 October 2008.
14. ^ Levey M. (1973), " Early Arabic Pharmacology", E. J. Brill; Leiden.
15. ^ HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES - Volume I. EOLSS Publications. 15 May 2010. ISBN 978-1-84826-419-9.
16. ^ "History of Pharmacy Web Pages – Sweden's oldest pharmacies". Archived from the original on 23 June 2011.
17. ^ CBS News (19 May 2019). "The World's Oldest Pharmacy". CBS News. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2019.
18. ^ "Die erste Apotheke in Deutschland". 23 May 2016.
19. ^ "700 godina ljekarne Male braće". Hrvatska radiotelevizija. Archived from the original on 12 November 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
20. ^ "Dubrovačka ljekarna Male braće (1357.)". 17 July 2019. Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
21. ^ Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, 2004 (3), pp. 3–9 [8].
22. ^ American College of Clinical Pharmacy (2008). "The definition of clinical pharmacy" (PDF). Pharmacotherapy. 28 (6): 816–817\. doi:10.1592/phco.28.6.816. PMID 18503408. S2CID 45522678. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
23. ^ Hoti K, Hughes J, Sunderland B (30 April 2011). "An expanded prescribing role for pharmacists - an Australian perspective". The Australasian Medical Journal. 4 (4): 236–242\. doi:10.4066/AMJ.2011.694. PMC 3562903. PMID 23393515.
24. ^ Coutsouvelis, John; Siderov, Jim; Tey, Amanda Y.; Bortz, Hadley D.; O'Connor, Shaun R.; Rowan, Gail D.; Vasileff, Hayley M.; Page, Amy T.; Percival, Mia A. (22 December 2020). "The impact of pharmacist-led strategies implemented to reduce errors related to cancer therapies: a systematic review". Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Research. 50 (6): 466–480\. doi:10.1002/jppr.1699. S2CID 229332634.
25. ^ Burke JM, Miller WA, Spencer AP, et al. (2008). "Clinical pharmacist competencies" (PDF). Pharmacotherapy. 28 (6): 806–815\. doi:10.1592/phco.28.6.806. PMID 18503407. S2CID 31254371. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 19 July 2012.
26. ^ Knapp, KK; Okamoto, MP; Black, BL (2005). "ASHP survey of ambulatory care pharmacy practice in health systems – 2004". American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 62 (3): 274–284\. doi:10.1093/ajhp/62.3.274. PMID 15719585.
27. ^ "BPS Approves Ambulatory Care Designation; Explores New Specialties in Pain and Palliative Care, Critical Care and Pediatrics". Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
28. ^ "Compounding and the FDA: Questions and Answers". FDA. 21 June 2018. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019.
29. ^ American Society of Consultant Pharmacists, Frequently Asked Questions Archived 19 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine
30. ^ Strand LM (1990). "Pharmaceutical care and patient outcomes: notes on what it is we manage". Top Hosp Pharm Manage. 10 (2): 77–84\. PMID 10128568.
31. ^ Hepler CD, Strand LM (1990). "Opportunities and responsibilities in pharmaceutical care". Am J Hosp Pharm. 47 (3): 533–543\. PMID 2316538.
32. ^ "Pharmacy Specialist (68Q)". goarmy.com. Archived from the original on 31 October 2019. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
33. ^ Carroll, Noel; Richardson, Ita (7 March 2019). "Enablers and barriers for hospital pharmacy information systems". Health Informatics Journal. 26 (1): 406–419\. doi:10.1177/1460458219832056. hdl:10344/8873. ISSN 1460-4582. PMID 30841781. S2CID 73515983.
34. ^ NBCH Action Brief: Specialty Pharmacy. Specialty Pharmacy Archived 28 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine December 2013. Accessed 27 October 2014.
35. ^ Wild, D. Specialty Pharmacy Continuum Carving a Specialty Niche Within the ACO Model. Archived 10 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine Volume 1 (Summer Issue). August 2012.
36. ^ Shane, RR (15 August 2012). "Translating health care imperatives and evidence into practice: the "Institute of Pharmacy" report". American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 69 (16): 1373–1383\. doi:10.2146/ajhp120292. PMID 22855102. S2CID 590168.
37. ^ "Health Care Cost Drivers: Spotlight on Specialty Drugs" (PDF). September 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 November 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
38. ^ "Specialty Pharmacy Certification Board". Archived from the original on 3 November 2014. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
39. ^ American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists. "Introduction to Pharmaceutical Science". Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 30 May 2016.
40. ^ Lees P, Cunningham FM, Elliott J (2004). "Principles of pharmacodynamics and their applications in veterinary pharmacology". J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 27 (6): 397–414\. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2885.2004.00620.x. PMID 15601436.
41. ^ "Overview of Pharmacokinetics - Clinical Pharmacology". Merck Manuals Professional Edition. Archived from the original on 31 October 2019. Retrieved 31 October 2019.
42. ^ Ermak, Gennady (2015). Emerging Medical Technologies. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4675-80-2
43. ^ Rhodes, edited by Gilbert S. Banker, Christopher T. (2002). Modern Pharmaceutics, 1 (5th ed.). Hoboken: Informa Healthcare. ISBN 0824744691
44. ^ American Society of Pharmacognosy
45. ^ Yap KY, Chuang X, Lee AJ, Lee RZ, Lim L, Lim JJ, Nimesha R (2009). "Pharmaco-cybernetics as an interactive component of pharma-culture: empowering drug knowledge through user-, experience- and activity-centered designs". International Journal of Computer Science Issues. 3: 1–13.
46. ^ "pharmacy | Origin and meaning of pharmacy by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2019.
47. ^ φάρμακον. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
48. ^ "PY 1314 Vn + frr. (Cii)". DĀMOS: Database of Mycenaean at Oslo. University of Oslo. Archived from the original on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 16 March 2014.Raymoure, K.A. "pe-re". Minoan Linear A & Mycenaean Linear B. Deaditerranean. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2014."The Linear B word pa-ma-ko". Palaeolexicon. Word study tool of ancient languages. Archived from the original on 16 March 2014. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
49. ^ "Manufacturers should pay for collection and disposal of unused medicines, says OECD". Pharmaceutical Journal. 10 May 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2022.
50. ^ American College of Clinical Pharmacy, Evidence of the Economic Benefit of Clinical Pharmacy Services: 1996–2000 Archived 18 April 2003 at the Wayback Machine
51. ^ American Pharmacy Student Alliance (APSA)
52. ^ American College of Clinical Pharmacy, Clinical Pharmacy Defined Archived 4 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
53. ^ American Society of Consultant Pharmacists, What is a Senior Care Pharmacist? Archived 23 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine
54. ^ Brennan, Troyen A.; Dollear, Timothy J.; Hu, Min; Matlin, Olga S.; Shrank, William H.; Choudhry, Niteesh K.; Grambley, William (1 January 2012). "An integrated pharmacy-based program improved medication prescription and adherence rates in diabetes patients". Health Affairs. 31 (1): 120–129\. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0931. ISSN 1544-5208. PMID 22232102.

## Sources

[edit]

* Watkins, Elizabeth Siegel (2009). "From History of Pharmacy to Pharmaceutical History". Pharmacy in History. 51 (1): 3–13\. PMID 20027914.
* (in Japanese) Asai, T. (1985). Nyokan Tūkai. Tokyo: Kōdan-Sha.
* (in French) Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland....Click link for digitized, full-text copy of this book (in French)
* Pharmacy Consulting Services | McKesson – A landmark study in hospital pharmacy performance based on an extensive literature review and the collective experience of the Health Systems Pharmacy Executive Alliance.

## External links

[edit]

Look up pharmacy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Pharmacy

Wikiversity has learning resources about Pharmacy

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pharmacy.

* Navigator History of Pharmacy Collection of internet resources related to the history of pharmacy
* Soderlund Pharmacy Museum – Information about the history of the American Drugstore
* The Lloyd Library Library of botanical, medical, pharmaceutical, and scientific books and periodicals, and works of allied sciences
* American Institute of the History of Pharmacy American Institute of the History of Pharmacy—resources in the history of pharmacy
* International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) Federation representing national associations of pharmacists and pharmaceutical scientists. Information and resources relating to pharmacy education, practice, science and policy

* v
* t
* e

Pharmacy

General|

* Compounding
* History of pharmacy
* Prehistoric medicine
* Medication
* Prescription drug
* Pharmacy
* Pharmacological activity
* Separation of prescribing and dispensing

Pharmaceutical sciences|

* Pharmacology
* Pharmacokinetics & Pharmacodynamics
* Pharmacometrics
* Pharmacogenomics
* Toxicology
* Pharmaceutical chemistry
* Pharmaceutics
* Pharmacognosy
* Pharmacoepidemiology
* Pharmacoeconomics
* Pharmacovigilance
* Pharmacocybernetics

Professions|

* Pharmacist
* List
* Pharmaconomist
* Pharmacy residency
* Pharmacy technician
* Pharmacy school

Practice areas|

* Clinical pharmacy
* Community pharmacy
* shop
* Consultant pharmacist
* Hospital pharmacy
* Nuclear pharmacy
* Pharmacist prescriber
* Pharmacy informatics
* Specialty pharmacy
* Veterinary pharmacy

Pharmaceutical industry|

* Drug development
* Drug discovery
* Investigational New Drug
* Pharmacy benefit management
* List of pharmaceutical companies
* Medication costs
* Pharmacy in China
* Pharmacies of Norway
* Pharmacies in the United States
* History

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Medicine

Specialties
and
subspecialties|

| Surgery|

* Cardiac surgery
* Cardiothoracic surgery
* Endocrine surgery
* Eye surgery
* General surgery
* Colorectal surgery
* Digestive system surgery
* Neurosurgery
* Oral and maxillofacial surgery
* Orthopedic surgery
* Hand surgery
* Otolaryngology
* ENT
* Pediatric surgery
* Plastic surgery
* Reproductive surgery
* Surgical oncology
* Transplant surgery
* Trauma surgery
* Urology
* Andrology
* Vascular surgery

|

Internal
medicine|

* Allergy / Immunology
* Angiology
* Cardiology
* Interventional
* Endocrinology
* Gastroenterology
* Hepatology
* Geriatrics
* Hematology
* Hospital medicine
* Infectious diseases
* Nephrology
* Oncology
* Pulmonology
* Rheumatology

Obstetrics and
gynaecology|

* Gynaecology
* Gynecologic oncology
* Maternal–fetal medicine
* Obstetrics
* Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
* Urogynecology

Diagnostic|

* Radiology
* Interventional radiology
* Neuroradiology
* Nuclear medicine
* Pathology
* Anatomical
* Clinical pathology
* Clinical chemistry
* Cytopathology
* Medical microbiology
* Transfusion medicine

Other|

* Addiction medicine
* Adolescent medicine
* Anesthesiology
* Obstetric anesthesiology
* Neurosurgical anesthesiology
* Aviation medicine
* Dermatology
* Disaster medicine
* Diving medicine
* Emergency medicine
* Mass gathering medicine
* Evolutionary medicine
* Family medicine / General practice
* Hospital medicine
* Intensive care medicine
* Medical genetics
* Narcology
* Neurology
* Clinical neurophysiology
* Occupational medicine
* Ophthalmology
* Oral medicine
* Pain management
* Palliative care
* Pediatrics
* Neonatology
* Phlebology
* Physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R)
* Preventive medicine
* Prison healthcare
* Psychiatry
* Addiction psychiatry
* Radiation oncology
* Reproductive medicine
* Sexual medicine
* Venereology
* Sleep medicine
* Sports medicine
* Transplantation medicine
* Tropical medicine
* Travel medicine

Medical
education|

* Medical school
* Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
* Bachelor of Medical Sciences
* Master of Medicine
* Master of Surgery
* Doctor of Medicine
* Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
* MD–PhD
* Medical Scientist Training Program

Related topics|

* Allied health
* Molecular oncology
* Nanomedicine
* Personalized medicine
* Public health
* Rural health
* Therapy
* Veterinary medicine
* Physician
* Chief physician
* History of medicine

* Category
* Commons
* Wikiproject
* Portal
* Outline

* v
* t
* e

Allied health professions

* Anesthesia technician
* Aquatic therapist
* Athletic trainer
* Audiologist
* Cardiac physiologist
* Clinical psychologist
* Dental hygienist
* Dietitian
* Emergency medical services
* Hemodialysis technician
* Massage therapist
* Medical assistant
* Medical coder
* Medical physicist
* Medical technologist
* Medical transcription
* Music and arts therapist
* Nutritionist
* Occupational therapist
* Optometrist
* Orthotist
* Pharmacy technician
* Phlebotomist
* Physiotherapist
* Prosthetist
* Public health
* Radiation therapist
* Radiographer
* Respiratory therapist
* Social worker
* Speech therapist

* v
* t
* e

Branches of biology

* Abiogenesis
* Aerobiology
* Agronomy
* Agrostology
* Anatomy
* Anthropogeny
* Anthropology
* Astrobiology
* Bacteriology
* Biochemistry
* Biogeography
* Biogeology
* Bioinformatics
* Biological engineering
* Biomathematics
* Biomechanics
* Biophysics
* Biosemiotics
* Biostatistics
* Biotechnology
* Botany
* Cell biology
* Cellular microbiology
* Chemical biology
* Chronobiology
* Cognitive biology
* Computational biology
* Conservation biology
* Cryobiology
* Cytogenetics
* Dendrology
* Developmental biology
* Ecological genetics
* Ecology
* Embryology
* Epidemiology
* Epigenetics
* Evolutionary biology
* Freshwater biology
* Generative biology
* Genetics
* Genomics
* Geobiology
* Gerontology
* Herpetology
* Histology
* Human biology
* Ichthyology
* Immunology
* Lipidology
* Mammalogy
* Marine biology
* Microbiology
* Molecular biology
* Mycology
* Neontology
* Neuroscience
* Nutrition
* Ornithology
* Osteology
* Paleontology
* Parasitology
* Pathology
* Pharmacology
* Photobiology
* Phycology
* Phylogenetics
* Physiology
* Pomology
* Primatology
* Proteomics
* Protistology
* Quantum biology
* Relational biology
* Reproductive biology
* Sociobiology
* Structural biology
* Synthetic biology
* Systematics
* Systems biology
* Taxonomy
* Teratology
* Toxicology
* Virology
* Virophysics
* Welfare biology
* Xenobiology
* Zoology

See also|

* History of biology
* Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
* Timeline of biology and organic chemistry

* v
* t
* e

Health care

* Economics
* Equipment
* Guidelines
* Industry
* Philosophy
* Policy
* Providers
* Public health
* Ranking
* Reform
* System

Professions|

* Medicine
* Nursing
* Pharmacy
* Healthcare science
* Dentistry
* Allied health professions
* Health information management

Settings|

* Assisted living
* Clinic
* Hospital
* Nursing home
* Medical school (Academic health science centre, Teaching hospital)
* Pharmacy school
* Supervised injection site

Care|

* Acute
* Chronic
* End-of-life
* Hospice
* Overutilization
* Palliative
* Primary
* Self
* Total

Skills / training|

* Bedside manner
* Cultural competence
* Diagnosis
* Education
* Universal precautions

Technology|

* 3D bioprinting
* Artificial intelligence
* Connected health
* Digital health
* Electronic health records
* mHealth
* Nanomedicine
* Telemedicine

Health informatics|

* Medical image computing and imaging informatics
* Artificial intelligence in healthcare
* Neuroinformatics in healthcare
* Behavior informatics in healthcare
* Computational biology in healthcare
* Translational bioinformatics
* Translational medicine
* health information technology
* Telemedicine
* Public health informatics
* Health information management
* Consumer health informatics

By country|

* United States

* history
* reform debate

* United Kingdom
* Canada
* Australia
* New Zealand

* Category

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* 2
* Spain
* Israel

Other|

* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi
* Yale LUX

Clinical health science
*[c.]: circa
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template